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. 2018 Mar 28;58(4):1475–1493. doi: 10.1007/s00394-018-1673-6

Geographic and socioeconomic diversity of food and nutrient intakes: a comparison of four European countries

Elly Mertens 1,, Anneleen Kuijsten 1, Marcela Dofková 2, Lorenza Mistura 3, Laura D’Addezio 3, Aida Turrini 3, Carine Dubuisson 4, Sandra Favret 4, Sabrina Havard 4, Ellen Trolle 5, Pieter van’t Veer 1, Johanna M Geleijnse 1
PMCID: PMC6561990  PMID: 29594476

Abstract

Purpose

Public health policies and actions increasingly acknowledge the climate burden of food consumption. The aim of this study is to describe dietary intakes across four European countries, as baseline for further research towards healthier and environmentally-friendlier diets for Europe.

Methods

Individual-level dietary intake data in adults were obtained from nationally-representative surveys from Denmark and France using a 7-day diet record, Italy using a 3-day diet record, and Czech Republic using two replicates of a 24-h recall. Energy-standardised food and nutrient intakes were calculated for each subject from the mean of two randomly selected days.

Results

There was clear geographical variability, with a between-country range for mean fruit intake from 118 to 199 g/day, for vegetables from 95 to 239 g/day, for fish from 12 to 45 g/day, for dairy from 129 to 302 g/day, for sweet beverages from 48 to 224 ml/day, and for alcohol from 8 to 15 g/day, with higher intakes in Italy for fruit, vegetables and fish, and in Denmark for dairy, sweet beverages and alcohol. In all countries, intakes were low for legumes (< 20 g/day), and nuts and seeds (< 5 g/day), but high for red and processed meat (> 80 g/day). Within countries, food intakes also varied by socio-economic factors such as age, gender, and educational level, but less pronounced by anthropometric factors such as overweight status. For nutrients, intakes were low for dietary fibre (15.8–19.4 g/day) and vitamin D (2.4–3.0 µg/day) in all countries, for potassium (2288–2938 mg/day) and magnesium (268–285 mg/day) except in Denmark, for vitamin E in Denmark (6.7 mg/day), and for folate in Czech Republic (212 µg/day).

Conclusions

There is considerable variation in food and nutrient intakes across Europe, not only between, but also within countries. Individual-level dietary data provide insight into the heterogeneity of dietary habits beyond per capita food supply data, and this is crucial to balancing healthy and environmentally-friendly diets for European citizens.

Electronic supplementary material

The online version of this article (10.1007/s00394-018-1673-6) contains supplementary material, which is available to authorized users.

Keywords: Diet, Foods, Nutrients, Dietary guidelines, Europe, SUSFANS

Introduction

Poor dietary habits are the second-leading risk factor for deaths and disability-adjusted life-years (DALYs) globally, accounting for 10.3 million deaths and 229.1 million DALYs in 2016 [1]. Low intakes of whole grains, fruit and vegetables, and nuts and seeds, and high intakes of alcohol and sodium ranked among the leading risk factors for early death and disability in European populations. However, as westernisation of diets progressed, diets high in red and processed meat, followed by diets high in sugar-sweetened beverages and low in milk are becoming a growing public health concern.

Dietary patterns are shaped by cultural, environmental, technological and economic factors, and they have become more similar over time owing to a general rise in living standards and globalisation of the food sector [2, 3]. Also in Europe there is a growing similarity of diets, in which traditional diets of Northern and Mediterranean countries are converging towards a more Western diet, viewed by the increased share of fruit and vegetables in Northern countries and the increased share of animal-based products in Mediterranean countries [46]. Increase in animal-based products and excessive caloric intake have been thought as a key factor in nutrition transition, which warrants the need for public health action to promote healthier food patterns consistent with traditional cultural preferences, hence the development of food-based dietary guidelines.

Food-based dietary guidelines are evidence-based integrated messages aimed at the general population for maintaining health and the prevention of non-communicable diseases [7, 8]. Promoting the intake of whole grains, fruit and vegetables, low-fat dairy and fish, and limiting the intake of red and processed meat, sugar-sweetened food products, alcohol and salt is covered by most national food-based dietary guidelines [9], although recommended quantities may differ. Monitoring food consumption patterns and assessing adherence to dietary guidelines in a nationally representative sample is especially regarded as a key instrument for evaluating the effectiveness of public health action towards a healthier diet.

