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. 2019 Apr 9;24(7):1394. doi: 10.3390/molecules24071394

Correlation between Chemical Composition and Antifungal Activity of Clausena lansium Essential Oil against Candida spp.

Xiaowen He 1,2,†, Lantong Zhang 2,†, Jinping Chen 1, Jinlei Sui 1, Guohui Yi 1, Jinyan Wu 1, Yinzheng Ma 3,*
Editors: Francesca Mancianti, Derek McPhee
PMCID: PMC6479355  PMID: 30970599

Abstract

Essential oils (EOs) have been shown to have a diversity of beneficial human health effects. Clausena is a large and highly diverse genus of plants with medicinal and cosmetic significance. The aim of this study was to analyze the composition of Clausena lansium EOs and to investigate their potential antifungal effects. The chemical compositions of Clausena lansium EOs obtained by hydrodistillation were analyzed by gas chromatography-mass spectrometry (GC-MS). A total of 101 compounds were identified among the diverse extracts of C. lansium. EOs of leaves and pericarps from different cultivars (Hainan local wampee and chicken heart wampee) collected in Hainan (China) were classified into four clusters based on their compositions. These clusters showed different antifungal activities against five Candida species (C. albicans, C. tropicalis, C. glabrata, C. krusei and C. parapsilosis) using the disc diffusion method. Clausena lansium EOs of pericarps displayed noteworthy antifungal activitives against all the tested Candida strains with inhibition zone diameters in the range of 11.1–23.1 mm. EOs of leaves showed relatively low antifungal activities with inhibition zone diameters in the range of 6.5–22.2 mm. The rank order of antifungal activities among the four EO clusters was as follows: Cluster IV> Cluster III > Cluster I ≥ Cluster II. These results represent the first report about the correlation between chemical composition of C. lansium EOs and antifungal activity. Higher contents of β-phellandrene, β-sesquiphellandrene and β-bisabolene in EOs of pericarps were likely responsible for the high antifungal activity of Cluster IV EOs. Taken together, our results demonstrate the chemical diversity of Clausena lansium EOs and their potential as novel antifungal agents for candidiasis caused by Candida spp. Furthermore, the obtained results showing a wide spectrum of antifungal activities provide scientific evidence for the traditional use of these plants.

Keywords: correlation, Clausena lansium, essential oil, antifungal activity, Candida spp.

1. Introduction

Natural plant products, especially essential oils (EOs), have many beneficial biological effects, such as antibacterial, anti-inflammatory, antitumor and analgesic activities. EOs are volatile aromatic substances found in many plants. The EOs may exist in fruits, seeds, flowers and leaves. They have already significant attention because of their abundance, broad spectrum activities, and diverse mechanisms of action. They are among the most popular natural antimicrobial agents and they have recently gained a great popularity and scientific interest [1,2,3,4].

Clausena lansium (Lour.) Skeels, commonly known as wampee, is a tropical species that belongs to the family Rutaceae. It is reported as a native of Southern China, mainly distributed in Hainan, Fujian, Guangxi, Guangdong, Taiwan, etc. [5]. Clausena lansium has attracted great attention owing to its extensive pharmacological benefits, including anticancer, antioxidant, antidiabetic, antinociceptive, hepatoprotective, acerebroprotective and anti-trichomonal effects [6,7,8,9]. EOs of C. lansium play an important role in the abovementioned benefits [5]. In traditional Chinese medicine, the leaf and pericarp of C. lansium are often used to treat different diseases [10]. For example, the leaves of C. lansium have been used for treating fever, cough, asthma, malaria, dermatological and rheumatism, etc. When fruit turns from pale green to pale yellow or brownish-yellow around July, it can be eaten along with pericarp. Mature fruits have been used for treating digestive disorders, gastro-intestinal diseases and bronchitis. A likely mechanism is that EOs from C. lansium fruits can help release gastrointestinal gas, eliminates stagnation, dissipates heat and relieves pain.

Hainan Province, a tropical region of China, is one of the main geographic regions for growing Clausena lansium. Clausena lansium with globose fruits is named Hainan local wampee (HLW): the berry fruit is approximately 1.5–2.5 cm in diameter. Clausena lansium with broadly ovoid fruits is named chicken heart wampee (CHW), with berries approximately 1.5–2.5 × 2.5–3.5 cm in diameter [11]. The compositions and contents of C. lansium EOs from China, Thailand, and Cuba have been studied by hydrodistillation followed by gas chromatography-mass spectrometry (GC-MS) [12,13,14]. However, limited effort has been made to analyze and compare the differences of EOs of HLW and CHW. In addition, due to the increasing number of fungal diseases caused by Candida species and insufficient effectiveness of traditionally applied azole agents, new therapeutic strategies are necessary and natural products especially EOs can play an important role in the treatment of infections [15,16]. Therefore, the search of new and effective natural antifungal agents has dramatically increased [17]. The aim of the current study was to comparatively analyze the chemical compositions of leaves and pericarps EOs of Clausena lansium of HLW and CHW and to investigate the in vitro antifungal activities against Candida species, including C. albicans, C. glabrata, C. krusei, C. parapsilosis and C. tropicalis. The results of this study can provide experimental basis for further exploitation of C. lansium.

