Table 1.
Summarized studies’ characteristics on weight and skipping breakfast.
| Reference (Author, year, n) | Study Subjects | Methods | Skipping Breakfast Definition | Breakfast Evaluation Method | OB/OW Definition | Prevalence of Breakfast Skippers | Results | Impact of Skipping Breakfast on OW/OB |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Dialektakou 2008 [12] | N = 811, aged 14.9–21.2 years, M and F, Greece | Cross-sectional, self-reported questionnaires, measured height and weight | 24 definitions evaluating breakfast consumption on the day of data collection, during the whole year, during the previous week, and on weekends/holidays | Not specified | Age- and sex-specific BMI cut-offs according to IOTF criteria | 3.6–74.7% (according to different definitions) | Fewer breakfast-skipping variables associated with BMI than with OW/OB. Fewer associations when controlling for potential confounders. Fewer associations for variables corresponding to some definitions. | ↑ |
| Dubois 2008 [13] | N = 1549; aged 44–56 months, M and F, Canada | Longitudinal study, parent-report questionnaires, measured height and weight (cross-sectional data considered) | Frequency of breakfast eating: (1) yes, every morning; (2) regularly but not every day; (3) only on occasion; and (4) never. Categories 2 to 4 were classified as ‘breakfast skippers’ | Eating behavior questionnaire (Enquete sociale et de sante’ aupres des enfants et des adolescents Quebecois -Health and Social Survey of Quebec Children and Adolescents) and a 24 h dietary recall interview | Age- and sex-specific BMI z-score cut-offs according to CDC criteria | 10% | ↑ intake of energy, carbohydrates or servings of grain products in breakfast skippers | ↑ |
| Harding 2008 [14] | N = 6599, aged 11–13 years, M and F, UK | Cross-sectional, self-reported questionnaires, measured height and weight | Number of eaten breakfasts per week (Every day; 3–4 days a week; 1–2 days a week; Never or hardly ever) |
http://www.sphsu.mrc.ac.uk/studies/dash/ Food frequency questionnaire |
Age- and sex-specific BMI cut-offs according to IOTF criteria | 32.6–53% not eating breakfast every day | Increased risk for obesity in breakfast skippers (girls OR 1.74, 95% CI 1.30–2.34; boys OR 2.06; CI 1.57–2.70) | ↑ |
| Duncan 2008 [15] | N = 1229, aged 5–11 years, M and F, New Zeland | Cross-sectional, proxy questionnaire administered to the parents, measured height and weight, BIA | Number of eaten breakfasts in the last full week (0–7 days per week) | 7-day recall | Boys and girls were classified as “overfat” if their % BF exceeded 25% and 30% (respectively) | 1.3 (non-overfat)–2.6% (overfat) never eat breakfast in a week | Breakfast skippers had increased odds of overfat compared with those who had breakfast for five or more days/week. | ↑ |
| Croezen 2009 [16] | N = 25176, aged 13–16 years, M and F, The Netherlands | Cross-sectional, detailed Internet questionnaire, under supervision of instructed teachers following a standardized protocol, self-reported body weight and height | Number of eaten breakfasts per week (0–7 days per week) | Food frequency questionnaire | Age- and sex-specific BMI cut-offs according to Cole’s definition | 29.3–39.2% | Skipping breakfast >2 times/week associated with OW (adjusted OR 1.68 (CI 1.43–1.97) in 13–14 year-aged, and 1.32 (CI 1.14–1.54) in 15–16 year-aged subjects); skipping breakfast every day associated with OB | ↑ |
| Nagel 2009 [17] | N = 1079, aged 6.2–9.2 years, M and F, Germany | Cross-sectional, self-reported questionnaires compiled by children and parents, measured weight, height, upper arm and waist circumference, skin fold thickness | Breakfast consumption before school (yes/no) | Not specified | Age- and sex-specific BMI cut-offs according to IOTF criteria | 13.4% | Breakfast skippers had increased risk for OW (OR 1.73, 95%CI 1.13–2.64) and OB (OR 2.50, 95% CI 1.19–5.29) | ↑ |