In recent years, public health policies and actions have increasingly acknowledged the climate burden of food production and consumption, hence the need to address the food-climate connection, as outlined in the SUSFANS project (Metrics, Models and Foresight for European SUStainable Food And Nutrition Security) [10]. Production and technological changes in the food system will, however, not be sustainable without a change in food consumption patterns. The SUSFANS project, therefore, elaborates on the status-quo of diets and the design of optimised diets that are environmentally Sustainable, Healthy, Affordable, Reliable and Preferred (SHARP). This paper is a first step to study European food consumption patterns in terms of food groups and nutrients using national dietary survey data carried out at the individual level in four countries. Intakes of food groups and nutrients were compared with current food-based dietary guidelines and nutrient reference values, overall and in relevant population subgroups.

Populations and methods

Data sources

Individual-level dietary intake data from national dietary surveys representative for different European regions, i.e. Denmark (Scandinavia) [11], Czech Republic (Central East Europe) [12], Italy (Mediterranean) [13] and France (Western Europe) [14], were collated for adult population aged ≥ 18 years within the SUSFANS project [10]. These four countries were chosen to capture the wide range of foods and agricultural commodities, including their extreme intakes, that are incorporated in the diverse European food consumption patterns.

Survey characteristics

Survey characteristics are shown in Table 1. National representativeness was ensured using random sampling based on civil registration systems in Denmark [11], national census data in Czech Republic [12] and France [14], and national census data with telephone books in Italy [13] that served as sampling frame, and followed by appropriate weighing for socio-demographic parameters, as applied in Denmark [11, 15] and France [14]. Surveys were organised throughout the whole year, covering the four seasons of the year, and have dietary data on week- and weekend-days.

Table 1.

Dietary surveys in four European countries, i.e. Denmark, Czech Republic, Italy and France, including adult population only

Denmark Czech Republic Italy France
Survey characteristics, including adult population only
 Survey, year

The Danish National Survey on Diet and Physical Activity 2005–2008

National Food Institute, Technical University of Denmark (DTU)

Czech National Food Consumption Survey 2003–2004 (SISP04)

National Institute of Public Health

Italian National Food Consumption Survey INRAN-SCAI 2005–2006

National institute for Research on Food and Nutrition

Individual and National Study on Food Consumption INCA-2 2006–2007

Agence Française de Sécurité Sanitaires des Aliments (AFSSA)

 Population 18–75 years 18–90 years 18–98 years 18–79 years
 Method of dietary assessment a 7-day diet record on consecutive days 24-h recall on two non-consecutive days 3-day diet record on consecutive days 7-day diet record on consecutive days
Baseline characteristics of the study sample, including adult population only, n (%)
 Sample size (response rate) 2025 (54%) 1869 (54%) 2831 (33%) 2624 (60%)
 Age, 18–64 years 1739 (85.9%) 1666 (89.1%) 2313 (81.7%) 2276 (86.7%)
 Gender, men 777 (44.7%) 793 (47.6%) 1068 (46.2%) 936 (41.1%)
 Educational level, low 248 (14.2%) 345 (20.7%) 692 (31.7%) 1039 (45.8%)
 Overweight status, BMI ≥ 25 739 (43.2%) 864 (51.9%) 828 (35.8%) 871 (38.7%)

BMI Body Mass Index

aIncluded in the present study were for Czech Republic both day, for Denmark and France two randomly selected days, and for Italy the first and the last day of the national dietary survey

Method of dietary assessment

In the four study countries, dietary intake was assessed over two to seven 24-h periods, either consecutively for 3–7 days using a diet record, as applied in Denmark, Italy and France [11, 13, 14], or non-consecutively spaced over a 3–5 months sampling period using two replicates of 24-h recall, as applied in Czech Republic [12]. In the present analyses, dietary intake from two random days has been reported. To this end, two non-consecutive days were sampled in Denmark, Italy and France, whereas all available days were used in Czech Republic.