2. Results and Discussion

2.1. Extraction Results and Chemical Composition of EOs

Clausena lansium EOs extracted by hydrodistillation were light yellow to yellow in color. The yields ranged from 0.23 to 0.51% (v/w). The source, cultivar, part, color and yield of EO details are listed in Table 1. There were differences in the color and yield of the eight EOs, which may be related to the geographic source, cultivar, and part of plants, but it is uncertain which is the most important of these factors. It is possible to come to a conclusion from the specific differences of the components. To compare the compositional differences, each EO extract was injected into GC-MS for analysis. Figure 1 shows GC-MS chromatograms of C. lansium EOs. The chemical compositions and contents results are shown in Table 2.

Table 1.

Sources of Clausena lansium samples and extraction results of EOs.

No. Source Cultivar Part Color Yield a (%, v/w)
MCL Meixiao Village, Haikou City CHW Leaf yellow 0.23 ± 0.08
MCP Meixiao Village, Haikou City CHW Pericarp light yellow 0.48 ± 0.10
RCL Rulin Village, Haikou City CHW Leaf yellow 0.37 ± 0.04
RCP Rulin Village, Haikou City CHW Pericarp light yellow 0.37 ± 0.09
MHL Meixiao Village, Haikou City HLW Leaf yellow 0.47 ± 0.08
MHP Meixiao Village, Haikou City HLW Pericarp light yellow 0.50 ± 0.07
RHL Rulin Village, Haikou City HLW Leaf yellow 0.51 ± 0.04
RHP Rulin Village, Haikou City HLW Pericarp light yellow 0.47 ± 0.05
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a Values represent the means of three independent replicates ±SD.

Figure 1.

Figure 1

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GC-MS chromatograms of Clausena lansium EOs.

Table 2.

Chemical components and contents (%) of Clausena lansium EOs.

