Table 2.
Summarized studies’ characteristics on metabolic variables and skipping breakfast.
| Reference (Author, Year, n) | Study Subjects | Methods | Skipping Breakfast Definition | Breakfast Evaluation Method | OW/OB Definition | Prevalence of Breakfast Skippers | Association of Skipping Breakfast with OW/OB | Association of Skipping Breakfast with Blood Pressure | Association of Skipping Breakfast with Lipid Profile | Association of Skipping Breakfast with Glucose Metabolism | Association of Skipping Breakfast with Metabolic Syndrome | Association of Skipping Breakfast with Nutrient Intake |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Smith2010 [11] | T1 (1985): N = 6559; 9–15 years of age. T2 (2004–2006): 26–36 years of age. M and F, Australia | The Childhood Determinants of Adult Health (CDAH) study. T1: self-report questionnaires; were measured: height and weight. T2: self-report questionnaires; were measured: height, WC and BP; a venous blood sample was collected for lipid profile and glucose metabolism | T1: Breakfast consumption was assessed by using the question “Do you usually eat something before school?” “Yes” or “no”. T2: Skipping breakfast was defined as not eating between 06.00 and 09.00 | T1: Not specified T2: Food-frequency questionnaire | Age- and sex-specific BMI cut-offs according to Cole’s cut-off | Skipping breakfast: 14.2% in childhood; 27.5% in adulthood | In both childhood and adulthood: ↑ WC (mean difference: 4.63 cm; 95% CI: 1.72, 7.53 cm) | Not reported | ↑ Total (mean difference: 0.40 mmol/L; 95% CI: 0.13, 0.68 mmol/L) and LDL-cholesterol (mean difference: 0.40 mmol/L; 95% CI: 0.16, 0.64 mmol/L) | In both childhood and adulthood: ↑ fasting insulin (mean difference: 2.02 mU/L; 95% CI: 0.75, 3.29 mU/L) | Not reported | Not reported |
| Monzani 2013 [48] | N = 489, subjects aged 6.7 to 13 years; M and F, Italy | Population-based, cross-sectional study; self-reported questionnaire; were measured: height, weight, WC, and BP; a venous blood sample was collected for lipid profile, uric acid and glucose metabolism | Breakfast consumption: yes/no | Not specified | MetS according to modified NCEP-ATP III criteria of Cruz and Goran | Not reported | Not reported | Not reported | Not reported | Not reported | In school-children aged 10.1–13 years: no breakfast consumption (OR = 5.0, 95% CI = 1.5–17.2, p = 0.02) was ↑ in those with MetS | Not reported |
| Shafiee 2013 [45] | N = 5625, subjects aged 10–18 years; M and F, Iran | The third survey of the national school-based surveillance system (CASPIAN-III); parent-report questionnaires; were measured: height, weight, waist circumference (WC) and blood pressure (BP); a venous blood sample was collected for lipid profile and glucose metabolism | Subjects were classified into three groups: “regular breakfast eater” (6–7days/week), “often breakfast eater” (3–5days/week), and “seldom breakfast eater” (0–2 days/week) | Likert scale questionnaire | Age- and sex-specific BMI cut-offs according to the WHO growth reference standards Metabolic syndrome (MetS) was defined based on the Adult Treatment Panel III (ATP III) criteria modified for the pediatric age group | The % of subjects classified as: “regular”47.3%, “often” 23.7% and “seldom”29.0%, breakfast eaters | ↑ (p < 0.001) | ↑ (p < 0.001) | ↑ Triglycerides, LDL-cholesterol (p < 0.001) ↓ HDL-cholesterol | Not reported | ↑ (OR 1.96, 95% CI 1.18–3.27) | Not reported |