Food and nutrient intakes

Intakes of food groups and nutrients were calculated for each subject from the mean of the selected two days, and were standardised for energy using the density method. Densities were calculated as the absolute value divided by total energy intake, and multiplied by 2000 kcal. Harmonised food groups, including similar foods, have been elaborated using the ‘Exposure Hierarchy’ of the food classification and description system FoodEx2 developed and revised in 2015 by the European Food Safety Authority (EFSA) [16, 17]. A main challenge to encounter when grouping the foods was the level of food disaggregation; disaggregation of foods into ingredients was only considered as necessary for composite/prepared foods provided that the food itself was not included in FoodEx2, but its ingredients are. Nutrient intakes were calculated from dietary sources only, i.e. excluding dietary supplements, using country-specific food composition tables [1824]. Intakes of added sugar, plant and animal protein were calculated based on food selection. Added sugar was defined as the total sugar intake minus sugars naturally occurring in fruits, vegetables and dairy. Plant protein was defined as protein derived from cereals, legumes, nuts and seeds, and others (including potatoes, vegetables, fruits, etc.). Animal protein was defined as protein derived from meat and meat products, fish and fish products, egg and egg products, milk and milk products (including cream, cheese and butter). None of the data excluded under- and over-reporting, however, misreporting was identified using Goldberg equation [25] and adopted by Black [26] (Online Resource 1).

Dietary quality

Foods

To evaluate European populations’ energy-standardised food group intakes, references values were set for the food groups that are important for disease risk reduction based on an inventory of the current food-based dietary guidelines of European countries. Minimum values were set for foods that are beneficial for health, such as fruits and vegetables, and maximum values for foods that are unfavourable for health, such as red and processed meat (see Box 1). Reference values were derived using the 2015 Dutch food-based dietary guidelines [8] as reference point, complemented by the food-based dietary guidelines of the four countries [2730] in which the less restrictive reference values were chosen.

Box 1.

A set of food-based dietary guidelines for European countries, including their exposure definition and reference values, developed for the SUSFANS project

Exposure definition Reference valuesa
Foods to increase
 Fruit All kind of fruits (including fresh, dried, tinned or canned fruit products, but excluding fruit juice) ≥ 200 g/day
 Vegetables All kind of vegetables (including fresh, dried, tinned or canned vegetable products, but excluding potatoes, vegetable juices and vegetables from soup, sauces and ready-to-eat products) ≥ 200 g/day
 Legumes Kidney beans, pinto beans, white beans, black beans, garbanzo beans (chickpeas), lima beans, split peas, lentils, and edamame (green soybeans) ≥ 135 g/week (≥ 19 g/day)
 Nuts and seeds Walnuts, almonds, hazel, cashew, pistachio, macadamia, Brazil, pecan, pine nuts, flax seeds, sesame seeds, sunflower seeds, pumpkin seeds, poppy seeds, and peanut ≥ 15 g/day
 Dairy products Food products produced from the milk of mammals, including milk, yoghurt, fresh uncured cheese, quark, custard, milk puddings, excluding cheese and butter ≥ 300 g/day
 Fish All kind of fish and fish products ≥ 150 g/week (≥ 21 g/day)
Foods to decrease
 Red and processed meat Red meat: all mammalian muscle meat, including beef, veal, pork, lamb, mutton, horse and goat, excluding rabbit meat; Processed meat: meat transformed through salting, curing, fermentations, smoking or other processed to enhance flavour or improve preservation (e.g. meat products as sandwich filling, ready-to-eat minced meat, sausages, etc.) ≤ 500 g/week (≤ 71 g/day)
 Cheese All types of cheese formed by coagulation of milk protein casein ≤ 150 g/week (≤ 21 g/day)
 Sugar-sweetened beverages Cold beverages with added sugars (sucrose, fructose or glucose), for example fruit juices, fruit nectars, soft drinks, ice teas, vitamin-water or sports drinks with added sugars ≤ 500 ml/week (≤ 71 ml/day)
A lcohol (Ethanol) Ethanol content calculated from all kind of alcoholic beverages ≤ 10 g/day
Foods to replaceb
 Whole grains Whole grains (bran, germ and endosperm in their natural proportion) from cereals, pasta, bread, breakfast cereals and other grain sources Replace white grains by whole grains
 White meat Meat from all kind of poultry, including rabbit meat Replace red and processed meat by white meat
 Soft margarine and oils Soft margarine: soft-solid fats made from vegetables oils; Oils: liquid fats at room temperature derived from plants or fish Replace butter and hard margarines by soft margarine and oils

aReference values were derived from current food-based dietary guidelines, using the 2015 Dutch food-based dietary guidelines [8] as reference point, complemented by the food-based dietary guidelines of the four countries [3437] in which the less restrictive reference values was chosen (Quantitative guideline)

b‘Foods to replace’ represent food groups for which insufficient convincing evidence was available to set a fixed cut-off point, however replacement of those food products by a healthier alternative is recommended (Qualitative guideline)