No. Components Molecular Formula RI a MCL MCP RCL RCP MHL MHP RHL RHP
1 α-thujene C10H16 0.01 - - 0.02 - - - -
2 α-pinene C10H16 0.01 1.11 - 5.63 2.03 - 0.76
3 benzaldehyde C7H6O - - - - - - 0.07 -
4 sabinene C10H16 0.67 - 0.15 0.21 0.73 0.71 0.12 0.13
5 β-pinene C10H16 - - - 0.07 - - - -
6 6-methyl-5-hepten-2-one C8H14O 0.02 0.11 0.02 0.04 0.12 0.34 0.07 -
7 myrcene C10H16 0.06 0.26 - 1.83 0.04 0.98 - -
8 pseudolimonene C10H16 - 0.13 - 0.69 - 0.31 - 0.10
9 α-phellandrene C10H16 0.06 0.68 0.01 4.77 0.04 2.05 - 0.75
10 α-terpinene C10H16 0.04 0.06 - 0.39 0.02 0.42 - 0.04
11 p-cymene C10H14 0.06 0.85 0.01 2.29 0.05 1.75 - 0.60
12 limonene C10H16 0.41 - 0.08 - 0.38 - 0.04 -
13 β-phellandrene C10H16 0.95 32.43 0.24 45.15 1.08 26.13 0.14 23.15
14 benzeneacetaldehyde C8H8O 0.01 - 0.01 0.03 - 0.68 - -
15 γ-terpinene C10H16 808 0.12 0.06 0.01 0.20 0.06 - - 0.08
16 terpinolene C10H16 869 0.03 - - 0.13 0.01 0.19 - 0.03
17 linalool C10H18O 897 0.05 0.09 0.03 0.10 0.03 0.05 0.01 0.06
18 cis-4-thujanol C10H18O 925 - 0.12 - 0.25 - 0.17 - -
19 4-terpineol C10H18O 981 0.68 0.63 0.31 0.67 0.37 2.41 0.20 -
20 melilotal C9H10O 985 0.04 0.09 0.06 0.07 0.01 - - 0.33
21 cryptone C9H14O 988 - 0.65 - 1.61 - 0.70 - -
22 α-terpineol C10H18O 996 0.02 0.13 0.01 0.25 - 0.18 - 0.18
23 (−)-trans-pinocarveol C10H16O 1003 - 0.11 0.01 0.20 - 0.11 - -
24 geraniol C10H18O 1048 - - - 0.26 - - - -
25 phellandral C10H16O 1078 - 0.38 - 0.25 - 0.73 - 0.06
26 bornyl acetate C12H20O2 1083 - 0.15 - 0.18 - 0.12 - -
27 myrtenyl acetate C12H18O2 1126 - 0.21 - 0.18 - - - 0.03
28 α-cubebene C15H24 1145 - 0.27 - 0.16 - 0.26 0.01 0.88
29 geranyl ethanoate C12H20O2 1173 - - - 0.07 - 0.07 - 0.09
30 α-copaene C15H24 1177 0.06 0.39 0.02 0.27 - 0.47 0.04 0.62
31 trans-β-bergamotene C15H24 1186 0.03 - 0.04 - 0.22 - 0.08 0.37
32 β-elemene C15H24 1189 0.09 - 0.06 0.07 0.03 - 0.08 0.40
33 zingiberene C15H24 1202 0.10 0.25 0.13 0.15 0.03 - 0.04 -
34 α-cedrene C15H24 1206 0.10 - 0.12 - - - - 0.05
35 (−)-trans-α-bergamotene C15H24 1212 - - - 0.03 0.01 - 0.03 -
36 elixene C15H24 1218 - - - - 1.66 3.92 2.50 -
37 β-caryophyllene C15H24 1220 21.13 4.99 23.48 3.36 12.72 2.98 5.46 2.80
38 (+)-α-funebrene C15H24 1230 0.13 - 0.13 0.03 0.33 0.70 0.46 0.26
39 7,11-dimethyl-3-methylene-1,6,10-dodecatriene C15H24 1237 0.09 - 0.08 - 1.15 0.59 0.67 -
40 nerylacetone C13H22O 1243 0.05 - 0.01 0.25 0.02 0.19 0.01 0.16
41 β-santalene C15H24 1244 - - - - 0.14 - 0.11 -
42 (E)-β-farnesene C15H24 1249 1.12 1.86 1.15 1.00 1.37 3.60 2.62 4.04
43 α-humulene C15H24 1253 3.75 - 3.74 - 1.64 0.79 0.78 0.74
44 α-himachalene C15H24 1256 - 1.26 - 0.75 0.08 0.26 0.19 0.60
45 (−)-β-cadinene C15H24 1270 - - - - - 0.08 - -
46 γ-muurolene C15H24 1275 0.13 0.57 0.11 0.37 - 0.34 0.01 0.32
47 β-himachalene C15H24 1278 - 0.16 - 0.10 1.27 0.42 0.60 1.12
48 curcumene C15H24 1280 0.28 2.08 0.37 1.79 0.73 2.21 0.57 3.14
49 (Z)-β-farnesene C15H24 1281 0.13 - 0.13 - 0.11 - 0.02 -
50 β-selinene C15H24 1287 0.13 0.19 0.07 0.11 0.06 0.13 0.26 0.21
51 γ-cadinene C15H24 1293 2.25 0.72 1.84 0.27 0.57 0.14 - 0.76
52 γ-elemene C15H24 1294 - 0.29 - 0.14 - 0.14 0.57 0.67
53 α-muurolene C15H24 1297 0.02 - - - 0.02 - - 0.84
54 α-farnesene C15H24 1303 0.54 1.44 0.48 1.07 1.25 4.92 5.60 5.41
55 β-bisabolene C15H24 1306 2.99 5.61 3.46 3.88 5.30 7.74 9.08 10.21
