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Avicenna Journal of Phytomedicine logoLink to Avicenna Journal of Phytomedicine
. 2019 Mar-Apr;9(2):101–116.

Treatment of liver and spleen illnesses by herbs: Recommendations of Avicenna’s heritage "Canon of Medicine"

Mozhgan Ghobadi Pour 1, Naser Mirazi 1,*, Asghar Seif 2
PMCID: PMC6448543  PMID: 30984575

Abstract

Objective:

Avicenna (Abu Ali al-Hossein ibn Abdullah ibn Sina) who had a special attention toward diseases treatments, gathered results of ages of herbal medicine experiments on humans and animals in his book “Al-Qānūn fī Ṭibb” or "The Canon of Medicine", which is a reliable book in Iranian traditional medicine.

The aim of this research was to build a reliable list of plants effective against liver and spleen diseases, based on Avicenna's book (volume 2).

Materials and Methods:

By studying the monographs, introduced agents that have been effective in liver and spleen diseases were identified. Upon their origin and effectiveness in diseases of the liver, spleen or both, treatments were organized.

Results:

From a huge number of drugs, 163 plants from 73 families were found to be effective in treatment of liver and spleen illnesses. In addition, 30 non-herbal agents effective in treatment of liver diseases were detected. The Lamiaceae family have the most effective herbs for treatment of diseases of the liver, spleen or both. Hemp Agrimony, Irsā, and Fūdhanj achieved the highest scores.

Conclusion:

The effects of different plants on liver and spleen diseases were indicated in Avicenna's book. Due to the report on the above book, further studies needed specially on the effect of Irsā (Iris ensata) and family Lamiaceae on liver and spleen diseases.

Key Words: Herbal medicine, Liver, Materia medica, Spleen

Introduction

The largest organ in the body is the liver, comprising about 2 percent of the total body weight; in an adult with average body mass, the liver is about 1.5 kg. The liver performs many different functions including: 1) filtration and storage of blood; 2) metabolism of carbohydrates, proteins, fats, hormones, and foreign chemicals; 3) formation of bile; 4) storage of vitamins and iron; and 5) formation of coagulant factors (Hall, 2015). Liver diseases are conditions that affect the liver. The liver is prone to diseases due to multidimensional functions and its location (Kumar et al., 2014). The efficiency of current synthetic agents in treating chronic liver disease is not satisfactory and these chemicals have undesirable side effects. Thereby, numerous phytochemicals and medicinal herbs, as alternative and complementary treatments, have been investigated for chronic liver diseases (Hong et al., 2015). Iranian traditional medicine (ITM) has been used for prevention, diagnosis, and treatment of diseases and this medicine works based on the humor theory of temperament in which, the liver is one of the most important organs in the body (Akbarzadeh et al., 2015).

Al-Hossein Abu-Ali Ben Abdullah, Ibn Sina, (known as Sheikh al-Rais (or the Prince of the physicians) and in the West as Avicenna, 980-1037 AD) was an extremely talented individual. Avicenna practiced philosophy, astronomy, geometry, mathematics, and medicine as well as poetry and music. Although medicine was not his main area of interest, he became famous as a physician due to the desperate need for thoughtful medical personnel in the Persian kingdom. Among Avicenna’s works, his medical book Al-Qānūn fī Ṭibb, known as Canon in the Western Hemisphere, has a great scientific and historical value. Canon is written in three parts. Part I covers the anatomy and physiology of the human body; Part II includes the description, signs, and symptoms of the disease and Part III describes the treatment of disease and prophylactic measures to prevent disease. For treatment of most diseases, he used food, psychotherapy , and medicinal plants (Qayumi, 1998). Arturo Castiglioni appreciated Avicenna's Canon: "The clarity of the clinical histories, the accuracy of the therapeutic indications, constructed logically and without dangerous exaggerations, and the eloquence of his forcible style were sufficient to confer on this book up to the end of the seventeenth century an almost indisputable authority in the minds of the physicians of all countries" (Galdston, 1955).

Acute liver disease damages the spleen in long term. In Book 2 (the Materia Medica) of Canon, Avicenna alphabetically listed about 806 simple medical agents (of floral, mineral, and animal origin) that were used at the time. Each agent may have different possible general actions, followed by specific properties listed according to symptoms of liver and spleen diseases. In floral monographs of Canon, we found that Avicenna has found that some herbs cure some symptoms so we considered such symptoms and searched for herbs with such properties.

Materials and Methods

In our evaluation, we used different versions of the Canon book available at: (https://sites.google.com/site/avicennacanon1a/canon-web-htm). This library was created by Dr. Hossein Hatami and is also accessible through the Bu Ali Sina Scientific and Cultural Foundation website (http://www.buali.ir/). The following versions of the Canon were used in our study: 1) The corrected version of Canon in Persian (Sina, 2010), 2) Arabic manuscript of the Canon (Ibn Sina, 2005), and 3) Translated version of the Canon in English (Sīnā, 1998). As the first step, to indicate which herbs have hepatoprotective and other effects for liver diseases, the 2nd volume of Canon was searched. These items were mutually compared and evaluated. Subsequently, data were collected based on different plant species in the areas of healing, and protection. The flow chart of the study is presented in Figure 1.

Figure 1.

Figure 1

The flow chart of the study

Statistical analysis

The average values for results are expressed as a mean± standard error of mean (SEM). Statistical analysis was performed using the Statistical Package for the Social Science (IBM SPSS statistics version 23) program for Windows. Statistical significance of differences between groups was evaluated using non-parametric statistics, the relationship between the numbers of herbs in each family to score of herbs was shown by the Kruskal–Wallis test p<0.05 was considered statistically significant. Graphs were created with Excel 2013 software (Microsoft office 2013).

Results

Avicenna introduced 193 agents as they were effective on the liver and spleen. Their characteristics are presented in four categories according to the origin of agent in Tables 1-6 which present basic information such as common name, Persian name, Arabic name, scientific name, family, used parts (i.e. root, fruit, etc.)/ mode of consumption (fried, roasted, etc.) or preparation (enema, smell, etc.), diseases for which the agent was prescribed and finally score.

Table 1.

