Table 3.

Characterization of nanoemulsions and microemulsions loaded with vitamins or their derivatives and their oral absorption.

Vitamin	Average Size	In Vitro or In Vivo Model	Outcomes Offered by Nanoparticles	Reference
β-carotene	140~170 nm	In vitro bioaccessibility	Increased bioaccessibility in simulatedGI environment (66%)	Qian et al. [110]
β-carotene	About 200 nm	In vitro bioaccessibility	Increased bioaccessibility in simulated GI environment (69%)	Xia et al. [111]
β-carotene	About 400 nm	In vitro bioaccessibility	Increased β-carotene stability and bioaccessibility in simulated GI environment	Liu et al. [113]
β-carotene	260 nm	In vitro bioaccessibility	Increased bioaccessibility in simulated GI environment (about 50%)	Mun et al. [114]
Carotenoids	10.4 nm	In vivo bioavailability in rat	An increased bioavailability of 4-fold compared to aqueous suspension	Ho et al. [116]
Vitamin D	Unknown	In vivo bioavailability in mouse	An increased bioavailability of 1.3-fold with asthma attenuation	Tang et al. [117]
Vitamin D2	112, 530, and 14500 nm	In vitro bioaccessibility and in vivo bioavailability	Increased bioavailability following the increase of droplet size	Salvia-Trujillo et al. [118]
Vitamin E	227 nm	In vivo bioavailability in rat	An increased bioavailability of 3-fold compared to conventional emulsions	Parthasarathi et al. [119]
Natural vitamin E	88 nm	In vivo bioavailability in rat	An increased bioavailability of 1.6-fold compared to soft capsules	Gong et al. [120]
TPGS as surfactant	21.6 nm	In vivo bioavailability in rat	An increased bioavailability of 6.7-fold compared to Taxol	Khandavilli and Panchagnula [121]
TPGS as surfactant	150 nm	In vivo bioavailability in rat	An increased bioavailability of 2.6-fold compared to aqueous suspension	Sun et al. [123]

TPGS, d-α-tocopheryl polyethylene glycol succinate.