| Sun 2009 [18] | N = 5753, aged 12–13 years, M and F, Japan | Cross-sectional, self-reported questionnaires, measured height and weight | Frequency of eating breakfast: daily, almost daily, sometimes, and rarely | Food frequency questionnaire | Age- and sex-specific BMI cut-offs according to IOTF criteria | 1.1% of boys and 0.7% of girls ate breakfast rarely | Skipping breakfast (i.e., eating breakfast rarely) was associated with OW (in boys only after adjustment for age, parental OW and lifestyle variables) | ↑ |
| Maddah 2010 [19] | N = 6635, aged 6–11 years, M and F, Iran | Cross-sectional, self-reported questionnaire given to the parents, measured weight and height | Breakfast skipping (yes/no) | Not specified | Age- and sex-specific BMI cut-offs according to IOTF criteria | Not reported | Higher prevalence of OW/OB in breakfast skippers than in breakfast eaters (boys: 23.6% versus 16.9%, girls: 23.5% versus 17.1%) | ↑ |
| Isacco 2010 [20] | N = 278, aged 6–10 years, M and F, France | Cross-sectional, self-reported questionnaire compiled by the parents in the presence of their child, measured weight, height, WC and skin fold thickness | Frequency of eating breakfast: every day, sometimes, never | Food frequency questionnaire | Age- and sex-specific BMI z-score cut-offs according to CDC criteria | 1.4% never ate breakfast | higher BMI z-score, skinfolds and WC in breakfast skippers | ↑ |
| Deshmukh-Taskar 2010 [21] | N = 9659, aged 9–18 years, M and F, USA | Cross-sectional, self-reported data on 24-h recall methodology over two days (assisted by parent/caregivers for children aged 6 to 11 years), measured weight, height and WC | Breakfast skippers: those who consumed no food or beverages, excluding water, at breakfast | 24-h recall http://www.cdc.gov/nchs/data/nhanes/dr-1-5.pdf. |
Age- and sex-specific BMI z-score cut-offs according to CDC criteria | 20% of children, 31.5% of adolescents | Breakfast skippers had higher BMI z-scores and a higher waist circumference than ready-to-eat cereal and other breakfast consumers. Higher prevalence of obesity in breakfast skippers than ready-to-eat cereal consumers | ↑ |
| So 2011 [22] | N = 11570, aged 9–18 years, M and F, Hong Kong | Cross-sectional, self-reported questionnaires, measured height and weight, and BIA | Breakfast skippers (ate breakfast 0–2 times/week); semi-skippers (ate breakfast 3–4 times/week); non-skippers (ate breakfast 5–7 times/week) | Rapid Dietary behavior Assessment questionnaire (daily and weekly dietary behaviors, validated against the 24 h recall nutrient intake data in a smaller sample) | Age- and sex-specific BMI cut-offs according to IOTF criteria | 8% of primary school students and 14% of secondary school students | Breakfast skippers had higher BMI, BMI z-scores and BF% than their counterparts | ↑ |
| Tin 2011 [23] | N = 113457, aged 9–10 years, M and F, Hong Kong | Longitudinal, 2-year follow-up, self-reported questionnaires, measured height and weight (cross-sectional data considered) | Breakfast skippers those who chose ‘no breakfast at all’ | Not specified | Age- and sex-specific BMI cut-offs according to IOTF criteria | 5.3% of boys, 5.2% of girls | Higher mean BMI in breakfast skippers both at baseline (β 0.77, 95% CI 0.67–0.87) and 2 years later (β 0.86, 95% CI 0.78–0.95) | ↑ |
| Mushtaq 2011 [24] | N = 1860, aged 5–12 years, M and F, Pakistan | Cross-sectional, questionnaires administered to the children by senior medical students, measured height and weight | Skipping breakfast once or more in the past week | 7-day recall | BMI z-scores calculated based on the WHO criteria | 8% | Breakfast skippers were significantly more likely to be overweight (15% versus 9%) and obese (13% versus 7%) than breakfast eaters (p = 0.002). Skipping breakfast was associated with overweight among girls (p < 0.001). Skipping breakfast as independent predictor of OW (OR 1.82, 95% CI 1.22–2.71) | ↑ (OW in girls) |
| Kuriyan 2012 [25] | N = 8444 (4707 aged 3–10 years; N = 3737 aged 10–16 years), M and F, Bangalore |
Cross-sectional, parent/student-report questionnaires, measured height and weight, WC | Breakfast skipping (yes/no) | Not specified | Indian Academy of Pediatrics cut-off for BMI; WC > 75th percentile for classifying abdominal obesity | Not reported | - | ⇔ WC in children aged 3–10 years ↑ WC in children aged 10–16 years |