Data from Canon book 2 about herbs with hepatoprotective/hepatotherapeutic effects

No. Persian Name Common name Arabic name Scientific Name Family Used Parts/ Mode of consumption or preparation Conditions which the herb has effect on Score
1 Piyāz Onion Baṣi Allium cepa Amaryllidaceae / Twice fried (or roasted) J 1
2 Sir Garlic Thūm Allium sativum L. Amaryllidaceae / Enema. BH 1
3 Peste Pistachio nut Fustuq Pistacia vera L. Anacardiaceae / Smell, oil, syrian variety OL, CLL, PL 3
4 Somāq Sumach Summāq Rhus coriaria L. Anacardiaceae / Pickle PF, BN 2
5 Nane havvā Ajowan Nānkhāh Carum copticum L. Apiaceae CL 1
6 Zire biyābāni Cumin Kammūn Cuminum cyminum L. Apiaceae   FD 1
7 Šire-ye- 'angodān, salqiun Asafoetida Ḥiltit Ferula assafoetida L. Apiaceae / Ingestion J 1
8 Sakbine Sagapanum Sakbinaj Ferula persica Willd. Apiaceae / Poltice D, RY, PL 3
9 Sefandufalaiun, safanduliun Wild cumin Saqandūliūn, safandūliūn, safidūliūn Heracleum spondylium L. Apiaceae Root PL, J 2
10 Gaz[']angabin e estabrak' Sweet exudate of saccharum Sukkar al-'ushr, 'ushr Calotropis procera R.Br. Apocynaceae / Ingestion D, GL 2
11 Mārčube, miyān asfārāghas, mawāqinūs Hilyun Hilyūn, mevaqensūs, zaqyūs Asparagus officinalis L. Asparagaceae Root, seed / cooked OL, J 2
12 Alvā' Small aloa Sibr Aloe littoralis Asphodelaceae / Oral intake HBF, OL, J, EXB 4
13 Xonsā Asphodel Khuntha Asphodelus tenuifolius
Asphodelus sp.
Asphodelaceae   J 1
14 Kāsni Endive, chicory Hindabāʾ Cichorium intybus L. Asteraceae / Bibtter variety OL, UL, EXC, LT, 4
15 Kāhu Lettuce Khas Lactuca sativa L. Asteraceae / With vinegar J 1
16 Bābune Chamomile Bābūnaj Matricaria chamomilla L. Asteraceae   J 1
17 Kangare xar, čarxe Arabian thorn, multi-knotted Shukā'i, kathir al-ͨaqd Onopordon arabicum L. Asteraceae   UL 1
18 Gušfil Arum Ghalghaas, ghalghassh Colocasia antiquorum Schott & Endl. Araceae   BD 1
19 Zerešk Barberry Amberbāris Berberis aristata Berberidaceae   EYB, STL 2
20 'Afiyus, 'Afnus Horse radish root Afiyūs, Afnūs Raphanus agria Brassicaceae Fruit J 1
21 Bašām Balm of gilead balsam Balsān, balsān makki Commiphora opobalsamum (L.) Engl. Burseraceae / Cooked STL 1
22 Nārmošk Iron wood tree Nārmushk, nāghisht Mesua ferrea L. Calophyllacea   CL 1
23 Šāhdāne Shahdanaj, hemp seed Shahdānaj Cannabis sativa L. Cannabaceae / Juice= shāhdānaq EXB 1
24 Esfe(a)nāj' Spinach Asfānākh Spinacia oleracea L. Chenopodiaceae   CB 1
25 Mahmude Scammony Saqmūniā Convoluvulus camononia
Convolvulus scammonia L.
Convolvulaceae Root / oral intake PB 1
26 Košus Dodder Kashūth Cuscuta reflexa Convolvulaceae / Orally, juice OL, STL, J 3
27 Motā' Dogwood Cornus mascula Cornaceae   CL, GIL 2
28 Šarang, hendevāne-ye abujahl' Colocynth Ḥanẓal Citrullus colocynthis L. Cucurbitaceae Root D 1
29 Simāhang, xiyār e 'olāq Squirting cucumber Qiththā' al-ḥimār Momordica elaterium L. Cucurbitaceae Roots, leaves, barks / extract, orally, decocted J, D, VB, EVY 4
30 Šarhi, avers' Sharbin, cedar tree Sharbin Chamaecyparis sp. Cupressaceae Fruits UL 1
31 Mo(e)šk e za(e)min Indian cypress S'ad Cypress rotundus L. Cyperaceae   PH, D 2
32 Dome asb,' shenge čamani Horse tail Dhanab al-khail Equisetum arvense L. Equisetaceae   IL, D 2
33 Māhudāne Caper-spurg, myrtle spurge, wild caper Māhudānah, hab[b]-bol-moluk, al-sisbān Croton tiglium L. Euphorbiaceae Seed D, PB 2
34 Gāvkašk Spurge Shabram Euphoarbia pithyusa Euphorbiaceae / Orally, soaked D 1
35 Karčak Castor Kheroo, qarāvatia Ricinus communis L. Euphorbiaceae Seed/ attrited EXB 1
36 Rame Soap nut Rittah Caesalpinia bonduc (L.) Roxb.
Syn, Guilandina bonduc
Fabaceae / Scuash EBB, EVY, J, I 4
37 Xiyaršambar Purging cassia Khiār shambar Cassia fistula L Fabaceae CLL, J, PL, EVY 4
38 Xarnub Ceratonia carob, nabatean carob, yanbūt Kharnūb Ceratonia siliqua L. Fabaceae Yanbūt J 1
39 Taranja(e)bin, hāj, xāršotor Manna Taranjubin, alhāji- maurorum, khare āqul', Hedysarum alhagi Lerche. Fabaceae PB 1
40 Tamre hendi Tamarind Tamr hindi Tamarindus indica L. Fabaceae / Decoction PB 1
41 Ney e nahāvandi, ney e zarire Chiratta Qaṣab al-dharirah, dharirah Swertia chirata (Wall.) C.B. Clarke. Gentinaceae   IL, D 2
42 Lāk Lac Luk Coccus lacca
Syn Kerria lacca
Ficus laccifera Roxb.
Cataris lacca
Kerriidae UL, STL, J, D, PL 5
43 Na'nā' Spicata spearmint Na ͨnȧ ͨ Mentha sativa L. Lamiaceae / Water J 1
44 Sangol, zufā ye tar   Zūfā ratb Nepta orientalis Mill. Lamiaceae / Painted or taken orally CL, D 2
45 Sumarn, toxm e zardāb   Thūmūn Thymus capitatus LK&H. Lamiaceae / Syrup BH 1
46 Pune koohi, marze ye koohi, marze Origanum Sa'tar Zataria multiflora Lamiaceae   LD 1
47 Dārčin khataei Cassia bark Salikhah Cinnamomum cassia auct.
Syn, Cinnamomum aromaticum
Lauraceae Bark / syrup, infusion UL 1
48 Dārčin Cinnamon Dār ṣini Cinnamomum zeilanicum Blume var. cassia Nees
Syn. Cinnamomum verum
Lauraceae   OL, STL, D 3
49 Anār' Pomegranate, carthaginian apple Rummān Punica granatum L. Lythraceae Seed /sour pomegranate syrup, attrited CB, BD 2
50 Molukiye, panirake bostāni, panirake kāštani Jews mallow Mulūkhiā, khubbāzi Corchorus olitorius L. Malvaceae Garden variety,
Wild variety
OL
PB
2
51 Garmdāne, gardmāne Kermes Karam dānah Coccus cacti
Syn, Protortonia cacti
Monophlebidae ED, EXB 2
52 Mixak Cloves Qaranful Caryophyllus aromaticus L.
Syn, Syzygium aromaticum
Myrtaceae STL 1
53 Murd Myrtle Ās Myrtus communis L. Myrtaceae / Juice BD 1
54 Zeytun Oliva Zaitūn(al-zait) Olea europea L. Oleaceae / Paint oil sediment,
plaster wild variety
D
I
2
55 Gol e jāliz Maltesa mushroom Ṭarāthith Orobanche caryophyllacea SM
Phelypaea coccinea Poir
Orobanchacceae   AL 1
56 Favina, gol e sad tu(o)māni Peony Fāwāniā, ʿŪd al-ṣalib, dhā al-aṣābi' ,'al'isi Paeonia officinalis Retz. Paeoniaceae Root / orally J, OL 2
57 Xašxāš, šāxdār xašxāš sāheli, qārāltol Poppy Khashkhāsh, manqur, khashkhāsh moqarran, khashkhāsh bahri Papaver
Glaucium flavum Grant
Papaveraceae
Papaeraceae
Roots of horned sea poppy / decocted LD 1
58 Zardčube Turmeric 'urūq al-ṣabbāghin Chelidonium majus L. Papaveraceae   OJ, OL 2
59 Šāhtare Fumitory Shāhṭarj Fumaria officinalis L. Papaveraceae / Orally OL, I 2
60 Vāle Rock moss Ushnah Peramedia perlata
Usnea sp.
 
