Abstract
Objective:
Avicenna (Abu Ali al-Hossein ibn Abdullah ibn Sina) who had a special attention toward diseases treatments, gathered results of ages of herbal medicine experiments on humans and animals in his book “Al-Qānūn fī Ṭibb” or "The Canon of Medicine", which is a reliable book in Iranian traditional medicine.
The aim of this research was to build a reliable list of plants effective against liver and spleen diseases, based on Avicenna's book (volume 2).
Materials and Methods:
By studying the monographs, introduced agents that have been effective in liver and spleen diseases were identified. Upon their origin and effectiveness in diseases of the liver, spleen or both, treatments were organized.
Results:
From a huge number of drugs, 163 plants from 73 families were found to be effective in treatment of liver and spleen illnesses. In addition, 30 non-herbal agents effective in treatment of liver diseases were detected. The Lamiaceae family have the most effective herbs for treatment of diseases of the liver, spleen or both. Hemp Agrimony, Irsā, and Fūdhanj achieved the highest scores.
Conclusion:
The effects of different plants on liver and spleen diseases were indicated in Avicenna's book. Due to the report on the above book, further studies needed specially on the effect of Irsā (Iris ensata) and family Lamiaceae on liver and spleen diseases.
Key Words: Herbal medicine, Liver, Materia medica, Spleen
Introduction
The largest organ in the body is the liver, comprising about 2 percent of the total body weight; in an adult with average body mass, the liver is about 1.5 kg. The liver performs many different functions including: 1) filtration and storage of blood; 2) metabolism of carbohydrates, proteins, fats, hormones, and foreign chemicals; 3) formation of bile; 4) storage of vitamins and iron; and 5) formation of coagulant factors (Hall, 2015 ▶). Liver diseases are conditions that affect the liver. The liver is prone to diseases due to multidimensional functions and its location (Kumar et al., 2014 ▶). The efficiency of current synthetic agents in treating chronic liver disease is not satisfactory and these chemicals have undesirable side effects. Thereby, numerous phytochemicals and medicinal herbs, as alternative and complementary treatments, have been investigated for chronic liver diseases (Hong et al., 2015 ▶). Iranian traditional medicine (ITM) has been used for prevention, diagnosis, and treatment of diseases and this medicine works based on the humor theory of temperament in which, the liver is one of the most important organs in the body (Akbarzadeh et al., 2015 ▶).
Al-Hossein Abu-Ali Ben Abdullah, Ibn Sina, (known as Sheikh al-Rais (or the Prince of the physicians) and in the West as Avicenna, 980-1037 AD) was an extremely talented individual. Avicenna practiced philosophy, astronomy, geometry, mathematics, and medicine as well as poetry and music. Although medicine was not his main area of interest, he became famous as a physician due to the desperate need for thoughtful medical personnel in the Persian kingdom. Among Avicenna’s works, his medical book Al-Qānūn fī Ṭibb, known as Canon in the Western Hemisphere, has a great scientific and historical value. Canon is written in three parts. Part I covers the anatomy and physiology of the human body; Part II includes the description, signs, and symptoms of the disease and Part III describes the treatment of disease and prophylactic measures to prevent disease. For treatment of most diseases, he used food, psychotherapy , and medicinal plants (Qayumi, 1998 ▶). Arturo Castiglioni appreciated Avicenna's Canon: "The clarity of the clinical histories, the accuracy of the therapeutic indications, constructed logically and without dangerous exaggerations, and the eloquence of his forcible style were sufficient to confer on this book up to the end of the seventeenth century an almost indisputable authority in the minds of the physicians of all countries" (Galdston, 1955 ▶).
Acute liver disease damages the spleen in long term. In Book 2 (the Materia Medica) of Canon, Avicenna alphabetically listed about 806 simple medical agents (of floral, mineral, and animal origin) that were used at the time. Each agent may have different possible general actions, followed by specific properties listed according to symptoms of liver and spleen diseases. In floral monographs of Canon, we found that Avicenna has found that some herbs cure some symptoms so we considered such symptoms and searched for herbs with such properties.
Materials and Methods
In our evaluation, we used different versions of the Canon book available at: (https://sites.google.com/site/avicennacanon1a/canon-web-htm). This library was created by Dr. Hossein Hatami and is also accessible through the Bu Ali Sina Scientific and Cultural Foundation website (http://www.buali.ir/). The following versions of the Canon were used in our study: 1) The corrected version of Canon in Persian (Sina, 2010 ▶), 2) Arabic manuscript of the Canon (Ibn Sina, 2005 ▶), and 3) Translated version of the Canon in English (Sīnā, 1998 ▶). As the first step, to indicate which herbs have hepatoprotective and other effects for liver diseases, the 2nd volume of Canon was searched. These items were mutually compared and evaluated. Subsequently, data were collected based on different plant species in the areas of healing, and protection. The flow chart of the study is presented in Figure 1.
Figure 1.
The flow chart of the study
Statistical analysis
The average values for results are expressed as a mean± standard error of mean (SEM). Statistical analysis was performed using the Statistical Package for the Social Science (IBM SPSS statistics version 23) program for Windows. Statistical significance of differences between groups was evaluated using non-parametric statistics, the relationship between the numbers of herbs in each family to score of herbs was shown by the Kruskal–Wallis test p<0.05 was considered statistically significant. Graphs were created with Excel 2013 software (Microsoft office 2013).
Results
Avicenna introduced 193 agents as they were effective on the liver and spleen. Their characteristics are presented in four categories according to the origin of agent in Tables 1-6 which present basic information such as common name, Persian name, Arabic name, scientific name, family, used parts (i.e. root, fruit, etc.)/ mode of consumption (fried, roasted, etc.) or preparation (enema, smell, etc.), diseases for which the agent was prescribed and finally score.
Table 1.