56 (+)-α-longipinene C15H24 1308 - - - - 3.75 1.62 5.27 -
57 α-amorphene C15H24 1312 - 0.41 0.01 0.28 0.04 0.28 0.01 0.85
58 δ-cadinene C15H24 1315 0.04 2.21 0.03 1.33 0.05 1.87 0.23 4.26
59 β-sesquiphellandrene C15H24 1324 18.52 10.89 21.80 7.35 3.11 0.72 1.05 2.59
60 α-bergamotene C15H24 1325 9.49 7.09 10.63 5.41 1.88 0.23 0.83 1.02
61 cubinene C15H24 1330 - - - 0.03 - - - 0.39
62 α-bisabolene C15H24 1336 0.16 0.31 0.17 0.14 0.13 - 0.09 0.27
63 acoradien C15H24 1340 - - - 0.02 1.55 0.09 0.58 0.68
64 alloaromadendrene oxide-(1) C15H24O 1351 0.22 - 0.16 - 0.14 0.08 0.04 -
65 trans-nerolidol C15H26O 1357 0.17 - 0.07 - 2.39 1.08 2.33 0.05
66 dendrolasin C15H22O 1368 - - - - - 0.67 1.05 0.64
67 spathulenol C15H24O 1372 1.33 0.10 1.96 0.17 2.34 2.65 6.38 3.61
68 caryophyllene oxide C15H24O 1377 3.64 - 4.50 - 7.82 0.85 3.18 0.43
69 Aromadendrene oxide-(1) C15H24O 1380 - - - 0.42 0.11 0.21 0.06 0.09
70 humuleneepoxide II C15H24O 1405 0.30 0.12 0.34 - 0.33 0.09 0.20 0.10
71 (−)-spathulenol C15H24O 1413 - 0.32 - - - 0.15 0.08 0.03
72 cis-Z-α-bisabolene epoxide C15H24O 1416 0.25 0.47 0.38 0.08 0.38 0.16 0.05 0.20
73 α-eudesmol C15H26O 1422 0.08 0.31 0.10 0.31 0.02 0.25 - 0.70
74 cubenol C15H26O 1428 0.45 0.47 0.37 - 0.22 0.28 0.46 0.08
75 (E)-nuciferol C15H22O 1435 0.21 0.57 0.29 0.36 0.36 0.32 0.06 0.47
76 (+)-γ-gurjunene C15H24 1442 - 0.15 - - 0.02 0.18 0.05 0.95
77 α-cadinol C15H26O 1450 0.05 0.51 0.04 0.06 0.05 0.29 0.10 0.64
78 aromadendrene oxide-(2) C15H24O 1459 0.36 0.16 0.33 - - 0.14 0.11 0.04
79 β-bisabolene C15H24 1470 - 0.51 - - 3.62 2.22 2.45 1.19
80 cis-α-santalol C15H24O 1477 0.08 0.30 0.03 - 14.72 7.67 21.31 6.59
81 α-bisabolol C15H26O 1486 2.67 0.75 2.68 0.42 1.28 1.09 4.19 1.60
82 α-santalol C15H24O 1493 0.06 0.16 0.04 - 0.60 1.07 0.93 2.01
83 (Z,E)-α-farnesene C15H24 1542 0.07 0.67 0.04 - - 0.64 0.53 0.11
84 tricyclopentadeca-3,7-dien [8.4.0.1(11,14)] C15H22O 1557 0.13 0.47 0.11 - - - 0.02 0.10
85 ledol C15H26O 1562 0.56 0.67 0.46 - 0.05 0.16 0.02 -
86 β-santalol C15H24O 1569 - - - - 0.12 0.14 0.07 -
87 α-sinensal C15H22O 1573 5.83 - 5.88 - 0.29 - 0.10 -
88 1,3,6,10-farnesatetraen-12-al C15H22O 1582 1.20 - 1.04 - 0.04 0.13 0.01 -
89 santalol C15H24O 1641 - 2.45 - 1.11 17.31 2.92 12.24 4.40
90 trans-Z-α-bisabolene epoxide C15H24O 1644 - 5.78 - 1.29 2.70 0.34 1.68 1.50
91 phytone C18H36O 1650 - - 0.02 - 0.02 - - -
92 trans-β-santalol C15H24O 1670 0.03 - 0.01 - - - 0.14 -
93 cedr-8-en-13-ol C15H24O 1669 0.91 0.54 0.66 - 0.05 - 0.04 0.12
94 lanceol C15H24O 1676 0.39 0.46 0.20 0.06 0.07 - 0.03 0.68
95 linolenyl alcohol C18H32O 1690 0.51 0.10 0.26 - 0.06 - - -
96 farnesyl acetone C18H30O 1706 0.57 0.69 0.31 - - - 0.07 -
97 methyl palmitate C17H34O2 1725 7.07 0.93 5.36 - 0.18 - - -
98 isophytol C20H40O 1745 5.20 - 3.55 - - - - -
99 n-hexadecanoic acid C16H32O2 1763 0.73 - 0.39 - 0.07 - 0.08 -
100 methyl elaidate C19H36O2 1770 0.04 - - - - - - -
101 phytol C20H40O 1847 1.19 - 0.60 - 0.58 - 0.31 -
Total peak number 83 76 80 72 84 81 88 78
Total identified peak number 69 63 65 63 70 71 69 66
Total identified peak area percentage 98.87 96.90 99.19 98.18 98.10 98.60 96.87 96.39
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a RI: calculated Retention Index -: Not detected.