Parmeliaceae
/ Soaked in some constipating wine PL 1
61 Tannb Abies, fir Tannūb Picea abies (L.) H. Karst. Pinaceae   LI 1
62 Se(a)no[w]bar Pine, common fir tree Ṣanobar Pinus pinea L. Pinaceae Bark and leaves / oral intake PL 1
63 Bārhang, besyār dande ،haft dande Great plantain, multi angled, seven angled Lisān al-hamal Plantago major L. Plantaginaceae Roots, seeds and leaves, extract / a dish of lentil containing great plantain, orally, enemas OL, D, BD 3
64 'Esfarze,'aspiqul Ispaghola, spogel seed Bazr qaṭūnā Plantago ovata Forssk. Plantoginaceae Mucilage BT 1
65 Gur giyāh Bug rush Idhkhir Andropogon schoenanthus L. Poaceae Flowers / oil I, IL, D 3
66 Tabāšir, xeyzarān Bamboo concretion Ṭabāshir Bambusa arundinacea Retz. Poaceae Wood / ash, paint SIN, BD 2
67 Rivās Ribes Ribās Rheum ribes L. Polygonaceae   BD 1
68 Xorfe Purslane Baqla ḥamqā, farfakh. Portulaca oleracea L. Portulacaceae / Syrup or paste, enema RB, IRL, VB, BD 4
69 Kabābe Cubeb Kabābah Cubeba officinalis Raf. Piperaceae   OL 1
70 Marmirān Golden threat root Māmirān Coptis teeta Ranunculacea Root J 1
71 Xarbaq e siyāh Black hellebore Kharbaq aswad, mālinodiol Helleborus niger L. Ranunculaceae   EBB 1
72 Zālzālak, Azarole Za'rūr, ṭariqāniqūn Crataegus melanocarpa L. Rosaceae   EY, PE 2
73 Panj barg, Nitafili Five leaf grass, cinquefoil Khamsa aurāq, banṭāfilūn, Niṭāfulūn Potentilla reptans L. Rosaceae Milk, root / extract J, PL 2
74 Ālu' Bukhara plum Ijjāṣ Prunus domestica L.
Prunus Spinosa L.
Rosaceae Old, sweet variety, fresh EXB 1
75 Golābi Pear Kummatharā Pyrus communis L. Rosaceae Chinese variety / rob REB, BD 2
76 Gol e sorx Rose Ward Rosa damascus
Rosa damascena L.
Syn, Rosa x damascena
Rosaceae Dry flowers / oil CM, GL, BD 3
77 Senjed Service tree Ghubairā Elaeagnus angustifolius Elaeagnaceae   SIN 1
78 Utruj, tora(o)nj, bālang Citron Utruj, tora(o)nj Citrus medica L. Rutaceae / CoIlyrium, juice RB, J, VB, BD, EJ 5
79 Fāxere Split cubeb Fāghirā Zauthocylum alatum
Zanthoxylum alatum Roxb.
Rutaceae / Incorporated in medicines CL 1
80 Bid e biyābāni Goat willow Khilāf Salix caprea L. Salicaceae Juice OL, J 2
81 Mehrgiyāh Belladonna Yabrūh, yabrūj, yabrūh os sanam, moqulen, varqia, riūqes Mandragora officinarum L. Solanaceae Sap VB, PB 2
82 Kaka(o)ne, arusak'.e pošt.e parde Winter cherry, alkekeng, bladder Kākenj Physalis alkekengi L Solanaceae   J 1
83 Bādenjān Brinjal Bādhinjān Solanum melongena L. Solanaceae Cooked with vinegar OL 1
84 Angur' Garden night shade ͨinab, ͨinab o s sa'lab Solanum nigrum L. Solanaceae Resin UL 1
85 sorxdār Yew Zarnāb Taxus baccata L. Taxaceae CL 1
86 Aqlaguni, o[w]d' Eagle-wood, aloe wood Aghālōgi, aghālōgi, o[w]d' al bo(e)xor , ͨūd Aquilaria agallocha, Roxb
Syn. Aquilaria agallochum
Thymelaeaceae Wood / oral intake PL, STL 2
87 Banafše Sweet voilet Banafsaj Viola odorata L. Violaceae / Dry EXB 1
88 Tāk Grape vine Karm Vitis vinifera L. Vitaceae Root wild grape -vine D, ED 2
89 Hāl bawwā, Khair buwwā Small cardamom, Lesser cardamom Hil bawwā, Hāl bawwā, Khair buwwā Amomum cardamomum L. Syn: Electtaria cardamom Zingiberaceae CL 1
90 Hel Cardamom Ḥamāmā Amomum cardamomum Zingiberaceae / Decoction OL, LD 2
91 Zanje(a)bil Dried ginger Zanjabil Zingiber officinale Zingiberaceae   CL 1
92 ???         / Cooked PL 1
93 Kāsni biyābāni Wild endive Ṭarakhshaqūq / Extract D, OL 2