Data from Canon book 2 about herbs with hepatoprotective/hepatotherapeutic effects
No. | Persian Name | Common name | Arabic name | Scientific Name | Family | Used Parts/ Mode of consumption or preparation | Conditions which the herb has effect on | Score |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
1 | Piyāz | Onion | Baṣi | Allium cepa | Amaryllidaceae | / Twice fried (or roasted) | J | 1 |
2 | Sir | Garlic | Thūm | Allium sativum L. | Amaryllidaceae | / Enema. | BH | 1 |
3 | Peste | Pistachio nut | Fustuq | Pistacia vera L. | Anacardiaceae | / Smell, oil, syrian variety | OL, CLL, PL | 3 |
4 | Somāq | Sumach | Summāq | Rhus coriaria L. | Anacardiaceae | / Pickle | PF, BN | 2 |
5 | Nane havvā | Ajowan | Nānkhāh | Carum copticum L. | Apiaceae | CL | 1 | |
6 | Zire biyābāni | Cumin | Kammūn | Cuminum cyminum L. | Apiaceae | FD | 1 | |
7 | Šire-ye- 'angodān, salqiun | Asafoetida | Ḥiltit | Ferula assafoetida L. | Apiaceae | / Ingestion | J | 1 |
8 | Sakbine | Sagapanum | Sakbinaj | Ferula persica Willd. | Apiaceae | / Poltice | D, RY, PL | 3 |
9 | Sefandufalaiun, safanduliun | Wild cumin | Saqandūliūn, safandūliūn, safidūliūn | Heracleum spondylium L. | Apiaceae | Root | PL, J | 2 |
10 | Gaz[']angabin e estabrak' | Sweet exudate of saccharum | Sukkar al-'ushr, 'ushr | Calotropis procera R.Br. | Apocynaceae | / Ingestion | D, GL | 2 |
11 | Mārčube, miyān asfārāghas, mawāqinūs | Hilyun | Hilyūn, mevaqensūs, zaqyūs | Asparagus officinalis L. | Asparagaceae | Root, seed / cooked | OL, J | 2 |
12 | Alvā' | Small aloa | Sibr | Aloe littoralis | Asphodelaceae | / Oral intake | HBF, OL, J, EXB | 4 |
13 | Xonsā | Asphodel | Khuntha |
Asphodelus tenuifolius
Asphodelus sp. |
Asphodelaceae | J | 1 | |
14 | Kāsni | Endive, chicory | Hindabāʾ | Cichorium intybus L. | Asteraceae | / Bibtter variety | OL, UL, EXC, LT, | 4 |
15 | Kāhu | Lettuce | Khas | Lactuca sativa L. | Asteraceae | / With vinegar | J | 1 |
16 | Bābune | Chamomile | Bābūnaj | Matricaria chamomilla L. | Asteraceae | J | 1 | |
17 | Kangare xar, čarxe | Arabian thorn, multi-knotted | Shukā'i, kathir al-ͨaqd | Onopordon arabicum L. | Asteraceae | UL | 1 | |
18 | Gušfil | Arum | Ghalghaas, ghalghassh | Colocasia antiquorum Schott & Endl. | Araceae | BD | 1 | |
19 | Zerešk | Barberry | Amberbāris | Berberis aristata | Berberidaceae | EYB, STL | 2 | |
20 | 'Afiyus, 'Afnus | Horse radish root | Afiyūs, Afnūs | Raphanus agria | Brassicaceae | Fruit | J | 1 |
21 | Bašām | Balm of gilead balsam | Balsān, balsān makki | Commiphora opobalsamum (L.) Engl. | Burseraceae | / Cooked | STL | 1 |
22 | Nārmošk | Iron wood tree | Nārmushk, nāghisht | Mesua ferrea L. | Calophyllacea | CL | 1 | |
23 | Šāhdāne | Shahdanaj, hemp seed | Shahdānaj | Cannabis sativa L. | Cannabaceae | / Juice= shāhdānaq | EXB | 1 |
24 | Esfe(a)nāj' | Spinach | Asfānākh | Spinacia oleracea L. | Chenopodiaceae | CB | 1 | |
25 | Mahmude | Scammony | Saqmūniā |
Convoluvulus camononia
Convolvulus scammonia L. |
Convolvulaceae | Root / oral intake | PB | 1 |
26 | Košus | Dodder | Kashūth | Cuscuta reflexa | Convolvulaceae | / Orally, juice | OL, STL, J | 3 |
27 | Motā' | Dogwood | Mū | Cornus mascula | Cornaceae | CL, GIL | 2 | |
28 | Šarang, hendevāne-ye abujahl' | Colocynth | Ḥanẓal | Citrullus colocynthis L. | Cucurbitaceae | Root | D | 1 |
29 | Simāhang, xiyār e 'olāq | Squirting cucumber | Qiththā' al-ḥimār | Momordica elaterium L. | Cucurbitaceae | Roots, leaves, barks / extract, orally, decocted | J, D, VB, EVY | 4 |
30 | Šarhi, avers' | Sharbin, cedar tree | Sharbin | Chamaecyparis sp. | Cupressaceae | Fruits | UL | 1 |
31 | Mo(e)šk e za(e)min | Indian cypress | S'ad | Cypress rotundus L. | Cyperaceae | PH, D | 2 | |
32 | Dome asb,' shenge čamani | Horse tail | Dhanab al-khail | Equisetum arvense L. | Equisetaceae | IL, D | 2 | |
33 | Māhudāne | Caper-spurg, myrtle spurge, wild caper | Māhudānah, hab[b]-bol-moluk, al-sisbān | Croton tiglium L. | Euphorbiaceae | Seed | D, PB | 2 |
34 | Gāvkašk | Spurge | Shabram | Euphoarbia pithyusa | Euphorbiaceae | / Orally, soaked | D | 1 |
35 | Karčak | Castor | Kheroo, qarāvatia | Ricinus communis L. | Euphorbiaceae | Seed/ attrited | EXB | 1 |
36 | Rame | Soap nut | Rittah |
Caesalpinia bonduc (L.) Roxb. Syn, Guilandina bonduc |
Fabaceae | / Scuash | EBB, EVY, J, I | 4 |
37 | Xiyaršambar | Purging cassia | Khiār shambar | Cassia fistula L | Fabaceae | CLL, J, PL, EVY | 4 | |
38 | Xarnub | Ceratonia carob, nabatean carob, yanbūt | Kharnūb | Ceratonia siliqua L. | Fabaceae | Yanbūt | J | 1 |
39 | Taranja(e)bin, hāj, xāršotor | Manna | Taranjubin, alhāji- maurorum, khare āqul', | Hedysarum alhagi Lerche. | Fabaceae | PB | 1 | |
40 | Tamre hendi | Tamarind | Tamr hindi | Tamarindus indica L. | Fabaceae | / Decoction | PB | 1 |
41 | Ney e nahāvandi, ney e zarire | Chiratta | Qaṣab al-dharirah, dharirah | Swertia chirata (Wall.) C.B. Clarke. | Gentinaceae | IL, D | 2 | |
42 | Lāk | Lac | Luk |
Coccus lacca
Syn Kerria lacca Ficus laccifera Roxb. Cataris lacca |