Nutrients

To evaluate European populations’ energy-standardised nutrient intakes, nutrient density of the diet was quantified using Nutrient Rich Diet (NRD) score [31, 32], i.e. overall summary estimate of nutrient intakes based on the principles of the Nutrient Rich Food Index [33, 34]. The NRD algorithm was calculated as:

NRDX·Y=ii=XQnutrientiDRVi×100-jj=YQnutrientjMRVj×100

where X is the number of qualifying nutrients, Y is the number of disqualifying nutrients, Q nutrient i or j is the average daily intake of nutrient i or j, DRV is the dietary reference value of qualifying nutrient i and MRV j is the maximum recommended value of the nutrient to limit j. DRVs are defined using reference values from EFSA [35], i.e. average requirement (AR), and adequate intake (AI) if AR cannot be set, and MRVs using reference values of World Health Organisation [36, 37] and Food and Agriculture Organisation [38].

In the present analyses, NRD9.3 and NRD15.3 were used. The NRD9.3, including nine nutrients for which intake should be promoted (protein, dietary fibre, calcium, iron, potassium, magnesium, and vitamin A, C and E) and three nutrients for which intake should be limited (saturated fat (SFA), added sugar, and sodium), standardised for 2000 kcal/day diet and capped nutrient intake at 100% of DRV was primarily chosen, based on its validation among US populations [33, 34]. To capture more nutrients that are potentially relevant for European populations, we also used its extended version, i.e. NRD15.3 that additionally included mono-unsaturated fatty acids, zinc, vitamin D and B-vitamins (B1, B2, B12, folate), but excluded magnesium. A sub-score on the intake of qualifying nutrients is represented in NRD9 and NRD15, and that of disqualifying nutrients in NRDX.3, while the total score, i.e. NRD9.3 and NRD15.3, is a combination of both.

Estimating the dietary quality of European populations’ diets

Percentages of the population that adhere to food-based dietary guidelines and percentages of the population with inadequate nutrient intakes were estimated using the AR cut-point method [39], without correction for within subject variability. This percentage would be interpreted as proxy figures for adherence and inadequacy, because of different survey’s methodologies. When the DRV of the nutrient under study was defined as an AI (dietary fibre, potassium, magnesium, vitamin D, E and B12), this percentage of populations with intake below AI was only applicable for comparison between countries and population subgroups. Dietary intakes were characterised in the overall country-specific population of adults aged ≥ 18 years and in relevant population subgroups by age, gender, educational level, and overweight status. Subgroups by age included younger and middle-aged adults (18–64 years) and elderly (≥ 65 years). Younger and middle-aged adult populations were additionally stratified by gender, educational level using three categories, i.e. primary or lower secondary degree (‘low’), higher secondary degree (‘intermediate’) and university or post-university degree (‘high’), and overweight status using two categories, i.e. BMI < 25 and ≥ 25 kg/m2.

As the information available consisted only of summarised data (i.e. mean and standard deviation of the energy-standardised dietary intake under study and sample size), analysis of variance test was performed to check whether there were differences in mean intake of food groups and nutrients between countries and within countries by population subgroups of age, gender, educational level and overweight status. Bonferroni post hoc test was used for multiple comparisons. A two sided p value below 0.0001 was considered as statistically significant. Statistical analyses were performed with SAS version 9.3 (SAS Institute Inc.).

Results

Baseline characteristics

Age and gender distribution were comparable between countries, with 80–90% of the population aged 18–64 years and 40–48% being men. Distribution of educational level varied markedly between countries; a low proportion of low-educated subjects in Denmark (15%) and a high proportion in France (46%); but proportion of the high-educated subjects was the lowest in Czech Republic (8%) and varied between 23–33% for Denmark, Italy and France. Approximately half of the Czech population (52%) was overweight, BMI ≥ 25 kg/m2, whereas overweight in Denmark (44%), France (39%) and Italy (36%) was less prevalent.

Foods

Table 2 shows the energy-standardised intakes of food groups and general adherence to food-based dietary guidelines in four European adult populations, aged ≥ 18 years. Stratified intakes by age, gender, educational level and overweight status are shown in Table 3.

Table 2.