Abbreviations: J: Jaundice; BH: Remove bilious humours, expels bilious humours; OL: Removes the obstructions of liver, removes hepatic obstructions, de obstruent for the liver; CLL: Cleanses the liver, cleanses (the foul humours of) the liver; PL: Pain of the liver, hepatalgia, painful conditions of liver; PF: Prevents the flow of bile towards the viscera, prevents the infiltration of yellow bile towards the intestines; BN: Bilious Nausea; CL: Strengthens 'cold' liver, 'coldness' (atony) of the liver, suitable for the 'coldness' of the liver; FD: Facilitates downward flow of bile in the urinary tract; D: Dropsy (Ascites); RY: Removes 'yellow water' (ascetic fluid); GL: Good for liver; HBF: Head bile filtration; EXB: Expels yellow bile; UL: useful for the liver (ailments), beneficial for the liver, helpful to the liver; EXC: Counteracts the ill effects of excessive yellow bile; LT: Useful for the liver Temperament; BD: Useful in bile diarrhea, bilious diarrhea, stop bilious diarrhea; EYB: Eradicating the yellow bile; STL: strengthens the liver; CB: Checks yellow bile; PB: Purged out bile, purges out the 'burnt' bile; GIL: gaseous inflation of the liver; VB: vomiting of bile, stops biliary vomiting, bilious vomiting; EVY: Evacuates the yellow bile, evacuates the burnt bile; PH: Produces heat in liver, warming drug for liver; IL: Inflammatory conditions of the liver; EBB: Evacuates the black bile; I: Itch, urticarial, prurigo, scabies; LD: Liver disease; ED: Expels (dropsical) water; AL: Atony of the liver; OJ: Obstructive jaundice; LI: Liver injuries caused by fall, damaged liver; BT: Bilious thirst; SIN: stops infiltration of yellow bile towards stomach; RB: Removes yellow bile; IRL: Irritation of liver; EY: Eliminates yellow bile; PE: Prevents excessive secretions; REB: Relieves bile; CM: Controls the 'movement' of yellow bile; EJ: Eye jaundice.

Table 6.

Processed agent used in medicine in canon in medicine medication by Avicenna

No. Persian name Common name Arabic name Scientific Name Used Parts/ Mode of consumption or preparation Diseases Which the agent has Effect on Score
1 Serke Vinegar Khal Acetum vinegar / Fumigation D 1
2 Nešāste Starch Nashā / Oral use BD 1
3 La'l e moa'bberi A resin Qaiqahan, qanqahar Qaiqahan / Orally SHS 1
4 Panir Cheese Jubn Serparium The water of cheese PBH, EXB 2
5 Omaali, ormaali, asal' e dāvud, o[w]qan e asal' Honey wine or mead Ūmāli Eleemali muslum / Diluted with water PB 1

Abbreviations: D: Dropsy (Ascites); BD: Useful in bile diarrhea, bilious diarrhea, stop bilious diarrhea; SHS: shrinks the (enlarged) spleen, emaciates the spleen, splenic enlargement, reduces the size of spleen; PBH: Produces bilious humours; EXB: Expels yellow bile; PB: Purged out bile, purges out the 'burnt' bile.

Figure 4.

Figure 4

Relationship between the plant families and a mean of scores of their herbs. Data are presented as mean ± SEM. p>0.05

Plants

We reviewed all herbs mentioned in the 2nd volume of Canon and found a total of 163 plants used for liver and spleen illnesses. These plants belong to 73 different families. These herbs included medicinal, poisonous, ornamental and economic plants and weeds that are presented in Tables 1-3. According to their effectiveness, they are categorized as effective on liver Table 1, spleen Table 2 and both liver and spleen Table 3. The second volume of the canon book consists of a series of monographs each one describing different properties of one medicinal herb. The monograph name that described the properties of No. 92 herb is lost during repeated transcription through ages so it has indicated as "???" in Table 1. Herb number 93 is a type of endive with no scientific name.

Table 3.