According to the GC-MS analysis, components and contents were different in leaves and pericarps of HLW and CHW. A total of 69, 63, 65, 63, 70, 71, 69 and 66 compounds were identified in MCL, MCP, RCL, RCP, MHL, MHP, RHL and RHP, amounting to 98.87%, 96.90%, 99.19%, 98.18%, 98.10%, 98.60%, 96.87% and 96.39% of the total components, respectively. These components were monoterpenes, sesquiterpenes, alcohols, esters, etc. Some samples such as MCL and RCL were dominated by sesquiterpenes, with β-caryophyllene and β-sesquiphellandrene as the main components. MHL and RHL were rich in sesquiterpenes with cis-α-santalol and santalol being the most abundant species. There were a large number of monoterpenes in some samples, such as MCP, RCP, MHP and RHP. In all the combined samples, we detected 101 chemicals in the EO extracts. However, the distributions of the 101 chemicals differed widely among the extracts. To investigate the similarity and differences among these extracts in EO profiles, a cluster analysis was conducted using SPSS (version 17.0). The clustering result is shown in the Figure 2.

Figure 2.

Figure 2

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Dendrograms based on the chemical components and contents of Clausena lansium. Num: number.

Samples were clustered into two clusters for the first time, leaves and pericarps. This result indicates that most of the differences were caused by plant parts. The next contributor was plant cultivar, followed by geographic location of where the plants were grown. The difference between Meixiao Village and Rulin Village was the smallest, which is probably because the two places are geographically close (both in Haikou city). Table 3 shows the variation of some important volatile components (%) of C. lansium in four clusters.

Table 3.

Variation of some important volatile components (%) of Clausena lansium in four clusters.

Components Cluster I Cluster II Cluster III Cluster IV
MCL RCL MHL RHL MHP RHP MCP RCP
β-caryophyllene 21.13 23.48 12.72 5.46 2.98 2.80 4.99 3.36
β-sesquiphellandrene 18.52 21.80 3.11 1.05 0.72 2.59 10.89 7.35
cis-α-santalol 0.08 0.03 14.72 21.31 7.67 6.59 0.30 0.00
β-santalol 0.00 0.00 17.31 12.24 2.92 4.40 2.45 1.11
β-phellandrene 0.95 0.24 1.08 0.14 26.13 23.15 32.43 45.15
β-bisabolene 2.99 3.46 5.30 9.08 7.74 10.21 5.61 3.88
α-bergamotene 9.49 10.63 1.88 0.83 0.23 1.02 7.09 5.41
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The domonant EOs in each of the four clusters are listed below:

Cluster I: β-caryophyllene and β-sesquiphellandrene. MCL and RCL belonged to this cluster. These samples were leaves of CHW. The components were rich in β-caryophyllene (21.13%, 23.48%), β-sesquiphellandrene (18.52%, 21.80%), and accompanied by α-bergamotene (9.49%, 10.63%).

Cluster II: cis-α-santalol and β-santalol. There were MHL and RHL in this cluster. These samples were leaves of HLW. cis-α-Santalol (14.72%, 21.31%), β-santalol (17.31%, 12.24%) and caryophyllene (12.72%, 5.46%) were the most predominant components.

Cluster III: β-phellandrene and β-bisabolene. MHP and RHP were classified into this cluster. They were pericarps of HLW. They contained more β-phellandrene, a relative percentage of 26.13% and 23.15%, respectively. Percentages of β-bisabolene and cis-α-santalol were also relatively large (6.59–10.21%).

Cluster IV: β-phellandrene and β-sesquiphellandrene. Pericarps of CHW such as MCP and RCP in this cluster. β-Phellandrene in this cluster had a percentage higher than 30%. The percentages of β-phellandrene were 32.43% and 45.15% in MCP and RCP, respectively. β-Sesquiphellandrene was also relative high, with percentages of 10.89% and 7.35%, respectively.

In previous studies, EOs of C. lansium from China [12], Thailand [13], and Cuba [14] were obtained by hydrodistillation and analyzed by GC-MS. Thirty-two components were identified in leaves samples from China. The main components identified in the EO of leaves were β-santalol (35.20%) and bisabolol (13.70%). In both fresh and dried fruit samples from Thailand, fifty-three components were identified, and the main components were sabinene (33.68–66.73%), α-pinene (9.57–13.35%) and 1-phellandrene (5.77–10.76%). For leaf samples from Cuba, seventy compounds were identified. The most prominent components were caryophyllene oxide (16.80%) and (Z)-α-santalol (11.70%). The components and percentages were different from different areas, and the differences were much greater in different parts of C. lansium. There were some common components in EOs of leaves in the present study and the above reports, such as cis-α-santalol, β-bisabolene, and caryophyllene oxide. In contrast, the components of pericarps in our study were very different from those of the fruit samples in previous studies. The reason may be that fruit contains not only pericarp, but also pulp and seed.

In addition to the hydrodistillation method, supercritical fluid extraction (SFE) was used in the extraction of C. lansium leaves from Guangdong, China [18]. Thirty-six components were identified and the main components were 4-terpineol (26.94%) and γ-terpinene (14.39%). Chokeprasert et al. [19] analyzed the volatile components of fresh leaves and pericarps in Thailand by headspce (HS) GC-MS. Thirty-nine components were identified in the leaves, and the major components were sabinene (15%) and β-bisabolene (9.88%); thirty components were identified in the pericarps, and the major components were sabinene (69.07%) and α-phellandrene (10.63%). The components and percentages obtained by SFE and HS were quite different from that by hydrodistillation.

In the present study, the differences of the compositions of Clausena lansium leaves and pericarps from different cultivars were analyzed and compared for the first time. Cluster analysis result showed that the differences in the components were most significantly contributed by plant parts, followed by cultivar, and with geographic origin contributing the least to the variation.