Energy-standardised food group intakes and the adherence to their corresponding food-based dietary guidelines in four European populations, aged ≥ 18 years

Cut-offs Denmark (n = 2025) Czech Republic (n = 1869) Italy (n = 2831) France (n = 2624)
Mean Median (P25; P75) %adh Mean Median (P25; P75) %adh Mean Median (P25; P75) %adh Mean Median (P25; P75) %adh
Foods to increase
 Fruit, g/day ≥ 200 174* 133 (36.0; 255) 35% 118* 83 (12.0; 171) 20% 199* 163 (76; 275) 40% 140* 95 (0.0; 210) 26%
 Vegetables, g/day ≥ 200 147* 112 (63; 184) 21% 95* 74 (39.0; 127) 10% 239* 206 (138; 300) 53% 187* 157 (84; 254) 37%
 Legumes. g/day ≥ 19 6.5 1.6 (0.0; 6.7) 10% 7.5 0.0 (0.0; 3.0) 12% 11.0 0.0 (0.0; 2.4) 19% 16.5* 0.0 (0.0; 0.8) 18%
 Nuts and seeds, g/day ≥ 15 2.2 0.0 (0.0; 0.0) 5% 2.6 0.0 (0.0; 0.0) 7% 0.5* 0.0 (0.0; 0.0) 1% 1.7 0.0 (0.0; 0.0) 3%
 Dairy products, g/day ≥ 300 302* 248 (113; 422) 41% 134 94 (31.0; 192) 12% 129 116 (8.0; 20) 8% 199* 152 (55; 290) 24%
 Fish, g/day ≥ 21 18.0 5.5 (0.0; 24.1) 28% 11.7 0.0 (0.0; 0.0) 17% 44.6* 6.5 (0.0; 77) 42% 34.3* 4.3 (0.0; 54) 43%
Foods to decrease
 Red and processed meat, g/day ≤ 71 94 85 (51; 127) 39% 88 82 (46.0; 125) 42% 84 77 (39.2; 119) 51% 93 82 (40.5; 133) 43%
 Cheese, g/day ≤ 21 29.3 24.3 (11.3; 42.0) 44% 20.9* 13.2 (0.0; 33.0) 63% 53* 47.2 (16.2; 76) 28% 30.1 24.0 (2.9; 45.6) 46%
 Sweet beveragesa, ml/day ≤ 71 224* 127 (0.0; 305) 40% 108 0.0 (0.0; 144) 63% 47.5* 0.0 (0.0; 65) 76% 121 6.0 (0.0; 171) 56%
 Alcohol (ethanol), g/day ≤ 10 14.6* 7.3 (0.0; 22.6) 56% 10.3 4.4 (0.0; 16.0) 66% 8.2 0.1 (0.0; 13.7) 67% 9.3 0.1 (0.0; 14.5) 67%
Foods to replace
 Cereals, total, g/day 26.1* 16.9 (6.7; 35.0) 48.2 32.5 (11.0; 72) 46.6 38.3 (0.6; 73) 38.8* 16.05 (0.0; 57)
 Cereals, whole grains, g/day 0.4 0.0 (0.0; 0.0) 0.1 0.0 (0.0; 0.0) 0.8 0.0 (0.0; 0.0) 1.8 0.0 (0.0; 0.0)
 Pasta, total, g/day 5.2* 0.0 (0.0; 1.2) 39.9* 13.6 (0.0; 66) 52* 48.4 (29.8; 82) 10.3* 0.0 (0.0; 0.0)
 Pasta, whole grains, g/day 0.0* 0.0 (0.0; 0.0) 0.3* 0.0 (0.0; 0.0) 9.8* 0.0 (0.0; 0.0)
 Bread, total, g/day 149* 140 (94; 194) 122* 118 (83; 157) 109* 103 (60; 151) 98* 92 (51; 139)
 Bread, whole grains, g/day 52* 44.3 (22.4; 72) 7.9* 0.0 (0.0; 0.0) 41.4* 0.0 (0.0; 70) 16.3* 0.0 (0.0; 6.1)
 Breakfast cereals, total, g/day 11.8* 0.6 (0.0; 18.0) 2.9 0.0 (0.0; 0.0) 1.5 0.0 (0.0; 0.0) 5.3* 0.0 (0.0; 0.0)
 Breakfast cereals, whole grains, g/day 9.3* 0.0 (0.0; 12.1) 1.9* 0.0 (0.0; 0.0) 0.5* 0.0 (0.0; 0.0) 3.4* 0.0 (0.0; 0.0)
 Red meat, g/day 66* 57.1 (28.3; 93) 34.0* 28.4 (0.0; 55) 58 53 (0.0; 89) 58 45.6 (0.0; 91)
 Processed meat, g/day 27.3 19.4 (7.1; 37.2) 54* 44.5 (14.0; 80) 25.5 19.4 (0.0; 38.9) 34.7* 22.6 (0.0; 54)
 White meat, g/day 21.3 1.6 (0.0; 29.9) 22.5 0.0 (0.0; 41.0) 23.5 0.0 (0.0; 44.9) 31.5* 0.0 (0.0; 52)
 Butter and hard margarines, g/day 24.8* 22.7 (13.5; 33.8) 17.6* 15.5 (7.0; 25.0) 2.8* 0.0 (0.0; 3.8) 16.3* 13.7 (5.8; 24.0)
 Soft margarine and oils, g/day 1.9* 0.0 (0.0; 1.5) 15.0* 13.1 (7.0; 21.0) 34.8* 34.0 (26.3; 42.7) 11.2* 7.4 (0.4; 17.3)