Kerriidae | UL, STL, J, D, PL | 5 | |
43 | Na'nā' | Spicata spearmint | Na ͨnȧ ͨ | Mentha sativa L. | Lamiaceae | / Water | J | 1 |
44 | Sangol, zufā ye tar | Zūfā ratb | Nepta orientalis Mill. | Lamiaceae | / Painted or taken orally | CL, D | 2 | |
45 | Sumarn, toxm e zardāb | Thūmūn | Thymus capitatus LK&H. | Lamiaceae | / Syrup | BH | 1 | |
46 | Pune koohi, marze ye koohi, marze | Origanum | Sa'tar | Zataria multiflora | Lamiaceae | LD | 1 | |
47 | Dārčin khataei | Cassia bark | Salikhah |
Cinnamomum cassia auct. Syn, Cinnamomum aromaticum |
Lauraceae | Bark / syrup, infusion | UL | 1 |
48 | Dārčin | Cinnamon | Dār ṣini |
Cinnamomum zeilanicum Blume var. cassia Nees Syn. Cinnamomum verum |
Lauraceae | OL, STL, D | 3 | |
49 | Anār' | Pomegranate, carthaginian apple | Rummān | Punica granatum L. | Lythraceae | Seed /sour pomegranate syrup, attrited | CB, BD | 2 |
50 | Molukiye, panirake bostāni, panirake kāštani | Jews mallow | Mulūkhiā, khubbāzi | Corchorus olitorius L. | Malvaceae | Garden variety, Wild variety |
OL PB |
2 |
51 | Garmdāne, gardmāne | Kermes | Karam dānah |
Coccus cacti
Syn, Protortonia cacti |
Monophlebidae | ED, EXB | 2 | |
52 | Mixak | Cloves | Qaranful |
Caryophyllus aromaticus L. Syn, Syzygium aromaticum |
Myrtaceae | STL | 1 | |
53 | Murd | Myrtle | Ās | Myrtus communis L. | Myrtaceae | / Juice | BD | 1 |
54 | Zeytun | Oliva | Zaitūn(al-zait) | Olea europea L. | Oleaceae | / Paint oil sediment, plaster wild variety |
D I |
2 |
55 | Gol e jāliz | Maltesa mushroom | Ṭarāthith |
Orobanche caryophyllacea SM Phelypaea coccinea Poir |
Orobanchacceae | AL | 1 | |
56 | Favina, gol e sad tu(o)māni | Peony | Fāwāniā, ʿŪd al-ṣalib, dhā al-aṣābi' ,'al'isi | Paeonia officinalis Retz. | Paeoniaceae | Root / orally | J, OL | 2 |
57 | Xašxāš, šāxdār xašxāš sāheli, qārāltol | Poppy | Khashkhāsh, manqur, khashkhāsh moqarran, khashkhāsh bahri |
Papaver
Glaucium flavum Grant |
Papaveraceae Papaeraceae |
Roots of horned sea poppy / decocted | LD | 1 |
58 | Zardčube | Turmeric | 'urūq al-ṣabbāghin | Chelidonium majus L. | Papaveraceae | OJ, OL | 2 | |
59 | Šāhtare | Fumitory | Shāhṭarj | Fumaria officinalis L. | Papaveraceae | / Orally | OL, I | 2 |
60 | Vāle | Rock moss | Ushnah |
Peramedia perlata
Usnea sp. |
Parmeliaceae |
/ Soaked in some constipating wine | PL | 1 |
61 | Tannb | Abies, fir | Tannūb | Picea abies (L.) H. Karst. | Pinaceae | LI | 1 | |
62 | Se(a)no[w]bar | Pine, common fir tree | Ṣanobar | Pinus pinea L. | Pinaceae | Bark and leaves / oral intake | PL | 1 |
63 | Bārhang, besyār dande ،haft dande | Great plantain, multi angled, seven angled | Lisān al-hamal | Plantago major L. | Plantaginaceae | Roots, seeds and leaves, extract / a dish of lentil containing great plantain, orally, enemas | OL, D, BD | 3 |
64 | 'Esfarze,'aspiqul | Ispaghola, spogel seed | Bazr qaṭūnā | Plantago ovata Forssk. | Plantoginaceae | Mucilage | BT | 1 |
65 | Gur giyāh | Bug rush | Idhkhir | Andropogon schoenanthus L. | Poaceae | Flowers / oil | I, IL, D | 3 |
66 | Tabāšir, xeyzarān | Bamboo concretion | Ṭabāshir | Bambusa arundinacea Retz. | Poaceae | Wood / ash, paint | SIN, BD | 2 |
67 | Rivās | Ribes | Ribās | Rheum ribes L. | Polygonaceae | BD | 1 | |
68 | Xorfe | Purslane | Baqla ḥamqā, farfakh. | Portulaca oleracea L. | Portulacaceae | / Syrup or paste, enema | RB, IRL, VB, BD | 4 |
69 | Kabābe | Cubeb | Kabābah | Cubeba officinalis Raf. | Piperaceae | OL | 1 | |
70 | Marmirān | Golden threat root | Māmirān | Coptis teeta | Ranunculacea | Root | J | 1 |
71 | Xarbaq e siyāh | Black hellebore | Kharbaq aswad, mālinodiol | Helleborus niger L. | Ranunculaceae | EBB | 1 | |
72 | Zālzālak, | Azarole | Za'rūr, ṭariqāniqūn | Crataegus melanocarpa L. | Rosaceae | EY, PE | 2 | |
73 | Panj barg, Nitafili | Five leaf grass, cinquefoil | Khamsa aurāq, banṭāfilūn, Niṭāfulūn | Potentilla reptans L. | Rosaceae | Milk, root / extract | J, PL | 2 |
74 | Ālu' | Bukhara plum | Ijjāṣ |
Prunus domestica L. Prunus Spinosa L. |
Rosaceae | Old, sweet variety, fresh | EXB | 1 |
75 | Golābi | Pear | Kummatharā | Pyrus communis L. | Rosaceae | Chinese variety / rob | REB, BD | 2 |
76 | Gol e sorx | Rose | Ward |
Rosa damascus
Rosa damascena L. Syn, Rosa x damascena |
Rosaceae | Dry flowers / oil | CM, GL, BD | 3 |
77 | Senjed | Service tree | Ghubairā | Elaeagnus angustifolius | Elaeagnaceae | SIN | 1 | |
78 | Utruj, tora(o)nj, bālang | Citron | Utruj, tora(o)nj | Citrus medica L. | Rutaceae | / CoIlyrium, juice | RB, J, VB, BD, EJ | 5 |
79 | Fāxere | Split cubeb | Fāghirā |
Zauthocylum alatum
Zanthoxylum alatum Roxb. |
Rutaceae | / Incorporated in medicines | CL | 1 |
80 | Bid e biyābāni | Goat willow | Khilāf | Salix caprea L. | Salicaceae | Juice | OL, J | 2 |
81 | Mehrgiyāh | Belladonna | Yabrūh, yabrūj, yabrūh os sanam, moqulen, varqia, riūqes | Mandragora officinarum L. | Solanaceae | Sap | VB, PB | 2 |
82 | Kaka(o)ne, arusak'.e pošt.e parde | Winter cherry, alkekeng, bladder | Kākenj | Physalis alkekengi L | Solanaceae | J | 1 | |