2.2. Antifungal Activity

The antifungal activity of C. lansium EOs was examined using the filter paper disc diffusion method. As shown in Table 4, the EOs inhibited the growth of all seven yeast strains tested in our study. The inhibition zone diameters were in the range of 6.5–23.1 mm. The EOs of Clausena lansium pericarps showed significant activity against all the Candida strains, whereas, EOs of leaves showed relatively poor activity. The RCP EO exhibited the greatest antifungal effect against C. glabrata, with an inhibition zone diameter of 23.1 mm. Notably, C. albicans 27, a yeast strain which is resistant to FLZ and AMB, can be inhibited by Clausena lansium EOs with an inhibition zone diameter of 11.3–15.3 mm. This observation suggests that Clausena lansium EOs is active towards certain FLZ and AMB resistant strains.

Table 4.

Antifungal activity of Clausena lansium EOs (x ± s).

Candida Strains Zone of Inhibition (mm) a
MCL RCL MHL RHL MHP RHP MCP RCP FLZ AMB
C. albicans ATCC 10231 8.0 ± 0.2 9.0 ± 0.2 8.0 ± 0.2 8.8 ± 0.3 12.8 ± 0.3 12.5 ± 0.2 13.5 ± 0.3 13.2 ± 0.3 33.2 ± 0.4 23.6 ± 0.1
C. tropicalis CMCC(F) c2f 7.6 ± 0.2 6.5 ± 0.2 7.5 ± 0.1 6.5 ± 0.1 15.0 ± 0.1 15.5 ± 0.3 12.2 ± 0.3 12.4 ± 0.2 35.8 ± 0.4 23.6 ± 0.3
C. krusei ATCC 6258 13.0 ± 0.1 13.0 ± 0.2 11.2 ± 0.3 12.0 ± 0.1 16.1 ± 0.3 16.3 ± 0.2 18.3 ± 0.2 19.3 ± 0.2 12.8 ± 0.3 20.5 ± 0.2
C. parapsilosis ATCC 22019 11.0 ± 0.2 10.0 ± 0.2 8.4 ± 0.2 7.9 ± 0.3 11.1 ± 0.2 11.4 ± 0.2 12.1 ± 0.2 12.0 ± 0.2 32.4 ± 0.4 23.7 ± 0.2
C. glabrata CMCC(F) c6e 22.0 ± 0.3 22.2 ± 0.2 20.0 ± 0.3 20.9 ± 0.2 22.1 ± 0.3 22.0 ± 0.2 22.8 ± 0.3 23.1 ± 0.3 20.2 ± 0.2 22.0 ± 0.2
C. albicans 53 8.2 ± 0.2 8.8 ± 0.2 8.1 ± 0.1 8.6 ± 0.3 12.9 ± 0.2 12.4 ± 0.1 14.5 ± 0.3 14.2 ± 0.2 32.2 ± 0.3 23.8 ± 0.2
C. albicans 27 13.0 ± 0.2 12.4 ± 0.2 11.5 ± 0.2 11.3 ± 0.2 14.2 ± 0.3 15.3 ± 0.2 14.0 ± 0.2 13.3 ± 0.1 11.0 ± 0.2 8.2 ± 0.2
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a Values represent the means of three independent replicates ±SD; EOs concentration 10 μL/disc; b FLZ: Fluconazole, 25 μg/dis; c AMB: Amphotericin B, 10 μg/dis.

It can be seen from Table 4, the antifungal activitives efficacy order was as follows: Cluster IV ≥ Cluster III > Cluster I ≥ Cluster II. The two most active EOs against C. albicans, C. glabrata, C. krusei and C. parapsilosis, which were pericarps of CHW (Cluster IV) and were all rich in β-phellandrene (32.43%, 45.15%) and β-sesquiphellandrene (10.89%, 7.35%). Inhibition zone diameters were in the range of 12.0–23.1 mm. EOs of pericarps of HLW (Cluster III) were the most active against C. tropicalis and C. albicans 27 (a clinical strains resistant to FLZ and AMB), with the most predominant components being β-phellandrene (26.13%, 23.15%) and β-bisabolene (7.74%, 10.21%). Inhibition zone diameters were in the range of 11.1–22.1 mm. The percentages of the monoterpene β-phellandrene in the two clusters were all high. There were some differences of compositions between Cluster I and II, but they were all dominated by sesquiterpenes as the main components. The antifungal activities against C. glabrata were almost equal to Cluster IVand III with inhibition zone diameters 22.0–22.2 mm. However, the antifungal activities against other six Candida strains were relatively low, with inhibition zone diameters 6.5–13.0 mm. Antifungal effect of EOs of CHW was higher than that of HLW in both leaves and pericarps. Comprehensive analysis illustrates the importance of monoterpenes to antifungal activities and there were differences among different types of Candida strains. The results agree with those of Białon et al. [20] who suggested that the antifungal potential of lemon essential oils against Candida yeast strains was related to the high content of monoterpenoids and the type of Candida strains.