Intake of food groups are standardised to a 2000 kcal/day diet

%adherence represents a proxy for the percentage of the population that adhere to food-based dietary guidelines

aSweet beverages instead of sugar-sweetened beverages due to a lack of detailed data on beverages

*Bonferroni p < 0.0001 test comparison for intake that was significantly different from all other three countries under study

Table 3.

Energy-standardised food group intakes and the adherence to their corresponding food-based dietary guidelines in four European populations in subgroups by age, gender, educational level, and overweight status: main findings

Cut-offs Subgroups by age Subgroups by gendera
Younger and middle-aged adults Elderly, ≥ 65 years p value Men Women p value
Mean Median (P25; P75) %adh Mean Median (P25; P75) %adh Mean Median (P25; P75) %adh Mean Median (P25; P75) %adh
Denmark (n = 1739) (n = 286) (n = 777) (n = 962)
 Fruit, g/day ≥ 200 171 126 (32.2; 251) 34% 197 159 (81; 281) 40% 0.011 120 74 (0.5; 172) 21% 222 187 (74; 324) 47% < 0.0001
 Vegetables, g/day ≥ 200 151 114 (64; 189) 22% 119 98 (54; 167) 16% < 0.0001 117 95 (54; 146) 13% 185 141 (84; 231) 31% < 0.0001
 Legumes, g/day ≥ 19 6.6 1.8 (0.0; 7.1) 10% 5.3 0.9 (0.0; 4.6) 10% < 0.0001 5.9 1.3 (0.0; 5.6) 8% 7.3 2.2 (0.0; 8.6) 11% < 0.0001
 Red and processed meat, g/day ≤ 71 95 87 (52; 128) 38% 83 73 (41.5; 108) 48% 0.001 109 100 (66; 143) 29% 82 75 (43.3; 114) 47% < 0.0001
 Alcohol, g/day ≤ 10 13.8 6.4 (0.0; 21.5) 58% 20.5 15.0 (1.7; 29.8) 40% < 0.0001 16.6 10.0 (0.0; 25.6) 50% 10.9 0.0 (0.0; 17.0) 66% < 0.0001
Czech Republic (n = 1666) (n = 203) (n = 793) (n = 873)
 Fruit, g/day ≥ 200 115 79 (10.0; 167) 19% 143 118 (38.7; 218) 28% 0.006 66 39 (0.7; 93) 6% 160 128 (51; 224) 31% < 0.0001
 Vegetables, g/day ≥ 200 95 75 (39.3; 128) 10% 94 70 (39.4; 122) 8% 0.874 78 61 (35.0; 106) 5% 111 87 (46.0; 151) 14% < 0.0001
 Legumes, g/day ≥ 19 7.6 0.0 (0.0; 2.2) 11% 6.7 0.0 (0.0; 4.2) 13% 0.591 6.1 0.0 (0.0; 1.7) 10% 9.0 0.0 (0.0; 2.6) 12% 0.012
 Red and processed meat, g/day ≤ 71 89 81 (44.8; 125) 42% 83 79 (45.3; 118) 42% 0.253 108 103 (69; 142) 27% 71 64 (28.4; 103) 55% < 0.0001
 Alcohol, g/day ≤ 10 10.7 5.1 (0.0; 17.0) 65% 7.4 0.0 (0.0; 9.4) 77% 0.002 15.8 12.5 (1.2; 23.5) 47% 6.1 0.0 (0.0; 8.6) 81% < 0.0001
Italy (n = 2313) (n = 518) (n = 1068) (n = 1245)