83 | Bādenjān | Brinjal | Bādhinjān | Solanum melongena L. | Solanaceae | Cooked with vinegar | OL | 1 |
84 | Angur' | Garden night shade | ͨinab, ͨinab o s sa'lab | Solanum nigrum L. | Solanaceae | Resin | UL | 1 |
85 | sorxdār | Yew | Zarnāb | Taxus baccata L. | Taxaceae | CL | 1 | |
86 | Aqlaguni, o[w]d' | Eagle-wood, aloe wood | Aghālōgi, aghālōgi, o[w]d' al bo(e)xor , ͨūd |
Aquilaria agallocha, Roxb Syn. Aquilaria agallochum |
Thymelaeaceae | Wood / oral intake | PL, STL | 2 |
87 | Banafše | Sweet voilet | Banafsaj | Viola odorata L. | Violaceae | / Dry | EXB | 1 |
88 | Tāk | Grape vine | Karm | Vitis vinifera L. | Vitaceae | Root wild grape -vine | D, ED | 2 |
89 | Hāl bawwā, Khair buwwā | Small cardamom, Lesser cardamom | Hil bawwā, Hāl bawwā, Khair buwwā | Amomum cardamomum L. Syn: Electtaria cardamom | Zingiberaceae | CL | 1 | |
90 | Hel | Cardamom | Ḥamāmā | Amomum cardamomum | Zingiberaceae | / Decoction | OL, LD | 2 |
91 | Zanje(a)bil | Dried ginger | Zanjabil | Zingiber officinale | Zingiberaceae | CL | 1 | |
92 | ??? | / Cooked | PL | 1 | ||||
93 | Kāsni biyābāni | Wild endive | Ṭarakhshaqūq | / Extract | D, OL | 2 |
Abbreviations: J: Jaundice; BH: Remove bilious humours, expels bilious humours; OL: Removes the obstructions of liver, removes hepatic obstructions, de obstruent for the liver; CLL: Cleanses the liver, cleanses (the foul humours of) the liver; PL: Pain of the liver, hepatalgia, painful conditions of liver; PF: Prevents the flow of bile towards the viscera, prevents the infiltration of yellow bile towards the intestines; BN: Bilious Nausea; CL: Strengthens 'cold' liver, 'coldness' (atony) of the liver, suitable for the 'coldness' of the liver; FD: Facilitates downward flow of bile in the urinary tract; D: Dropsy (Ascites); RY: Removes 'yellow water' (ascetic fluid); GL: Good for liver; HBF: Head bile filtration; EXB: Expels yellow bile; UL: useful for the liver (ailments), beneficial for the liver, helpful to the liver; EXC: Counteracts the ill effects of excessive yellow bile; LT: Useful for the liver Temperament; BD: Useful in bile diarrhea, bilious diarrhea, stop bilious diarrhea; EYB: Eradicating the yellow bile; STL: strengthens the liver; CB: Checks yellow bile; PB: Purged out bile, purges out the 'burnt' bile; GIL: gaseous inflation of the liver; VB: vomiting of bile, stops biliary vomiting, bilious vomiting; EVY: Evacuates the yellow bile, evacuates the burnt bile; PH: Produces heat in liver, warming drug for liver; IL: Inflammatory conditions of the liver; EBB: Evacuates the black bile; I: Itch, urticarial, prurigo, scabies; LD: Liver disease; ED: Expels (dropsical) water; AL: Atony of the liver; OJ: Obstructive jaundice; LI: Liver injuries caused by fall, damaged liver; BT: Bilious thirst; SIN: stops infiltration of yellow bile towards stomach; RB: Removes yellow bile; IRL: Irritation of liver; EY: Eliminates yellow bile; PE: Prevents excessive secretions; REB: Relieves bile; CM: Controls the 'movement' of yellow bile; EJ: Eye jaundice.
Table 6.
Processed agent used in medicine in canon in medicine medication by Avicenna
No. | Persian name | Common name | Arabic name | Scientific Name | Used Parts/ Mode of consumption or preparation | Diseases Which the agent has Effect on | Score |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
1 | Serke | Vinegar | Khal | Acetum vinegar | / Fumigation | D | 1 |
2 | Nešāste | Starch | Nashā | / Oral use | BD | 1 | |
3 | La'l e moa'bberi | A resin | Qaiqahan, qanqahar | Qaiqahan | / Orally | SHS | 1 |
4 | Panir | Cheese | Jubn | Serparium | The water of cheese | PBH, EXB | 2 |
5 | Omaali, ormaali, asal' e dāvud, o[w]qan e asal' | Honey wine or mead | Ūmāli | Eleemali muslum | / Diluted with water | PB | 1 |
Abbreviations: D: Dropsy (Ascites); BD: Useful in bile diarrhea, bilious diarrhea, stop bilious diarrhea; SHS: shrinks the (enlarged) spleen, emaciates the spleen, splenic enlargement, reduces the size of spleen; PBH: Produces bilious humours; EXB: Expels yellow bile; PB: Purged out bile, purges out the 'burnt' bile.
Figure 4.
Relationship between the plant families and a mean of scores of their herbs. Data are presented as mean ± SEM. p>0.05
Plants
We reviewed all herbs mentioned in the 2nd volume of Canon and found a total of 163 plants used for liver and spleen illnesses. These plants belong to 73 different families. These herbs included medicinal, poisonous, ornamental and economic plants and weeds that are presented in Tables 1-3. According to their effectiveness, they are categorized as effective on liver Table 1, spleen Table 2 and both liver and spleen Table 3. The second volume of the canon book consists of a series of monographs each one describing different properties of one medicinal herb. The monograph name that described the properties of No. 92 herb is lost during repeated transcription through ages so it has indicated as "???" in Table 1. Herb number 93 is a type of endive with no scientific name.
Table 3.