| Ho 2015 [46] | N = 2401, elementary school children; M and F, Taiwan | Elementary School Children’s Nutrition and Health Survey in Taiwan (NAHSIT); self-report questionnaire; were measured: height, weight, circumference waist (WC) and blood pressure (BP); a venous blood sample was collected for lipid profile and glucose metabolism | Breakfast consumption was assessed by using the question “How often do you eat breakfast in a week?” The answer could range from 0 to 7 times. The frequency was classified into three groups, including 0–4, 5–6, and 7 times per week | 24-h recall; food-frequency questionnaire. The Youth Healthy Eating Index for the United States of America (US-YHEI) modified to YHEI-Taiwan (YHEI-TW): indicator of dietary quality | MetS was defined based on criteria from Cook | % Breakfast frequency (times/week): 5.4% (0–4) 5.9% (5–6) 88.7% (7) | ↑ (Children who skipped breakfast daily: BMI (17.9 kg/m2; p = 0.009); WC (58.6 cm; p = 0.005)) | ↑ (Children who consumed breakfast daily: systolic BP (97.0 mmHg; p = 0.007); diastolic BP (57.3 mmHg; p = 0.02) Children who consumed breakfast daily versus children who consumed breakfast 0–4 times per week: risks of high blood pressure (OR = 0.37, 95% CI = 0.19–0.71)) | HDL-cholesterol (Children who consumed breakfast daily: ↑ HDL cholesterol (59.5 mg/dL; p = 0.03)) | ⇔ | ↑ (Children who consumed breakfast daily: prevalence of MetS (2.89%) Children who consumed breakfast daily versus children who consumed breakfast 0–4 times per week: risks of MetS (OR = 0.22, 95% CI = 0.09–0.51)) | YHEI-TW scores (Children who consumed breakfast daily versus those who consumed breakfast 0–4 times per week: ↑ intakes of: saturated fat, cholesterol, vitamins A, B1, B2, calcium, phosphorus, magnesium, and potassium; ↑ YHEI-TW scores (better dietary quality)) |
| Osawa 2015 [49] | N = 689, subjects aged 10–13 years; M and F, Japan | Cross-sectional study; self-report questionnaire; were measured: height, weight, WC and BP; a venous blood sample was collected for lipid profile and glucose metabolism | Breakfast consumption was assessed by using the question “Do you have breakfast every day? (Yes, alone/Yes, with family/Seldom/No) | Food-frequency questionnaire designed by members of the Ichikawa Dental Association | MetS was defined based on criteria identified by the Japanese Society of Internal Medicine, the Japan Society for the Study of Obesity and the Ministry of Health, Labour and Welfare in Japan | Not reported | Not reported | Not reported | Not reported | Not reported | Not eating breakfast was associated significantly with MetS or high risk MetS (OR: 2.70, 95% CI: 1.01–7.23, p < 0.05) | Not reported |
| Marlatt, 2016 [47] | N = 367, subjects aged 11–18 years; M and F, Minneapolis | Cross-sectional study; self-report survey; were measured: height, weight, BF%, and blood pressure BP; a venous blood sample was collected for lipid profile and glucose metabolism | Breakfast consumption was expressed as average number of days/week breakfast was consumed | Self-report survey using validated questions (Nelson MC, Lytle LA, 2009. Development and evaluation of a brief screener to estimate fast-food and beverage consumption among adolescents. J Am Diet Assoc; 109, 730–734; 24-h recalls | Age- and sex-specific BMI cut-offs according to the CDC Growth Charts, (2000) MetS was defined based on the Adult Treatment Panel III (ATP III) criteria | Not reported | ↑ BMI and % body fat | ⇔ | ⇔ | ↑ HOMA-IR | ↑ MetS cluster score | Not reported |
Legend: BMI = Body Mass Index; CI = Confidence Interval; F = Females; CDC = Center for Disease Control and Prevention; M = Males; MetS = Metabolic Syndrome; OB = Obesity; OR = Odd Ratio; OW = Overweight; ↑ = Increased; ↓ = Reduced; ⇔ = Not Variation.