There are few studies reporting the antifungal activity of Clausena lansium extracts against infectious yeasts. XU et al. [21] reported that the extracts of pericarps of Clausena lansium using 95% alcohols had the significant inhibitory effect on C. albicans with an inhibition zone diameter of 16.8 mm by the filter paper disc diffusion method. However, the components of this extracts are not yet clear. In the present study, we obtained Clausena lansium EOs by hydrodistillation and determined the chemical compositions by GC-MS. In all the tested EOs of pericarps, β-phellandrene was determined to be present at the highest percentage which could be mainly responsible for the antifungal effects. β-Sesquiphellandrene and β-bisabolene were also important compositions which were possible to have antifungal activities. Perigo et al. [22] studied the chemical compositions and antibacterial activities of Piper species from distinct rainforest areas in Southeastern Brazil, and found that higher contents of β-phellandrene were positively correlated to wide spectrum antibacterial activity. Antibacterial activity of essential oils of Tripleurospermum disciforme was reported that the reason for higher antibacterial effect is the presence of β-farnesene and β-sesquiphellandrene [23]. The essential oils of Bocageopsis pleiosperma Maas rich in β-bisabolene were reported to have high antifungal activities [24]. Their results are consistent with ours. Taken together, we speculate that antifungal activities in our study may be attributed to C. lansium EOs of pericarps rich in β-phellandrene, β-sesquiphellandrene and β-bisabolene.

However, antifungal activity may not entirely depend on the main chemical components. Other chemical components in lower concentrations may also have antifungal activity or have synergistic effects with other components. Therefore, it is necessary to study antifungal activity of the component alone or in combination with others, in order to further elucidate the material basis of antifungal activity of C. lansium EOs against Candida spp. It may provide a basis for the development of C. lansium EOs as new antifungal agents with high efficiency, broad spectrum, low toxicity and low cost.

3. Conclusions

This study described the chemical compositions of the EOs from leaves and pericarps of Clausena lansium (Lour.) Skeels, where a total 101 compounds were identified. EOs of leaves and pericarps of HLW and CHW in Hainan, China were classified into four clusters by cluster analysis. The major components of cluster I were caryophyllene (21.13%, 23.48%), β-sesquiphellandrene (18.52%, 21.80%) and α-bergamotene (9.49%, 10.63%); Cluster II: cis-α-santalol (14.72%, 21.31%), santalol (17.31%, 12.24%) and caryophyllene (12.72%, 5.46%); Cluster III: β-phellandrene (26.13%, 23.15%) and β-bisabolene (7.74%, 10.21%); Cluster IV: β-phellandrene (32.43%, 45.15%) and β-sesquiphellandrene (10.89%, 7.35%). Correlation between chemical composition and antifungal activity is an important finding. EOs of Clausena lansium pericarps showed higher antifungal activity than that of leaves against all the tested Candida strains, and EOs of CHW had better inhibiting effect than HLW. Higher contents of β-phellandrene, β-sesquiphellandrene and β-bisabolene may be positively correlated to antifungal activity. The present results increase the biological knowledge about Clausena lansium EOs, which could be exploited particularly for the treatment and prevention of fungal infections caused by Candida spp.

4. Materials and Methods

4.1. Samples and Chemicals

The leaves and fruits of Clausena lansium were collected from Haikou City in Hainan, China, in June 2018. Figure 3 shows the leaves and fruits of HLW (a) and CHW (b). All samples were identified by Professor Jianping Tian and were deposited in Public Research Center, Hainan Medical University (Hainan, China). Table 1 lists the sources of C. lansium employed in this study. C8–C40 n-alkanes (500 mg·L−1 in hexane) were purchased from America o2si (Charleston, SC, USA). Other chemicals and their suppliers are listed as follows: agar powder (BeijingSolarbio Sci. & Tech. Co., Ltd., Beijing, China), glucose (Tianjin Fu Chen Chemical Reagent Factory, Tianjin, China), tryptone (Guangdong Huankai Microbial Sci. & Tech. Co., Ltd., Guangdong, China), MH agar powder (Guangdong Huankai Microbial Sci. & Tech. Co., Ltd., Guangdong, China), fluconazole (FLZ) and amphotericin B (AMB) (Aladdin, Shanghai, China), n-hexane (chromatographic purity, Aladdin).

Figure 3.

Figure 3

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Leaves and ripe fruits of Hainan local wampee (HLW) (a) and chicken heart wampee (CHW) (b).

4.2. Instrumentation and Methods

4.2.1. Instrumentation

Measurements were carried out on a GC-MS-QP2010-Plus system (Shimadzu, Kyoto, Japan) in electron impact ionization (EI) mode. Data were processed with the Shimadzu GC-MS Solution software. The column was ZB-5MS fused silica (30 m × 2.5 mm; 0.25 μm film thickness) from Phenomenex, Torrance, CA, USA. Other instrumentation included a FW-80 high speed grinder (Tianjin Taisite Instrument Co., Ltd, Tianjin, China), an AL104 electronic balance (METTLER TOLEDO Instrument Co., Ltd., Shanghai, China), Automatic digital gel image analysis system Tanon-4100 (Shanghai Tianlong Technology Co., Ltd., Shanghai, China), SPX-250B-Z biochemical incubator (Shanghai Bo Xun Industrial Co., Ltd., Shanghai, China).