Plants used as medicinal agent in liver and spleen

No. Persian name Common name Arabic name Scientific Name Family Used Parts/ Mode of consumption or preparation Conditions which the herb has effect on Score
1 Agar' Sweet scented flag Waj Acorus calamus L. Acoraceae   CH, STL, HS, SHS 4
2 Falanje Leek Ḥirbah Allium porrum
Syn, Allium ampeloprasum
Amaryllidaceae Peels, leaves / dried, orally, SD, H 2
3 Mastaki Mastic, mastiche tree gum Maṣṭaki Pistacia lentiscus L. Anacardiaceae Roots / taken orally, plaster S, STL, LD, LW, IL 4
4 Karafs Ceiery Karafs Apium graveolens L. Apiaceae Seed / orally GL,GS, D, TL, CL 5
5 Oše'   Ushaq, lazaq al zahab, ṭarthoth Dorema ammoniacum (D.Don)
Syn: Gum ammoniac
Syn, Ferula ammoniacum
Apiaceae / used internally, painted HS, LH, D 3
6 Gāvšir Opopanax, galbanum Jāoshir Opopanax chironoum, (L.) Koch. Apiaceae / juice, with vinegar, HS, S, D 3
7 Anisūn, rāziyāne rumi Anise, anis Anisūn Pimpinella anisum Apiaceae   OL, OS 2
8 Barbāle Indian valerian Asārūn Asarum europaeum L. Aristolochiaceae / Infusion (naqi') D, OL, LH, HS, J, GD 6
9 Sarāvand Zarawand, Indian birthwort Zarāwand, arestolokhia Aristolochia longa L.
Syn, Aristolochia fontanesii
Aristolochiaceae round variety / with oxymel, painted, powdered, orally SD, GS, PB 3
10 Zangidāru Spleen wort Saqūlūqandriūn, kaf al-nasr Asplenium scolopendrium L. Aspleniaceae Leaves / decocted GS, SD, J 3
11 Afsantin, de(a)rmane rumi Absinth, absinthe, worm wood Afsantin Artimisia absinthium L. Asteraceae / syrup, extract, plaster, ointment, pessary J, D, US, PL, LH, PB, BH 7
12 Moškāniyye Hemp agrimony Ghāfith Eupatorium cannabinum Asteraceae / oral intake, extract I, PL, OL, STL, LH, H, D 7
13 Bābune gāv če(a)šm, amārion, arqasmun, qurinbun Bachelo's buttons Uqhuwān Pyrethrum parthenium
Syn, Tanacetum parthenium
Asteraceae / oil PBB, SS 2
14 Šire ye. Fil zahre Extract of ophthalmic berberry Ḥoḍaḍ hendi Berberis aristata DC Berberidaceae / oral intake or external painting of indian variety SD, BJ 2
15 Gole qāsed Shanjar, dyer's bugloss Shanjār, khas al-ḥimār Alkanna sp. Boraginaceae / rub anāqalyā variety, oral intake, plaster, preserved in vinega J, SA, CLL, SD 4
16 Hovečube Dyers bugloss Abū halsā, abū khalsā, shenjār Anchusa tinctoria L. Boraginaceae / decoction J, SA, BH 3
17 Kalam Cabbage Kurunb Brassica oleracea Brassicaceae Leaves / extract J, SD 2
18 Barqast Asclepias Qunna barā Lepidium draba L. Brassicaceae   OL, OS 2
19 Toxm taretizak biyābāni, šāhtare Garden cress Ḥurf Lepidium sativum L.
Nasturtium officinale R.brr
Brassicaceae Babylonian cress / plaster PH, SHS, VB, EL 4
20 Tor[o]b Radish Fujl Raphanus sativus L. Brassicaceae Seed, leaves / plastered, extract, GS, SI, OL, J, PL, D 6
21 Sonbol, sonbole hendi Nard, indian spikenard Sunbul Nardostachys jatamansi D.C. Caprifoliaceae   OL, STL, J, US 4
22 Palaxam Struthion Kundus Gypsophila struthium L. Caryophyllaceae DB, HS 2
23 Selq Beet Silq Beta vulgaris L. Chenopidiaceae   OL, S 2
24 Halile Chebulic myrobalan Halilaj Terminalia chebula Combretaceae  
Kābuli variety,
yellow variety
Black variety
SA, UB
D, EBB
EVY
EBB
5
25 Lablāb Lablab Lablāb Convolvulus arvensis L. Convolvulaceae Leaves / juice OL, S, PB 3
26 Faqilāsus, bo(e)xor maryam Faqlaminus Faqlāminūs, bukhūr maryam Cucumis sativus L. Cucurbitaceae / oral intake, extract, plastered J, S 2
27 Noxod Gram, chickpea Ḥimmaṣ Cicer arietinum L. Fabaceae / flour, decoction, coloured and black varieties D, J, OL, OS 4
28 Lubiyā gorgi Lupine Turmus Lupinus albus L. Fabaceae / cooked OL, OS 2
29 Gole gandom Common centaury Qanṭūriūn, luqaye koochak, lambison, qanṭūriūn saqir Centaurium erythraea Rafn Gentianaceae / decoction OL, HS, PB 3
30 Je(a)ntiyānā Gentian Janṭiānā, kaf foz ze'b Gentiana lutea L. Gentianaceae / taken with wine OL, OS, PL, SA, CL, SSW 6
31 Ishqil Squill Ishqil Urginea Indica
Syn, Drimia indica
Hyacinthaceae / it's viniger, decoction, kept hanging on the body SS, DI, SHS, D, J 5
32 Za'fe(a)rān Safron Za'farān Crocus sativus L. Iridaceae STL, GS 2
33 Susan Lily Sausan, iris, sausan el āsemajooni, irsā Iris florentina L. Iridaceae / oil S, BI 2
34 Zambaq, iris Orris root Irsā, sowsan Iris ensata Iridaceae / with vinegar, internal and external use, old powdered, CH, CS, D, EXB, EB 7
35 Māš dāru Tecrium Kamāfiṭūs, khamāfitūs Ajuga chamaepitys (L.) Schreb Lamiaceae LD, OL, SD, MJ 4
36 Hesl, zufā ye xošk Hyssop Zūfa yābis, zavān Hyssopus officinalis L. Lamiaceae / plastered, oral intake GS, D 2
37 Gandnā ye koohi Black horehound Farāsiūn' , alqam Marrubium vulgare L. Lamiaceae OL, OS 2
38 Pune Mint Fūdhanj Mentha piperita L.
Syn. Mentha x piperita
Lamiaceae wild variety, mountain mint / decoction, bath, ointment, plastered, orally BC, BO, BL, J, D, SHS, RBB 7
39 Maryam noxodi Common germander Kamādriūs, kamāzriūs Teucrium chamaedrys L. Lamiaceae / old HS, MJ, D 3
40 Panj[']angošt Chaste tree Banjanjusht Vitex agnus-castus Lamiaceae   OL, OS, SS, D 4
41 Dahmašt, Bay tree, seed of laurel Dahmusht, qār, ḥab al-ghār Laurus nobilis L. Lauraceae Oil, peel, H, S, PL 3
42 Anjir' Fig, fig tree Tin Ficus carica L. Moraceae cluster fig, leaves / decoction, juice OL, OS, D, SS, I, 5
43 Hab[b] al bān Persian lilac Bān Moringa arborea Verdcourt Moringaceae Fruit / plaster SL, SS, US 3
44 Čārgun, bazbāz, basbāse Mace, nutmeg Bisbāsah, jauz būwwā Myristica fragrans Houf. Myristicaceae Nut STL, STS 2
45 Baspāyak Common polypody Bisbāij Polypodium vulgare L. Polypodiaceae Root / powdered PBB, PB 2
46 Qārč e deraxti White agaric Ghāriqūn Polyporus officinalis Polyporaceae   J, SI, PL 3
47 Toršak Yellow dock, sour dock Ḥummāḍ Rumex crispus L. Polygonaceae / decoction, bath with its water, with wine, cooked with vinegar and plastered RB, I, BJ, SSW 4
48 Rivand, rivand.e čini, behman, rāvand Himalayan rhubarb Riwand Rheum officinale L.
Rheum emodi Wall. ex Meisn.
Polygonaceae   LD, PL, LW, SHS 4
49 Parsiyāvo(a)šān Maiden hair Barshiāushān Adiantum capillus veneris L. Pteridaceae / administration with wine SA, J 2
50 Bādām Almond Lauz Amygdalus communis L. Rosaceae Seed /oil, flour OL, OS, GS, SU, S 5
51 Ru(o)nās Dyers madder Fūwah al-ṣabbāghin Rubia tinctorum Rubiaceae Fruit S, CLL, CLS, OL, OS 5
52 Fayjan Common rue Sozāb, sodāb Ruta graveolens L. Rutaceae / plastered, decoction D, GS 2
53 Filzahre Filzahraj Lycium afrum L
Rhamnus saxatilis L.
Solanaceae
Rhamnaceae
Branch / decocted, orally S, J 2
54 Haftbarg Mazerion Mādhriūm Daphne mezereum L. Thymelaeaceae / Electuary, suppository, D, BD, PBB 3