| Kyeariazis 2012 [26] | N = 2374, aged 6–12 years, M and F, Greece | Cross-sectional, self-reported questionnaires, measured height and weight | Breakfast skipping (yes/no) | Closed format questions in the form of multiple choice Questions | Age- and sex-specific BMI cut-offs according to Cole’s definition | Not reported | Skipping breakfast had a positive association with OB | ↑ |
| Van Lippevelde 2013 [27] | N = 6374, aged 10–12 years, M and F, Belgium, Greece, Hungary, the Netherlands, Norway, Slovenia, Spain, and Switzerland | Cross-sectional, self-reported questionnaires compiled by the children during school-time, measured weight and height | Breakfast frequency per week (0–7) calculated by adding up the breakfasts usually had on schooldays per week (0–5) and on weekend days per week (0–2) |
http://projectenergy.eu Food frequency questionnaire |
BMI z-scores calculated based on the WHO criteria | Not reported | Children’s breakfast consumption negatively related to children’s BMI-z-score | ↑ |
| Januszek-Trzciąkowska 2014 [28] | N = 2571, aged 7–9 years, M and F, Poland | Cross-sectional, self-reported questionnaire compiled by the parents, measured weight and height | Breakfast frequency: always, usually never | Food frequency questionnaire | Age- and sex-specific BMI cut-offs according to IOTF criteria | 10.3% in girls, 9.1% in boys | Increased OB risk in girls irregularly or never eating breakfast (always versus usually, OR 2.71, 95% CI 1.33–5.51; always versus never OR 1.63, 95% CI 1.08–2.47) | ↑ only for girls |
| Kupers 2014 [29] | T1: 2 years of age; N = 1488 T2: 5 years of age; N = 1366 M and F, The Netherlands | Longitudinal; parent-report questionnaires; measured height and weight (cross-sectional data considered) | Breakfast frequency per week (0–7), categorized as “eating breakfast daily” (7 times per week) or “not eating breakfast daily” (<7 times per week) | Food frequency questionnaire | Age- and sex-specific BMI cut-offs according Dutch reference growth charts | At T1, 3.0% of the children did not eat breakfast daily; at T2, 5.3% | No association between skipping breakfast and overweight, neither at age 2 nor at age 5 | ⇔ |
| O’Neil 2015 [30] | N = 14200, aged 2–18 years, M and F, USA | Cross-sectional, self-reported questionnaires (complied by parents/guardians of 2–5 year children; by 6–11 year children assisted by an adult; older children provided their own recall), measured weight and height | 24-h dietary recall: no breakfast or 11 possible breakfast patterns | 24-h dietary recall interviews using an automated multiple-pass method http://www.cdc.gov/nchs/data/nhanes/nhanes_03_04/DIETARY_MEC.pdf. |
Age- and sex-specific BMI cut-offs according to CDC criteria | 18.7% | Mean BMI z-scores were lower among consumers of five breakfast patterns (grain/lower fat milk/sweets/fruit juice, pre-sweetened ready-to-eat cereal/whole milk, soft drinks/fruit juice/grain/potatoes, ready-to-eat cereal/whole milk, and cooked cereal/milk/fruit juice), compared to breakfast skippers. | ↑ |
| Smetanina 2015 [31] | N = 3990, aged 7–17 years, M and F, Lithuania | Cross-sectional, self-reported questionnaires (parents of younger age (7–9 years old) participants filled-in the questionnaire at home and older children and adolescents filled-in it themselves at school), measured weight and height | breakfast eating frequency per week: “Everyday” (“Everyday” and “4–6 times per week”), “1–3 times per week”, and “Never” | Modified WHO questionnaires (conducted by Health behavior in School-aged Children (HBSC) and COSI study groups).Food frequency questionnaire | Age- and sex-specific BMI cut-offs according to IOTF criteria | Never eating breakfast: 6.2% in underweight, 6.5% in NW, 9.6% in OW/OB | The prevalence of subjects never having breakfast was significantly higher in OW/OB than in NW (9.6% versus 6.5%) | ↑ |