Plants used as medicinal agent in liver and spleen
No. | Persian name | Common name | Arabic name | Scientific Name | Family | Used Parts/ Mode of consumption or preparation | Conditions which the herb has effect on | Score |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
1 | Agar' | Sweet scented flag | Waj | Acorus calamus L. | Acoraceae | CH, STL, HS, SHS | 4 | |
2 | Falanje | Leek | Ḥirbah |
Allium porrum
Syn, Allium ampeloprasum |
Amaryllidaceae | Peels, leaves / dried, orally, | SD, H | 2 |
3 | Mastaki | Mastic, mastiche tree gum | Maṣṭaki | Pistacia lentiscus L. | Anacardiaceae | Roots / taken orally, plaster | S, STL, LD, LW, IL | 4 |
4 | Karafs | Ceiery | Karafs | Apium graveolens L. | Apiaceae | Seed / orally | GL,GS, D, TL, CL | 5 |
5 | Oše' | Ushaq, lazaq al zahab, ṭarthoth |
Dorema ammoniacum (D.Don) Syn: Gum ammoniac Syn, Ferula ammoniacum |
Apiaceae | / used internally, painted | HS, LH, D | 3 | |
6 | Gāvšir | Opopanax, galbanum | Jāoshir | Opopanax chironoum, (L.) Koch. | Apiaceae | / juice, with vinegar, | HS, S, D | 3 |
7 | Anisūn, rāziyāne rumi | Anise, anis | Anisūn | Pimpinella anisum | Apiaceae | OL, OS | 2 | |
8 | Barbāle | Indian valerian | Asārūn | Asarum europaeum L. | Aristolochiaceae | / Infusion (naqi') | D, OL, LH, HS, J, GD | 6 |
9 | Sarāvand | Zarawand, Indian birthwort | Zarāwand, arestolokhia |
Aristolochia longa L. Syn, Aristolochia fontanesii |
Aristolochiaceae | round variety / with oxymel, painted, powdered, orally | SD, GS, PB | 3 |
10 | Zangidāru | Spleen wort | Saqūlūqandriūn, kaf al-nasr | Asplenium scolopendrium L. | Aspleniaceae | Leaves / decocted | GS, SD, J | 3 |
11 | Afsantin, de(a)rmane rumi | Absinth, absinthe, worm wood | Afsantin | Artimisia absinthium L. | Asteraceae | / syrup, extract, plaster, ointment, pessary | J, D, US, PL, LH, PB, BH | 7 |
12 | Moškāniyye | Hemp agrimony | Ghāfith | Eupatorium cannabinum | Asteraceae | / oral intake, extract | I, PL, OL, STL, LH, H, D | 7 |
13 | Bābune gāv če(a)šm, amārion, arqasmun, qurinbun | Bachelo's buttons | Uqhuwān |
Pyrethrum parthenium
Syn, Tanacetum parthenium |
Asteraceae | / oil | PBB, SS | 2 |
14 | Šire ye. Fil zahre | Extract of ophthalmic berberry | Ḥoḍaḍ hendi | Berberis aristata DC | Berberidaceae | / oral intake or external painting of indian variety | SD, BJ | 2 |
15 | Gole qāsed | Shanjar, dyer's bugloss | Shanjār, khas al-ḥimār | Alkanna sp. | Boraginaceae | / rub anāqalyā variety, oral intake, plaster, preserved in vinega | J, SA, CLL, SD | 4 |
16 | Hovečube | Dyers bugloss | Abū halsā, abū khalsā, shenjār | Anchusa tinctoria L. | Boraginaceae | / decoction | J, SA, BH | 3 |
17 | Kalam | Cabbage | Kurunb | Brassica oleracea | Brassicaceae | Leaves / extract | J, SD | 2 |
18 | Barqast | Asclepias | Qunna barā | Lepidium draba L. | Brassicaceae | OL, OS | 2 | |
19 | Toxm taretizak biyābāni, šāhtare | Garden cress | Ḥurf |
Lepidium sativum L. Nasturtium officinale R.brr |
Brassicaceae | Babylonian cress / plaster | PH, SHS, VB, EL | 4 |
20 | Tor[o]b | Radish | Fujl | Raphanus sativus L. | Brassicaceae | Seed, leaves / plastered, extract, | GS, SI, OL, J, PL, D | 6 |
21 | Sonbol, sonbole hendi | Nard, indian spikenard | Sunbul | Nardostachys jatamansi D.C. | Caprifoliaceae | OL, STL, J, US | 4 | |
22 | Palaxam | Struthion | Kundus | Gypsophila struthium L. | Caryophyllaceae | DB, HS | 2 | |
23 | Selq | Beet | Silq | Beta vulgaris L. | Chenopidiaceae | OL, S | 2 | |
24 | Halile | Chebulic myrobalan | Halilaj | Terminalia chebula | Combretaceae | Kābuli variety, yellow variety Black variety |
SA, UB D, EBB EVY EBB |
5 |
25 | Lablāb | Lablab | Lablāb | Convolvulus arvensis L. | Convolvulaceae | Leaves / juice | OL, S, PB | 3 |
26 | Faqilāsus, bo(e)xor maryam | Faqlaminus | Faqlāminūs, bukhūr maryam | Cucumis sativus L. | Cucurbitaceae | / oral intake, extract, plastered | J, S | 2 |
27 | Noxod | Gram, chickpea | Ḥimmaṣ | Cicer arietinum L. | Fabaceae | / flour, decoction, coloured and black varieties | D, J, OL, OS | 4 |
28 | Lubiyā gorgi | Lupine | Turmus | Lupinus albus L. | Fabaceae | / cooked | OL, OS | 2 |
29 | Gole gandom | Common centaury | Qanṭūriūn, luqaye koochak, lambison, qanṭūriūn saqir | Centaurium erythraea Rafn | Gentianaceae | / decoction | OL, HS, PB | 3 |
30 | Je(a)ntiyānā | Gentian | Janṭiānā, kaf foz ze'b | Gentiana lutea L. | Gentianaceae | / taken with wine | OL, OS, PL, SA, CL, SSW | 6 |
31 | Ishqil | Squill | Ishqil |
Urginea Indica
Syn, Drimia indica |
Hyacinthaceae | / it's viniger, decoction, kept hanging on the body | SS, DI, SHS, D, J | 5 |
32 | Za'fe(a)rān | Safron | Za'farān | Crocus sativus L. | Iridaceae | STL, GS | 2 | |
33 | Susan | Lily | Sausan, iris, sausan el āsemajooni, irsā | Iris florentina L. | Iridaceae | / oil | S, BI | 2 |