 Fruit, g/day ≥ 200 185 153 (67; 257) 37% 257 222 (125; 333) 54% < 0.0001 153 125 (50.4; 220) 28% 214 185 (88; 292) 45% < 0.0001
 Vegetables, g/day ≥ 200 238 205 (134; 299) 52% 241 215 (149; 307) 55% 0.680 222 190 (126; 282) 47% 252 156 (145; 317) 56% < 0.0001
 Legumes, g/day ≥ 19 10.7 0.0 (0.0; 2.9) 19% 12.4 0.0 (0.0; 0. 0) 19% 0.194 10.1 0.0 (0.0; 3.9) 19% 11.3 27.1 (0.0; 2.3) 19% 0.265
 Red and processed meat, g/day ≤ 71 85 77 (37.6; 120) 65% 75 68 (31.6; 111) 62% 0.015 88 81 (43.6; 122) 65% 82 74 (32.7; 119) 64% < 0.0001
 Alcohol, g/day ≤ 10 7.8 0.1 (0.0; 12.7) 70% 10.0 2.6 (0.0; 16.5) 60% 0.0002 11.3 6.8 (0.0; 18.9) 57% 4.8 8.4 (0.0; 7.0) 80% < 0.0001
France (n = 2276) (n = 348) (n = 936) (n = 1340)
 Fruit, g/day ≥ 200 129 77 (0.0 ; 198) 23% 209 174 (77; 309) 42% < 0.0001 103 65 (0.0; 154) 17% 148 103 (0.0; 219) 28% < 0.0001
 Vegetables, g/day ≥ 200 182 152 (80; 248) 36% 219 196 (110; 293) 46% < 0.0001 152 128 (65; 204) 26% 202 173 (95; 272) 45% < 0.0001
 Legumes, g/day ≥ 19 15.9 0.0 (0.0 ; 0.8) 17% 20.9 0.0 (0.0; 5.3) 20% 0.040 17.7 0.0 (0.0; 1.8) 19% 14.6 0.0 (0.0; 0.4) 16% 0.068
 Red and processed meat, g/day ≤ 71 94 84 (40.7; 134) 43% 90 79 (37.8; 133) 45% 0.316 101 92 (49.8; 143) 38% 88 77 (33.9; 127) 47% < 0.0001
 Alcohol, g/day ≤ 10 9.0 0.0 (0.0; 13.8) 69% 11.2 5.2 (0.0; 18.2) 56% 0.008 13.5 6.6 (0.0; 21.1) 57% 5.8 0.0 (0.0; 7.3) 81% < 0.0001
Subgroups by educational levela Subgroup by overweight statusa
Low Intermediate High p valueb BMI < 25 kg/m2 BMI ≥ 25 kg/m2 p value
Mean Median (P25; P75) %adh Mean Median (P25; P75) %adh Mean Median (P25; P75) %adh Mean Median (P25; P75) %adh Mean Median (P25; P75) %adh
Denmark (n = 248) (n = 943) (n = 548) (n = 972) (n = 739)
 Fruit, g/day ≥ 200 152 94 (0.0; 234) 29% 159 115 (30.4; 233) 32% 214 167 (64; 305) 42% < 0.0001 167 124 (33.1; 246) 34% 174 129 (23.5; 255) 33% 0.382
 Vegetables, g/day ≥ 200 126 96 (56; 152) 16% 150 118 (63; 185) 21% 184 137 (84; 238) 32% < 0.0001 154 118 (66; 191) 23% 146 108 (63; 182) 21% 0.072
 Legumes, g/day ≥ 19 6.1 0.4 (0.0; 6.7) 10% 6.5 1.6 (0.0; 6.8) 10% 7.7 2.8 (0.0; 7.8) 11% < 0.0001 6.4 1.9 (0.0; 6.9) 9% 6.9 1.5 (0.0; 7.4) 11% 0.055
 Red and processed meat, g/day ≤ 71 102 90 (58; 143) 39% 99 92 (58; 131) 33% 82 75 (44.5; 111) 46% < 0.0001 94 86 (52; 126) 38% 99 90 (54; 134) 37% 0.072
 Alcohol, g/day ≤ 10 13.2 6.3 (0.0; 21.4) 58% 13.7 6.0 (0.0; 20.6) 59% 15.0 8.8 (0.0; 24.5) 52% 0.226 13.2 6.2 (0.0; 20.5) 58% 14.5 6.7 (0.0; 23.4) 57% 0.100