4.2.2. Hydrodistillation

The collected leaves of Clausena lansium were dried in shade. After removing pulps and seeds of fruits, pericarps were washed and then dried in an oven at 40–50 °C. The leaves and pericarps were milled into powder with a grinder. The EOs were extracted by hydrodistillation for 2.5–3.0 h in a Clevenger-type apparatus. The obtained EOs were stored at 4 °C in an air-tight container and dried using anhydrous sodium sulfate before being analyzed.

4.2.3. GC-MS Analysis

Samples were analyzed by the GC-MS EI method with column ZB-5MS. Helium was used as a carrier gas at a flow rate of 1.0 mL·min−1 in split mode (1:20). The column temperature was maintained at 60 °C for 5 min and then programmed to 120 °C at a heating rate of 10 °C·min−1, further increased to 170 °C at a rate of 2 °C·min−1, and finally increased to 210 °C at a rate of 10 °C·min−1 for remaining 10 min. Temperatures of both injector and connector were maintained at 270 °C. Operating parameters of MS were: EI mode at 70 eV with a mass scanning range of 50–500 amu and source temperature of 250 °C. C8–C40 n-alkanes were used as reference points in the calculation of relative retention indexes (RIs). The percentages of compositions were obtained from the electronic integration of peak areas. The identity of each compound was determined by comparing its RI to n-alkanes and the NIST library database (NIST08 and NIST08s). Percentage of composition was computed from peak areas without applying correction factors.

4.2.4. Candida Strains and Culture Media

The Candida strains include the standard reference strains (C. albicans ATCC 10231, C. parapsilosis ATCC 22019, C. krusei ATCC 6258, C. tropicalis CMCC(F) c2f, and C. glabrata CMCC(F) c6e), and the clinical strains (C. albicans 53, C. albicans 27). The clinical strains were from oral mucosa of patients with oral candidiasis in the Hainan Wenchang General Hospital located in Wenchang, China. Two clinical isolates were previously identified based on ITS gene sequence analysis. The obtained yeast isolates were stored at −80 °C freezer until use. All strains were streaked onto plates containing the sabouraud dextrose agar (SDA) plate at 35 °C for 24 h. SDA plate composed of 2% (w/v) agar powder, 2% glucose, and 1% tryptone. A single colony was streaked again to ensure the viability and purity of the strains and the colonies were incubated at 35 °C for 24 h. The colonies with the diameter of about 1 mm were selected and microbial suspensions were prepared in a saline solution. The MH agar plate was used for testing antifungal susceptibilities by the filter paper disc diffusion method.

4.2.5. Probing the Antifungal Activity of the EO Sample by the Filter Paper Disc Diffusion Method

The antifungal activity of the EOs of C. lansium was first investigated using the filter paper disc diffusion method following the protocol described in CLSI M44-A2 [25]. Microbial suspensions were prepared in a saline solution and standardized to a turbidity equivalent to that of the tube No. 0.5 on the McFarland scale, corresponding to approximately 1–5 × 106 CFU·mL−1. The antifungal drug FLZ (2.5 mg·mL−1) and AMB (1.0 mg·mL−1), which are commonly used to treat candidiasis, were used as positive controls. 10 μL of Clausena lansium EOs and positive controls was respectively added onto a piece of paper placed on the medium in a plate containing the fungal lawn. The plates were incubated at 35 °C for 24 to 48 h, respectively. The antifungal activity the samples was evaluated by measuring zones of inhibition of fungal growth surrounding the paper discs. The zones of inhibition were measured with antibiotic zone scale (Cecon-Brasil) in mm. All the experiments were carried out in triplicate. When the inhibition zone diameters of FLZ and AMB against Ca ATCC 10231 were within the prescribed range 28–39 mm and 20–27 mm, respectively, it is considered that the operation of this test was effective.

Abbreviations

EO essential oil
GC-MS gas chromatography-mass spectrometry
HLW Hainan local wampee
CHW chicken heart wampee
FLZ fluconazole
AMB amphotericin B
EI electron impact ionization
RI retention indexe
SDA sabouraud dextrose agar
HS headspace
SFE supercritical fluid extraction
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Author Contributions

Data curation, J.W.; Formal analysis, J.S.; Investigation, L.Z. and Y.M.; Methodology, X.H. and J.C.; Software, G.Y.; Validation, L.Z.; Writing—original draft, X.H., Writing—review & editing, Y.M.

Funding

This research was supported by Scientific Research Projects of Higher Education Institutions of Hainan Province (Hnky2019-46); National Natural Science Foundation of China (31860035). We thank JianPing Xu from Department of Biology, McMaster University for revising the manuscript.

Conflicts of Interest

All the authors have declared no conflict of interest.

Footnotes

Sample Availability: Samples of the Clausena lansium EOs are available from the authors.

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