| Zakrzewski 2015 [32] | N = 6841, aged 9–11 years, M and F, Australia, Brasil, Canada, China, Colombia, Finland, India, Kenya, Portugal, South Africa, UK, US | Cross-sectional, self-reported questionnaires, measured height, weight and BF% | Breakfast frequency per week (separately for weekdays and weekend days). 1. Three-category definition: weekly breakfast frequency coded as rare (0–2 days per week), occasional (3–5 days per week) and frequent (6–7 days per week). 2. Two-category definition: weekly breakfast frequency recoded as less than daily (0–6 days per week) or daily (7 days per week). | Food frequency questionnaire | BMI z-scores calculated based on the WHO criteria | Breakfast consumption: 6.3% rarely, 27.7% less than daily | Frequent breakfast consumption was associated with lower BMI z-scores compared with occasional (p < 0.0001) and rare (p < 0.0001) consumption, as well as lower BF% compared with occasional (p < 0.0001) and rare (p < 0.0001). | ↑ |
| Wijtzes 2016 [33] | N = 5913, T1: 4 years of age T2: 6 years of age, M and F, The Netherlands | Longitudinal, parent-report questionnaires, measured height and weight, percent fat mass by dual-energy X-ray absorptiometry (at age 6 years) (cross-sectional data considered) | At age 4 years: weekly consumption of breakfast (“never,” “1–2 days per week,” “3–4 days per week,” “5–6 days per week,” and “every day”, coded as 1–5); At age 6 years: the number of days of breakfast consumption assessed separately for weekdays (coded as 0–5) and weekend days (coded as 0–2), and the scores were summed to calculate total weekly consumption (0–7). Breakfast skipping defined as consumption <7 days per week | Food frequency questionnaire | Age- and sex-specific BMI cut-offs according to IOTF criteria | Not reported | Breakfast skipping at age 4 years associated with increased % fat mass at age 6 years (β = 1.38; 95% CI: 0.36–2.40) | ↑ |
| Fayet-Moore 2016 [34] | N = 4487, aged 2–16 years, M and F, Australia | Cross-sectional, computer-assisted interview based on 24-h recall methodology over two days from participants or their caregivers, measured height and weight | Breakfast skippers were children who did not consume an energy containing food or beverage during breakfast on 2 recall days | 24-h recall methodology | BMI z-score or centile adjusted for age and sex was calculated using the US CDC 2000 growth reference chart | 4% | Higher prevalence for OW/OB in breakfast skippers than in breakfast consumers (21.2% and 23.2% versus 16.4% and 16.5%, respectively) | ↑ |
| Alsharairi 2016 [35] | T1 (2006): N = 4601, 2–3 age of years T2 (2008): N = 4381, 4–5 years of age, M and F, Australia | Cross-sectional and longitudinal study, face-to-face mother’s interview, measured height and weight | Breakfast consumption in the day of interview (yes/no) | Not specified | Age- and sex-specific BMI cut-offs according to IOTF criteria | Not reported | OB boys at T1 (OR 2.38, 95% CI: 1.04–5.43) and T2 (OR 2.32, 95% CI: 1.01–5.32) and OB girls at T2 (OR 2.26, 95% CI: 1.14–4.46) were more likely to skip breakfast compared with non-overweight | ↑ |
| Fayet-Moore 2017 [36] | N = 2812, aged 2–18 years, M and F, Australia | Cross-sectional, face-to-face interviews, measured height and weight | Breakfast skipping or eating during the 24 h prior to the interview day | 24-h recall methodology | Age- and sex-specific BMI cut-offs according to the WHO criteria | 9% | No associations between anthropometric measures and breakfast or breakfast cereal choice were found Breakfast skippers: ↑ higher saturated fat intake ↓ intakes of dietary fibers and most micronutrients (p < 0.001) | ⇔ |
| Smith 2017 [37] | N = 1592, aged 2–17 years, M and F, Australia | Cross-sectional, computer-assisted interview based on 24-h recall methodology (for 2–5 year children completed by an adult; for 6–8-years an adult was interviewed with help from the child; 9–11 year children were interviewed directly with assistance from an adult; 12–17-year were interviewed directly, with the adult remaining in the room for those aged 12–14 years); measured weight and height | Breakfast skippers if they did not define an eating occasion as ‘breakfast’ in the 24-h recall or the energy intake for the “breakfast” occasion was <210 kJ | 24-h recall methodology | Age- and sex-specific BMI cut-offs according to Cole’s definition | 11.8% of boys and 14.8% girls skipped on one day and 1.4% boys and 3.8% girls skipped on both days | The odds of skipping breakfast were progressively higher with increasing BMI category | ↑ |