Abbreviations: CH: Cold hepatalgia; STL: strengthens the liver; HS: Hardness of the spleen, splenic hardness; SHS: shrinks the (enlarged) spleen, emaciates the spleen, splenic enlargement, reduces the size of spleen; SD: Splenic disease, splenic disorders; H: Hepatitis; S: Splenitis; LD: Liver disease; LW: Liver weakness; IL: Inflammatory conditions of the liver; GL: Good for liver; GS: Good for spleen, good drugs for the spleen; D: Dropsy (Ascites); TL: tones up the liver; CL: Strengthens 'cold' liver, 'coldness' (atony) of the liver, suitable for the 'coldness' of the liver; LH: Liver hardness; OL: Removes the obstructions of liver, removes hepatic obstructions, de obstruent for the liver; OS: Obstructions of spleen, de obstruent for the spleen; J: Jaundice; GD: General Dropsy (anasarca); PB: Purged out bile, purges out the 'burnt' bile; US: useful for spleen, useful in splenic ailments; PL: Pain of the liver, hepatalgia, painful conditions of liver; BH: Remove bilious humours, expels bilious humours; I: Itch, urticarial, prurigo, scabies; PBB: Purge out black bile; SS: sclerosis of spleen; BJ: Useful in black jaundice, melanotic jaundice; SA: Splenalgia, splenic pain; CLL: Cleanses the liver, cleanses (the foul humours of) the liver; PH: Produces heat in liver, warming drug for liver; VB: vomiting of bile, stops biliary vomiting, bilious vomiting; EL: Expels bile through loose motion; SI: Spleen inflammation; DB: Diluent black bile; UB: useful for bile ailments; EBB: Evacuates the black bile; EVY: Evacuates the yellow bile, evacuates the burnt bile; SSW: splenic swelling; DI: Dissolves inflammation of the spleen; BI: Biliary ileus; CS: Cold spleenalgia; EXB: Expels yellow bile; EB: Expels the black bile; MJ: Melanotic jaundice; BC: Bile clean up; BO: Bile opener; BL: Bile laxative; RBB: Remove black bile; SL: Sclerosis of liver; STS: strengthens the spleen; RB: Removes yellow bile; SU: stirs up yellow bile; CLS: Cleanses the spleen; BD: Useful in bile diarrhea, bilious diarrhea, stop bilious diarrhea.

Table 2.

Properties of herbs that were found effective against spleen disease, mentioned in the 2nd volume of Canon

No. Persian name Common name Arabic name Scientific Name Family Used Parts/ Mode of consumption or preparation Conditions which the herb has effect on Score
1 Karafs koohi Rock-parsley, southern wood Būyānas Petroselinum sativum Hoffm, nom. nud. Apiaceae   SS 1
2 Čātlānquš, saqqez, bane Terebinth Ḥabba al-khaḍrā,' botm Pistacia terebinthus L. Anacardiaceae Resin, gum SD, I 2
3 Ašaqe' Labdanum Qissūs, gheysus Hedera helix L. Araliaceae Fresh / plastering US 1
4 Kabar Caper, caprifole Kabar Capparis spinosa L. Capparidaceae Root-bark / orally or plaster HS, EM 2
5 Hezār gušān, fāserā, tāk e sefid White bryoni Fāshrā, karma baiḍā,' hazārjashān Bryonia alba L. Cucurbitaceae   GS 1
6 Nil True indigo Nil Indigofera linifolia (L.f.) Retz. Fabaceae Wild variety S 1
7 Bi'al Alfalfa Abi'al Medicago sativa L. Fabaceae   US 1
8 Šamba(e)lile Fenugreek Ḥulbah, Trigonella foenum-graecum L. Fabaceae / painted US 1
9 Ezār če(a)šm Hypericon Hiōfāriqūn, 'arn, 'inab al-hayyah Hypericum perforatum Hypericaceae Fruits PBB 1
10 Tarfondos, tarfooless Teukrion Ṭūqriūs ṭarqoyūs, ṭarfūlis Teucrium flanum L. Lamiaceae Pieces / decoction, plastered SSW, HS 2
11 Gole arbe Cat thyme, hulwort, mountain germander Jo ͨdah Teucrium polium L. Lamiaceae / painted, used with vinegar, decoction of large variety S, HS, BJ, D 4
12 Nilōfar, kalam e ābi' Water lily, sea-kale Nilōfar, hab[b] ol arus' Nymphaea lotus L. Nymphaeaceae Root / orally or plaster, S 1
13 Felfel Pepper Filfil Piper sp. Piperaceae / orally or painted SI 1
14 Šaytarak Lepidium Shitaraj Plumbago zeylanica L. Plumbaginaceae / paint SHS 2
15 Gazmāzu, gazmāzak Tamarisk nut Jauz al-ṭarfā, kazmārak, asl,' ṭarfā Tamarix gallica L. Tamaricaceae Branches, leaves / decoction, plastered SD, HS, 2
16 Dāruš Mistletoe Dibq Viscum album L. Viscaceae / poultice I, SSW 2