34 | Zambaq, iris | Orris root | Irsā, sowsan | Iris ensata | Iridaceae | / with vinegar, internal and external use, old powdered, | CH, CS, D, EXB, EB | 7 |
35 | Māš dāru | Tecrium | Kamāfiṭūs, khamāfitūs | Ajuga chamaepitys (L.) Schreb | Lamiaceae | LD, OL, SD, MJ | 4 | |
36 | Hesl, zufā ye xošk | Hyssop | Zūfa yābis, zavān | Hyssopus officinalis L. | Lamiaceae | / plastered, oral intake | GS, D | 2 |
37 | Gandnā ye koohi | Black horehound | Farāsiūn' , alqam | Marrubium vulgare L. | Lamiaceae | OL, OS | 2 | |
38 | Pune | Mint | Fūdhanj |
Mentha piperita L. Syn. Mentha x piperita |
Lamiaceae | wild variety, mountain mint / decoction, bath, ointment, plastered, orally | BC, BO, BL, J, D, SHS, RBB | 7 |
39 | Maryam noxodi | Common germander | Kamādriūs, kamāzriūs | Teucrium chamaedrys L. | Lamiaceae | / old | HS, MJ, D | 3 |
40 | Panj[']angošt | Chaste tree | Banjanjusht | Vitex agnus-castus | Lamiaceae | OL, OS, SS, D | 4 | |
41 | Dahmašt, | Bay tree, seed of laurel | Dahmusht, qār, ḥab al-ghār | Laurus nobilis L. | Lauraceae | Oil, peel, | H, S, PL | 3 |
42 | Anjir' | Fig, fig tree | Tin | Ficus carica L. | Moraceae | cluster fig, leaves / decoction, juice | OL, OS, D, SS, I, | 5 |
43 | Hab[b] al bān | Persian lilac | Bān | Moringa arborea Verdcourt | Moringaceae | Fruit / plaster | SL, SS, US | 3 |
44 | Čārgun, bazbāz, basbāse | Mace, nutmeg | Bisbāsah, jauz būwwā | Myristica fragrans Houf. | Myristicaceae | Nut | STL, STS | 2 |
45 | Baspāyak | Common polypody | Bisbāij | Polypodium vulgare L. | Polypodiaceae | Root / powdered | PBB, PB | 2 |
46 | Qārč e deraxti | White agaric | Ghāriqūn | Polyporus officinalis | Polyporaceae | J, SI, PL | 3 | |
47 | Toršak | Yellow dock, sour dock | Ḥummāḍ | Rumex crispus L. | Polygonaceae | / decoction, bath with its water, with wine, cooked with vinegar and plastered | RB, I, BJ, SSW | 4 |
48 | Rivand, rivand.e čini, behman, rāvand | Himalayan rhubarb | Riwand |
Rheum officinale L. Rheum emodi Wall. ex Meisn. |
Polygonaceae | LD, PL, LW, SHS | 4 | |
49 | Parsiyāvo(a)šān | Maiden hair | Barshiāushān | Adiantum capillus veneris L. | Pteridaceae | / administration with wine | SA, J | 2 |
50 | Bādām | Almond | Lauz | Amygdalus communis L. | Rosaceae | Seed /oil, flour | OL, OS, GS, SU, S | 5 |
51 | Ru(o)nās | Dyers madder | Fūwah al-ṣabbāghin | Rubia tinctorum | Rubiaceae | Fruit | S, CLL, CLS, OL, OS | 5 |
52 | Fayjan | Common rue | Sozāb, sodāb | Ruta graveolens L. | Rutaceae | / plastered, decoction | D, GS | 2 |
53 | Filzahre | Filzahraj |
Lycium afrum L Rhamnus saxatilis L. |
Solanaceae Rhamnaceae |
Branch / decocted, orally | S, J | 2 | |
54 | Haftbarg | Mazerion | Mādhriūm | Daphne mezereum L. | Thymelaeaceae | / Electuary, suppository, | D, BD, PBB | 3 |
Abbreviations: CH: Cold hepatalgia; STL: strengthens the liver; HS: Hardness of the spleen, splenic hardness; SHS: shrinks the (enlarged) spleen, emaciates the spleen, splenic enlargement, reduces the size of spleen; SD: Splenic disease, splenic disorders; H: Hepatitis; S: Splenitis; LD: Liver disease; LW: Liver weakness; IL: Inflammatory conditions of the liver; GL: Good for liver; GS: Good for spleen, good drugs for the spleen; D: Dropsy (Ascites); TL: tones up the liver; CL: Strengthens 'cold' liver, 'coldness' (atony) of the liver, suitable for the 'coldness' of the liver; LH: Liver hardness; OL: Removes the obstructions of liver, removes hepatic obstructions, de obstruent for the liver; OS: Obstructions of spleen, de obstruent for the spleen; J: Jaundice; GD: General Dropsy (anasarca); PB: Purged out bile, purges out the 'burnt' bile; US: useful for spleen, useful in splenic ailments; PL: Pain of the liver, hepatalgia, painful conditions of liver; BH: Remove bilious humours, expels bilious humours; I: Itch, urticarial, prurigo, scabies; PBB: Purge out black bile; SS: sclerosis of spleen; BJ: Useful in black jaundice, melanotic jaundice; SA: Splenalgia, splenic pain; CLL: Cleanses the liver, cleanses (the foul humours of) the liver; PH: Produces heat in liver, warming drug for liver; VB: vomiting of bile, stops biliary vomiting, bilious vomiting; EL: Expels bile through loose motion; SI: Spleen inflammation; DB: Diluent black bile; UB: useful for bile ailments; EBB: Evacuates the black bile; EVY: Evacuates the yellow bile, evacuates the burnt bile; SSW: splenic swelling; DI: Dissolves inflammation of the spleen; BI: Biliary ileus; CS: Cold spleenalgia; EXB: Expels yellow bile; EB: Expels the black bile; MJ: Melanotic jaundice; BC: Bile clean up; BO: Bile opener; BL: Bile laxative; RBB: Remove black bile; SL: Sclerosis of liver; STS: strengthens the spleen; RB: Removes yellow bile; SU: stirs up yellow bile; CLS: Cleanses the spleen; BD: Useful in bile diarrhea, bilious diarrhea, stop bilious diarrhea.
Table 2.