| Gotthelf 2017 [38] | N = 2083, aged 9–13 years, M and F, Argentina | Cross-sectional, self-reported questionnaires compiled by children and parents, measured weight and height | Breakfast habit: eating breakfast on the day of the survey (yes/no). Frequency: always (6–7 days/week), sometimes (2–5 days/week), never (0–1 day/week). | Food frequency questionnaire | BMI z- scores calculated based on the WHO criteria | 64.1% of students from peri-urban schools and 46.1% of students from urban schools | Among breakfast skippers, 40.7% of the girls and 54.7% of the boys were OW/OB. A higher probability of skipping breakfast was associated with obesity. | ↑ |
| Nilsen 2017 [39] | N = 2620, aged 7–9 years, M and F, Sweden | Cross-sectional, proxy questionnaire filled out by the parents or guardians, measured height and weight | Number of eaten breakfasts over a typical week (Every day; most days, i.e., 4–6 days a week; some days, i.e., 1–3 days a week; Never) | Food frequency questionnaire | Age- and sex-specific BMI cut-offs according to Swedish national growth reference | 4.6% | Association between OW/OB and not having breakfast every day (OR 1.9 (CI 1.18–3.13)) | ↑ |
| Kesztyus 2017 [40] | N = 1943, aged 7.1 ± 0.6 years, M and F, Germany | Cross-sectional, proxy questionnaire administered to the parents, measured height, weight and WC | 4-point scale, the results were subsequently dichotomized for analyses (never, rarely versus often, always) | Food frequency questionnaire | Age- and sex-specific BMI cut-offs according to Swedish national growth reference; abdominal obesity as WHtR >0.5 or >0.47 for girls and 0.48 for boys | 13.1% | Skipping breakfast associated with OW (crude OR 2.02 (CI 1.18–3.43)), OB (crude OR 1.94 (CI 1.03–3.66)), abdominal OB with WHtR >0.5 (crude OR 2.51 (CI 1.63–3.88)), abdominal OB with WHtR >0.47/0.48 (crude OR 2.20 (CI 1.58–3.07)) | ↑ |
| Zalewska 2017 [41] | N = 1999, aged 18 years, M and F, Poland | Cross-sectional, self-reported questionnaires, measured height and weight | Breakfast habit: skipped, <8 AM, ≥8 AM | Not specified | BMI calculated based on the WHO criteria | 25% | No difference in the prevalence of breakfast skippers between NW and OW/OB | ⇔ |
| Coulthard 2018 [42] | N = 1686, aged 4–18 years, M and F, UK | Cross-sectional, 4-day food diary to be completed by the children, or their parent for those aged 11 years and under, measured weight and height | Those consuming breakfast every diary day, those consuming breakfast on at least one but not all diary days, and those not consuming breakfast on any diary day | 4-day food diary | Age- and sex-specific BMI cut-offs according to Cole’s definition (1990 UK charts) | 19.9% of girls and 14.5% of boys | No differences in weight status by breakfast eating habits. The overall nutritional profile of the children in terms of fiber and micronutrient intake was superior in frequent breakfast consumers (micronutrients: folate, calcium, iron and iodine (p < 0.01) | ⇔ |
| Tee 2018 [43] | N = 8332, aged 6–17 years, M and F, Malaysia | Cross-sectional, self-administered questionnaire with assistance to children aged 10 years and above, proxy questionnaire administered to the parent for children aged 6 to 9 years; measured weight and height | Breakfast skippers (ate breakfast 0–2 days/week), irregular breakfast eaters (ate breakfast 3–4 days/week) and regular breakfast eaters (ate breakfast ≥5 days/week) | Food frequency questionnaire | BMI z-scores calculated based on the WHO criteria | 9.3% in primary school children and 15.9% in secondary school children | Compared to regular breakfast eaters, the risk of being OW/OB was higher in 6–12 years boys who skipped breakfast (OR 1.71, 95%CI 1.26–2.32), in 6–12 years girls (OR 1.36, 95% CI = 1.02–1.81) and in 12–17 years girls (OR 1.38, 95% CI 1.01–1.90) | ↑ |