Abbreviations: SS: sclerosis of spleen; SD: Splenic disease, splenic disorders; I: Itch, urticarial, prurigo, scabies; US: useful for spleen, useful in splenic ailments; PBB: Purge out black bile, HS: Hardness of the spleen, splenic hardness; EM: Evacuates the thick melanotic matters of the spleen; GS: Good for spleen, good drugs for the spleen; S: Splenitis; SSW: splenic swelling; BJ: Useful in black jaundice, melanotic jaundice; D: Dropsy (Ascites); SI: Spleen inflammation; SHS: shrinks the (enlarged) spleen, emaciates the spleen, splenic enlargement, reduces the size of spleen.

The most common effective plants prescribed for liver or spleen diseases or both, are shown in Figure 2. Figure 3 shows the plant families (i.e. Lamiaceae, Fabaceae, Apiaceae, Rosaceae, Asteraceae, Solanaceae, and Brassicaceae) with the largest contribution to development of treatments against liver and spleen diseases.

Figure 2.

Figure 2

. Effective herbs against liver and spleen diseases mentioned in Avicenna’s book. Scores are according to the number of effects that every herb has been prescribed by Avicenna

Figure 3.

Figure 3

Histogram of families with the highest number of effective herbs

Animals

The majority of the 17 agents of animal’s origin including animal, organs or animal physiological fluids used as medication. In certain cases, especially for insects, the whole body was used, and in other cases, the animal’s urine or even the milk was used. The animals and their applications are presented in Table 4.

Table 4.

Animals and their parts used as a source of medication

No. Persian name Common name Arabic name Scientific Name Family Used Parts/ Mode of consumption or preparation Diseases Which the agent has Effect on Score
1 Badal e marjān Coral Bussad Corallium rubrum Coralliidae / mixed with water SSW 1
2 'Edrār Urine Baul Peri ouron Drink /
Human, camel
Human
I
D, HS
J, SD
5
3 Malax Locust Jarād Locusta migratoria Acridida D 1
4 Kerm Worm Dūd, dūd al-ṣabbāghin / the red multi legged worms with wine J 1
5 Kaf e daryā Sea foam, casting of king fisher Zabad al-baḥr Alcyonium Alcyoniidae Rosy kind SD, D 2
6 Jegar Liver Kabid Hepar Wolf liver PL 1
7 Šayyer Milk Laban Gala Jennet
Goat
Camel
Cow
Milk
Cheese water,
Doogh,
Boiled sour milk
I, J
J
D, HS
HS,
HS, SD, LD, SSW, IL, GL, D
EXB
BD
11
8 Gušt Meat Laḥm Sand grouse
Hedgehog
Cow
D, OL, OS, LW
D
PF, BD
6
9 'Madfu Faeces, excreta, stool zibl Dung Goat, mountain goats
Goat
Human
Oral intake / plaster or paint, taken with some aromatics J, HS
D
J
3
10 'Osto(e)xān Bones ͨiẓām Os He-goat Oral intake of ankle bone SSW 1
11 Sadaf Pearl, oyster shell Farofas
Oyster
/ poultice SD, D
D
12 Šāx e jānevarān Horn Qarn Cornu Stag / washed and burnt D, J 2
13 Sang xārak Sand grouse Qaṭā D, Pbb 2
14 Xārpošt e biyābāni Porcupine Qunfudh barri Hystrix cristata Flesh/ salted
Liver / sun dried
D 1
15 Kabk Red headed partridge Qabaj, ghag Meat D 1
16 Kerm e sorx Earth worm Kharātin Lumbricus Lumbricidae / orally J 1
17 Āl[l]ākolang' Spanish fly Dharāriḥ Cantharidus vesicatoria Trochidae D 1

Abbreviations: SSW: splenic swelling; I: Itch, urticarial, prurigo, scabies; D: Dropsy (Ascites); HS: Hardness of the spleen, splenic hardness; J: Jaundice; SD: Splenic disease, splenic disorders; PL: Pain of the liver, hepatalgia, painful conditions of liver; LD: Liver disease; IL: Inflammatory conditions of the liver; GL: Good for liver; EXB: Expels yellow bile; BD: Useful in bile diarrhea, bilious diarrhea, stop bilious diarrhea; OL: Removes the obstructions of liver, removes hepatic obstructions, de obstruent for the liver; OS: Obstructions of spleen, de obstruent for the spleen; LW: Liver weakness; PF: Prevents the flow of bile towards the viscera, prevents the infiltration of yellow bile towards the intestines; Pbb: Produces black bile.

The used animals can be divided into groups according to their availability, such as domesticated animals, such as jennet, goat, camel, cow, and others such as locust and worms. Wild animals, for example, wolf, sand grouse, red-headed partridge, hedgehog, porcupine, antelope, and stag. Various organs, and products of exotic animals, species such as Spanish fly, coral, oyster have been used in order to cure liver and spleen diseases

Minerals

We were able to identify 8 materials of mineral origin (Table 5). The use of such agents in medicine has been well-known throughout history.

Table 5.