Properties of herbs that were found effective against spleen disease, mentioned in the 2nd volume of Canon
No. | Persian name | Common name | Arabic name | Scientific Name | Family | Used Parts/ Mode of consumption or preparation | Conditions which the herb has effect on | Score |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
1 | Karafs koohi | Rock-parsley, southern wood | Būyānas | Petroselinum sativum Hoffm, nom. nud. | Apiaceae | SS | 1 | |
2 | Čātlānquš, saqqez, bane | Terebinth | Ḥabba al-khaḍrā,' botm | Pistacia terebinthus L. | Anacardiaceae | Resin, gum | SD, I | 2 |
3 | Ašaqe' | Labdanum | Qissūs, gheysus | Hedera helix L. | Araliaceae | Fresh / plastering | US | 1 |
4 | Kabar | Caper, caprifole | Kabar | Capparis spinosa L. | Capparidaceae | Root-bark / orally or plaster | HS, EM | 2 |
5 | Hezār gušān, fāserā, tāk e sefid | White bryoni | Fāshrā, karma baiḍā,' hazārjashān | Bryonia alba L. | Cucurbitaceae | GS | 1 | |
6 | Nil | True indigo | Nil | Indigofera linifolia (L.f.) Retz. | Fabaceae | Wild variety | S | 1 |
7 | Bi'al | Alfalfa | Abi'al | Medicago sativa L. | Fabaceae | US | 1 | |
8 | Šamba(e)lile | Fenugreek | Ḥulbah, | Trigonella foenum-graecum L. | Fabaceae | / painted | US | 1 |
9 | Ezār če(a)šm | Hypericon | Hiōfāriqūn, 'arn, 'inab al-hayyah | Hypericum perforatum | Hypericaceae | Fruits | PBB | 1 |
10 | Tarfondos, tarfooless | Teukrion | Ṭūqriūs ṭarqoyūs, ṭarfūlis | Teucrium flanum L. | Lamiaceae | Pieces / decoction, plastered | SSW, HS | 2 |
11 | Gole arbe | Cat thyme, hulwort, mountain germander | Jo ͨdah | Teucrium polium L. | Lamiaceae | / painted, used with vinegar, decoction of large variety | S, HS, BJ, D | 4 |
12 | Nilōfar, kalam e ābi' | Water lily, sea-kale | Nilōfar, hab[b] ol arus' | Nymphaea lotus L. | Nymphaeaceae | Root / orally or plaster, | S | 1 |
13 | Felfel | Pepper | Filfil | Piper sp. | Piperaceae | / orally or painted | SI | 1 |
14 | Šaytarak | Lepidium | Shitaraj | Plumbago zeylanica L. | Plumbaginaceae | / paint | SHS | 2 |
15 | Gazmāzu, gazmāzak | Tamarisk nut | Jauz al-ṭarfā, kazmārak, asl,' ṭarfā | Tamarix gallica L. | Tamaricaceae | Branches, leaves / decoction, plastered | SD, HS, | 2 |
16 | Dāruš | Mistletoe | Dibq | Viscum album L. | Viscaceae | / poultice | I, SSW | 2 |
Abbreviations: SS: sclerosis of spleen; SD: Splenic disease, splenic disorders; I: Itch, urticarial, prurigo, scabies; US: useful for spleen, useful in splenic ailments; PBB: Purge out black bile, HS: Hardness of the spleen, splenic hardness; EM: Evacuates the thick melanotic matters of the spleen; GS: Good for spleen, good drugs for the spleen; S: Splenitis; SSW: splenic swelling; BJ: Useful in black jaundice, melanotic jaundice; D: Dropsy (Ascites); SI: Spleen inflammation; SHS: shrinks the (enlarged) spleen, emaciates the spleen, splenic enlargement, reduces the size of spleen.
The most common effective plants prescribed for liver or spleen diseases or both, are shown in Figure 2. Figure 3 shows the plant families (i.e. Lamiaceae, Fabaceae, Apiaceae, Rosaceae, Asteraceae, Solanaceae, and Brassicaceae) with the largest contribution to development of treatments against liver and spleen diseases.
Figure 2.
. Effective herbs against liver and spleen diseases mentioned in Avicenna’s book. Scores are according to the number of effects that every herb has been prescribed by Avicenna
Figure 3.
Histogram of families with the highest number of effective herbs
Animals
The majority of the 17 agents of animal’s origin including animal, organs or animal physiological fluids used as medication. In certain cases, especially for insects, the whole body was used, and in other cases, the animal’s urine or even the milk was used. The animals and their applications are presented in Table 4.
Table 4.
Animals and their parts used as a source of medication
No. | Persian name | Common name | Arabic name | Scientific Name | Family | Used Parts/ Mode of consumption or preparation | Diseases Which the agent has Effect on | Score |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
1 | Badal e marjān | Coral | Bussad | Corallium rubrum | Coralliidae | / mixed with water | SSW | 1 |
2 | 'Edrār | Urine | Baul | Peri ouron | Drink / Human, camel Human |
I D, HS J, SD |
5 | |
3 | Malax | Locust | Jarād | Locusta migratoria | Acridida | D | 1 | |
4 | Kerm | Worm | Dūd, dūd al-ṣabbāghin | / the red multi legged worms with wine | J | 1 | ||
5 | Kaf e daryā | Sea foam, casting of king fisher | Zabad al-baḥr | Alcyonium | Alcyoniidae | Rosy kind | SD, D | 2 |
6 | Jegar | Liver | Kabid | Hepar | Wolf liver | PL | 1 | |
7 | Šayyer | Milk | Laban | Gala | Jennet Goat Camel Cow |
Milk Cheese water, Doogh, Boiled sour milk |
I, J J D, HS HS, HS, SD, LD, SSW, IL, GL, D EXB BD |
11 |
8 | Gušt | Meat | Laḥm | Sand grouse Hedgehog Cow |
D, OL, OS, LW D PF, BD |
6 | ||
9 | 'Madfu | Faeces, excreta, stool | zibl | Dung | Goat, mountain goats Goat Human |
Oral intake / plaster or paint, taken with some aromatics | J, HS D J |
3 |
10 | 'Osto(e)xān | Bones | ͨiẓām | Os | He-goat | Oral intake of ankle bone | SSW | 1 |
11 | Sadaf | Pearl, oyster shell | Farofas Oyster |
/ poultice | SD, D D |
|||
12 | Šāx e jānevarān | Horn | Qarn | Cornu | Stag | / washed and burnt | D, J | 2 |
13 | Sang xārak | Sand grouse | Qaṭā | D, Pbb | 2 | |||
14 | Xārpošt e biyābāni | Porcupine | Qunfudh barri | Hystrix cristata | Flesh/ salted Liver / sun dried |
D | 1 | |
15 | Kabk | Red headed partridge | Qabaj, ghag | Meat | D | 1 | ||
16 | Kerm e sorx | Earth worm | Kharātin | Lumbricus | Lumbricidae | / orally | J | 1 |
17 | Āl[l]ākolang' | Spanish fly | Dharāriḥ | Cantharidus vesicatoria | Trochidae | D | 1 |
Abbreviations: SSW: splenic swelling; I: Itch, urticarial, prurigo, scabies; D: Dropsy (Ascites); HS: Hardness of the spleen, splenic hardness; J: Jaundice; SD: Splenic disease, splenic disorders; PL: Pain of the liver, hepatalgia, painful conditions of liver; LD: Liver disease; IL: Inflammatory conditions of the liver; GL: Good for liver; EXB: Expels yellow bile; BD: Useful in bile diarrhea, bilious diarrhea, stop bilious diarrhea; OL: Removes the obstructions of liver, removes hepatic obstructions, de obstruent for the liver; OS: Obstructions of spleen, de obstruent for the spleen; LW: Liver weakness; PF: Prevents the flow of bile towards the viscera, prevents the infiltration of yellow bile towards the intestines; Pbb: Produces black bile.
The used animals can be divided into groups according to their availability, such as domesticated animals, such as jennet, goat, camel, cow, and others such as locust and worms. Wild animals, for example, wolf, sand grouse, red-headed partridge, hedgehog, porcupine, antelope, and stag. Various organs, and products of exotic animals, species such as Spanish fly, coral, oyster have been used in order to cure liver and spleen diseases
Minerals
We were able to identify 8 materials of mineral origin (Table 5). The use of such agents in medicine has been well-known throughout history.