| Archero 2018 [44] | N = 669, aged 6–16 years, M and F, Italy | Cross-sectional, self-reported questionnaires compiled by the children during school-time, in the presence of a teachers and medical staff, measured weight and height | Breakfast skipping (yes/no) | Italian version KIDMED index, a questionnaire of dichotomous (positive/negative) items | Age- and sex-specific BMI cut-offs according to IOTF criteria | 14.8% in primary school children and 21.9% in secondary school children | OW/OB skipped breakfast more frequently than NW (chi-squared 3.556, p < 0.04). Increased risk for OW/OB in non-Italian breakfast skippers (OR 16.05, CI 95% 1.93–133.27, p < 0.01) | ↑ |
| Smith 2010 [11] | T1 (1985): N = 6559; 9–15 years of age T2 (2004–2006): 26–36 years of age M and F, Australia | The Childhood Determinants of Adult Health (CDAH) study. T1: self-report questionnaires; were measured: height and weight. T2: self-report questionnaires; were measured: height, weight, waist WC and BP; a venous blood sample was collected for lipid profile and glucose metabolism | T1: Breakfast consumption was assessed by using the question “Do you usually eat something before school?” “Yes” or “no” T2: Skipping breakfast was defined as not eating between 06.00 and 09.00 | T1: Not specified. T2: Food-frequency questionnaire | Age- and sex-specific BMI cut-offs according to Cole’s cut-off | Skipping breakfast: 14.2% in childhood; 27.5% in adulthood | In both childhood and adulthood: ↑ WC (mean difference: 4.63 cm; 95% CI: 1.72, 7.53 cm) | ↑ |
| Shafiee 2013 [45] | N = 5625, subjects aged 10–18 years; M and F, Iran | The third survey of the national school-based surveillance system (CASPIAN-III); parent-report questionnaires; were measured: height, weight, waist WC and BP; a venous blood sample was collected for lipid profile and glucose metabolism | Subjects were classified into three groups: “regular breakfast eater” (6–7 days/week), “often breakfast eater” (3–5 days/week), and “seldom breakfast eater” (0–2 days/week) | Likert scale questionnaire | Age- and sex-specific BMI cut-offs according to the WHO growth reference standards | The % of subjects classified as: “regular”47.3%, “often” 23.7% and “seldom”29.0%, breakfast eaters | ↑ (p < 0.001) | ↑ |
| Ho 2015 [46] | N = 2401, elementary school children; M and F, Taiwan | Elementary School Children’s Nutrition and Health Survey in Taiwan (NAHSIT); self-report questionnaire; were measured: height, weight, WC and BP; a venous blood sample was collected for lipid profile and glucose metabolism | Breakfast consumption was assessed by using the question “How often do you eat breakfast in a week?” The answer could range from 0 to 7 times. The frequency was classified into three groups, including 0–4, 5–6, and 7 times per week | 24-h recall; food-frequency questionnaire The Youth Healthy Eating Index for the United States of America (US—YHEI) modified to YHEI—Taiwan (YHEI—TW): indicator of dietary quality | Not reported | % Breakfast frequency (times/week): 5.4% (0–4) 5.9% (5–6) 88.7% (7) | ↑ (Children who consumed breakfast daily: ↓ BMI (17.9 kg/m2; p = 0.009); ↓ WC (58.6 cm; p = 0.005)) |
↑ |
| Marlatt, 2016 [47] | N = 367, subjects aged 11–18 years; M and F, Minneapolis | Cross-sectional study; self-report survey; were measured: height, weight, % body fat, and BP; a venous blood sample was collected for lipid profile and glucose metabolism | Breakfast consumption was expressed as average number of days/week that breakfast was consumed | Self-report survey using validated questions (Nelson MC, Lytle LA, 2009. Development and evaluation of a brief screener to estimate fast-food and beverage consumption among adolescents. J Am Diet Assoc; 109, 730–734; 24-h recalls | Age- and sex-specific BMI cut-offs according to the CDC Growth Charts, (2000) | Not reported | ↑ BMI and % body fat | ↑ |
Legend: % BF = Percentage Body Fat; BIA = Bioelectric impedance Analysis; BMI = Body Mass Index; BP = Blood Pressure; CI = Confidence Interval; CDC = Center for Disease Control and Prevention; COSI = Childhood Obesity Surveillance Initiative; IOTF = International Obesity Task Force; M = Males; F = Females; NW = Normal Weight; OB = Obesity; OR = Odd Ratio; OW = Overweight; WC = Waist Circumference; WhtR = Waist-to-Height Ratio; WHO = World Health Organisation; ↑ = Increased; ↓ = Reduced; ⇔ = Not Variation.