Minerals noted in Canon by Avicenna

No. Persian name Common name Arabic name Scientific Name Used Parts/ Mode of consumption or preparation Diseases Which the agent has Effect on Score
1 Mum[i]yā Asphat, mineral pitch, jews pitch Mūmiāi Asphaltum Snuff, oral use LI, SA 2
2 Namak e čini, gel e Āsious Asyūs Asian stone / Painting US 1
3 Burak Borax Būraq Natron / Plaster D, I 2
4 Āhan' Iron Ḥadid Ferrum Extinguished hot iron in wine and water S 1
5 Gel e ma'muli Common earth Ṭin muṭlaq from a sunny land / Painted D, S, GD 3
6 Gel e maqarra Red ochre Maghra Bolus armenus rubra PL 1
7 Āb' Water Mā' Aqua Iron rich water, Copper containing water
Sea-water
Sea- water / vapours
hot spring water, Sulphuric water
US
I
D
IL, PL, SI, SA
7
8 Namak Salt Milḥ Sodium chloride / Paint
Nifṭi salt,
I
BB
2

Abbreviations: LI: Liver injuries caused by fall, damaged liver; SA: Splenalgia, splenic pain; US: useful for spleen, useful in splenic ailments; D: Dropsy (Ascites); I: Itch, urticarial, prurigo, scabies; S: Splenitis; GD: General Dropsy (anasarca); PL: Pain of the liver, hepatalgia, painful conditions of liver; IL: Inflammatory conditions of the liver; SI: Spleen inflammation; BB: Bile break.

Agents of other origins

Five medicinal agents that were processed from animal or plant materials or agents of mixed or unknown origin are presented in Table 6.

Discussion

The overwhelming majority (84.45%) of agents that served as simple drugs were derived only from plants (see Table 7). The proportion of materials derived from animals and animal organs is small (8.80%), and minerals represent an even smaller proportion (4.14%).

Table 7.

Effective Medicinal agent for liver and spleen diseases grouped based on their origin

Origin Number Percentage
Plants 163 84.455
Animals 17 8.81
Minerals 8 4.145
Processed 5 2.59
Sum 193 100

Based on our survey of Canon, 163 herbal parts which exert therapeutic effects on the liver and spleen, were found. In this book, some items refer to one herb Ṭarfūlis and Ṭūqriūs both refer to Teukrion or some items are parts of one herb and have different names e.g. Ḥiltit is gum and Maḥrūth is the root of Anjudhān so the last two have same scientific name of Asafoetida in the Tables.

In old manuscripts, there are different descriptions for identical herb so different scientific names have been proposed for the same herb. Prof. Ghahraman and Prof. Okhovvat have introduced appropriate scientific names for old names; in the present study, we used scientific names according to their suggestions (Ghahreman and Okhovvat, 2004).

From antiquity until now herbalist and medicinal experts had a quest to find the most effective herb that has the richest source of medicinal material, in order to use it in liver tonics and other formulas. Our research revealed that the effective herbs are not limited to one family but the most frequently used herbs belong to several families that are given in Figure 3. Some families like Laminacea have higher numbers of herbs that are frequently used as effective therapeutics for spleen and liver diseases. We propose to study the herbs of this family and other families noted in Figure 2 in order to find the most effective herb for treatment of liver and spleen diseases.

According to the number of effects that every herb has, as prescribed by Avicenna as effective on liver or spleen diseases or both, the herbs were scored (Figure 2). Ghāfith (Eupatorium cannabinum) was named "The eupatorion of Avicenna" (Tobyn et al., 2016) in old times, is one of the highly scored herbs. The present studies demonstrated choleretic and hepatoprotective effects of hemp agrimony (Lexa et al., 1989) although it contains pyrrolizidine alkaloids (Edgar et al., 1992;Hendriks et al., 1987) which have hepatotoxic and potentially carcinogenic and genotoxic effects and essential oils of E. cannabinum is notably toxic (Judzentiene et al., 2016). On the other hand, the effects of a plant such as Irsā (Iris ensata) which has the highest score (Figure 1), on the liver or spleen, have not yet been reported and its medicinal use had been uncertain or unknown according to lack of articles is considered a good candidate for future investigations. Fūdhanj (Mentha piperita) which also gained a high score was used successfully by Avicenna as a drug, for treatment of liver and spleen diseases. It was shown that M. piperita causes lipid peroxidation and hepatic damage in a dose-dependent manner (Akdogan et al., 2004). It has hepatotoxic potential (Douros et al., 2016) and moderately severe adverse effects (Posadzki et al., 2013), further studies in this field are needed. Meanwhile, M. piperita has radioprotective properties against gamma irradiation which is probably mediated via its antioxidant and free radical scavenging activities of leaf extract (Samarth et al., 2006); also, this plant may be useful for reducing the side effects of arsenic-induced hepatopathy (Sharma et al., 2007). Afsantin (Artimisia absinthium) is another high-score herb which exhibits hepatoprotective action partly through microsomal drug metabolizing enzymes (MDME) inhibitory action (Gilani and Janbaz, 1995), has significant antioxidant activity and protects the liver and kidney (Kharoubi et al., 2008) probably through its immunomodulatory activity (Amat et al., 2010). Also, this plant was considered for reducing hepatic damage and it may serve as an alternative medicine in hepatic conditions (Saxena and Shukla, 2012).

These results show a need for a close scrutiny in methods of planting, harvesting, processing, extraction and preparing a single or combination formula that affects remedies and practice of ancient medicine. In order to prepare a suitable herbal drug for the treatment of complicated diseases such as liver cirrhosis and hepatocellular carcinoma, according to Avicenna book, further studies are needed to make an effective drug for liver or spleen diseases is promising.

Through analysis of 806 therapeutic items of Avicenna 2nd volume of Canon, we prepared a list of agents that are effective in three main areas namely, liver, spleen, and liver & spleen diseases. The current study indicates the necessity of deep analysis, study and further assessment of listed items.

Acknowledgment

We appreciate Dr. Hossein Hatami for his efforts in establishing such useful database of Avicenna and other Iranian traditional medicine (ITM) scientist's books in Bu-Ali Sina scientific & cultural foundation site.

Conflicts of interest

The authors declare that there is no conflict of interest associated with this work.

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