Table 5.
Minerals noted in Canon by Avicenna
No. | Persian name | Common name | Arabic name | Scientific Name | Used Parts/ Mode of consumption or preparation | Diseases Which the agent has Effect on | Score |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
1 | Mum[i]yā | Asphat, mineral pitch, jews pitch | Mūmiāi | Asphaltum | Snuff, oral use | LI, SA | 2 |
2 | Namak e čini, gel e Āsious | Asyūs | Asian stone | / Painting | US | 1 | |
3 | Burak | Borax | Būraq | Natron | / Plaster | D, I | 2 |
4 | Āhan' | Iron | Ḥadid | Ferrum | Extinguished hot iron in wine and water | S | 1 |
5 | Gel e ma'muli | Common earth | Ṭin muṭlaq | from a sunny land / Painted | D, S, GD | 3 | |
6 | Gel e maqarra | Red ochre | Maghra | Bolus armenus rubra | PL | 1 | |
7 | Āb' | Water | Mā' | Aqua | Iron rich water, Copper containing water Sea-water Sea- water / vapours hot spring water, Sulphuric water |
US I D IL, PL, SI, SA |
7 |
8 | Namak | Salt | Milḥ | Sodium chloride | / Paint Nifṭi salt, |
I BB |
2 |
Abbreviations: LI: Liver injuries caused by fall, damaged liver; SA: Splenalgia, splenic pain; US: useful for spleen, useful in splenic ailments; D: Dropsy (Ascites); I: Itch, urticarial, prurigo, scabies; S: Splenitis; GD: General Dropsy (anasarca); PL: Pain of the liver, hepatalgia, painful conditions of liver; IL: Inflammatory conditions of the liver; SI: Spleen inflammation; BB: Bile break.
Agents of other origins
Five medicinal agents that were processed from animal or plant materials or agents of mixed or unknown origin are presented in Table 6.
Discussion
The overwhelming majority (84.45%) of agents that served as simple drugs were derived only from plants (see Table 7). The proportion of materials derived from animals and animal organs is small (8.80%), and minerals represent an even smaller proportion (4.14%).
Table 7.
Effective Medicinal agent for liver and spleen diseases grouped based on their origin
Origin | Number | Percentage |
---|---|---|
Plants | 163 | 84.455 |
Animals | 17 | 8.81 |
Minerals | 8 | 4.145 |
Processed | 5 | 2.59 |
Sum | 193 | 100 |
Based on our survey of Canon, 163 herbal parts which exert therapeutic effects on the liver and spleen, were found. In this book, some items refer to one herb Ṭarfūlis and Ṭūqriūs both refer to Teukrion or some items are parts of one herb and have different names e.g. Ḥiltit is gum and Maḥrūth is the root of Anjudhān so the last two have same scientific name of Asafoetida in the Tables.
In old manuscripts, there are different descriptions for identical herb so different scientific names have been proposed for the same herb. Prof. Ghahraman and Prof. Okhovvat have introduced appropriate scientific names for old names; in the present study, we used scientific names according to their suggestions (Ghahreman and Okhovvat, 2004 ▶).
From antiquity until now herbalist and medicinal experts had a quest to find the most effective herb that has the richest source of medicinal material, in order to use it in liver tonics and other formulas. Our research revealed that the effective herbs are not limited to one family but the most frequently used herbs belong to several families that are given in Figure 3. Some families like Laminacea have higher numbers of herbs that are frequently used as effective therapeutics for spleen and liver diseases. We propose to study the herbs of this family and other families noted in Figure 2 in order to find the most effective herb for treatment of liver and spleen diseases.
According to the number of effects that every herb has, as prescribed by Avicenna as effective on liver or spleen diseases or both, the herbs were scored (Figure 2). Ghāfith (Eupatorium cannabinum) was named "The eupatorion of Avicenna" (Tobyn et al., 2016 ▶) in old times, is one of the highly scored herbs. The present studies demonstrated choleretic and hepatoprotective effects of hemp agrimony (Lexa et al., 1989 ▶) although it contains pyrrolizidine alkaloids (Edgar et al., 1992 ▶;Hendriks et al., 1987 ▶) which have hepatotoxic and potentially carcinogenic and genotoxic effects and essential oils of E. cannabinum is notably toxic (Judzentiene et al., 2016 ▶). On the other hand, the effects of a plant such as Irsā (Iris ensata) which has the highest score (Figure 1), on the liver or spleen, have not yet been reported and its medicinal use had been uncertain or unknown according to lack of articles is considered a good candidate for future investigations. Fūdhanj (Mentha piperita) which also gained a high score was used successfully by Avicenna as a drug, for treatment of liver and spleen diseases. It was shown that M. piperita causes lipid peroxidation and hepatic damage in a dose-dependent manner (Akdogan et al., 2004 ▶). It has hepatotoxic potential (Douros et al., 2016 ▶) and moderately severe adverse effects (Posadzki et al., 2013 ▶), further studies in this field are needed. Meanwhile, M. piperita has radioprotective properties against gamma irradiation which is probably mediated via its antioxidant and free radical scavenging activities of leaf extract (Samarth et al., 2006 ▶); also, this plant may be useful for reducing the side effects of arsenic-induced hepatopathy (Sharma et al., 2007 ▶). Afsantin (Artimisia absinthium) is another high-score herb which exhibits hepatoprotective action partly through microsomal drug metabolizing enzymes (MDME) inhibitory action (Gilani and Janbaz, 1995 ▶), has significant antioxidant activity and protects the liver and kidney (Kharoubi et al., 2008 ▶) probably through its immunomodulatory activity (Amat et al., 2010 ▶). Also, this plant was considered for reducing hepatic damage and it may serve as an alternative medicine in hepatic conditions (Saxena and Shukla, 2012 ▶).
These results show a need for a close scrutiny in methods of planting, harvesting, processing, extraction and preparing a single or combination formula that affects remedies and practice of ancient medicine. In order to prepare a suitable herbal drug for the treatment of complicated diseases such as liver cirrhosis and hepatocellular carcinoma, according to Avicenna book, further studies are needed to make an effective drug for liver or spleen diseases is promising.
Through analysis of 806 therapeutic items of Avicenna 2nd volume of Canon, we prepared a list of agents that are effective in three main areas namely, liver, spleen, and liver & spleen diseases. The current study indicates the necessity of deep analysis, study and further assessment of listed items.
Acknowledgment
We appreciate Dr. Hossein Hatami for his efforts in establishing such useful database of Avicenna and other Iranian traditional medicine (ITM) scientist's books in Bu-Ali Sina scientific & cultural foundation site.
Conflicts of interest
The authors declare that there is no conflict of interest associated with this work.
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