Czech Republic (n = 345) (n = 1194) (n = 127) (n = 802) (n = 864)
 Fruit, g/day ≥ 200 89 61 (1.3; 141) 11% 122 82 (13.4; 173) 21% 121 96 (40.1; 179) 20% 0.0004 112 79 (19.1; 165) 19% 118 79 (5.9; 168) 19% 0.371
 Vegetables, g/day ≥ 200 90 71 (40.0; 123) 8% 94 74 (37.0; 126) 10% 120 85 (59; 160) 15% 0.002 96 77 (40.0; 126) 10% 95 73 (37.8; 128) 9% 0.807
 Legumes, g/day ≥ 19 8.9 0.0 (0.0; 3.0) 12% 7.3 0.0 (0.0; 2.0) 11% 7.3 0.0 (0.0; 2.7) 11% 0.524 7.3 0.0 (0.0; 2.3) 11% 7.9 0.0 (0.0; 2.1) 11% 0.588
 Red and processed meat, g/day ≤ 71 96 86 (47.4; 134) 42% 88 82 (44.3; 124) 41% 81 72 (43.4; 117) 48% 0.035 83 73 (40.0; 121) 48% 94 88 (50.2; 130) 37% 0.0002
 Alcohol, g/day ≤ 10 11.7 5.0 (0.0; 19.0) 61% 10.5 4.8 (0.0; 16.3) 66% 10.1 7.7 (0.0; 16.8) 61% 0.354 10.4 4.5 (0.0; 16.9) 65% 11.0 5.5 (0.0; 16.9) 64% 0.402
Italy (n = 692) (n = 985) (n = 507) (n = 1484) (n = 828)
 Fruit, g/day ≥ 200 182 155 (69; 260) 38% 183 149 (65; 250) 36% 206 169 (83; 282) 41% 0.027 185 155 (68; 249) 37% 187 150 (68; 272) 37% 0.788
 Vegetables, g/day ≥ 200 242 206 (137; 296) 53% 238 205 (136; 300) 52% 232 202 (129; 287) 51% 0.534 229 200 (130; 288) 50% 254 213 (144; 323) 55% 0.0001
 Legumes, g/day ≥ 19 11.7 0.0 (0.0; 4.1) 22% 10.7 0.0 (0.0; 3.3) 19% 10.1 0.0 (0.0; 4.5) 17% 0.560 10.5 0.0 (0.0; 2.3) 19% 11.1 0.0 (0.0; 4.2) 19% 0.592
 Red and processed meat, g/day ≤ 71 88 81 (41.0; 122) 65% 85 77 (37.5; 119) 65% 83 77 (35.9; 121) 65% 0.332 84 77 (36.8; 118) 65% 86 78 (39.2; 124) 64% 0.433
 Alcohol, g/day ≤ 10 8.8 0.0 (0.0; 15.3) 66% 7.1 0.1 (0.0; 11.9) 72% 7.4 0.2 (0.0; 11.1) 74% 0.001 6.8 0.0 (0.0; 11.2) 73% 9.6 4.0 (0.0; 15.9) 62% < 0.0001
France (n = 1039) (n = 495) (n = 737) (n = 1379) (n = 871)
 Fruit, g/day ≥ 200 125 76 (0.0; 200) 24% 128 84 (0.0; 195) 21% 137 95 (13.9; 196) 23% 0.265 126 82 (0.0; 191) 22% 134 89 (0.0; 204) 24% 0.180
 Vegetables, g/day ≥ 200 181 152 (77; 248) 36% 179 144 (74; 245) 33% 183 156 (87; 249) 37% 0.892 175 146 (75; 242) 33% 188 158 (85; 254) 39% 0.036
 Legumes, g/day ≥ 19 19.5 0.0 (0.0; 1.3) 21% 13.2 0.0 (0.0; 0.4) 15% 12.5 0.0 (0.0; 0.5) 15% 0.0003 16.3 0.0 (0.0; 1.1) 19% 15.5 0.0 (0.0; 0.5) 16% 0.645
 Red and processed meat, g/day ≤ 71 102 91 (48.7; 144) 39% 90 79 (33.5; 129) 44% 84 74 (33.9; 123) 47% < 0.0001 89 78 (35.7; 127) 44% 101 91 (48.7; 145) 40% 0.0001
 Alcohol, g/day ≤ 10 8.3 0.0 (0.0; 11.8) 73% 9.4 0.2 (0.0; 15.1) 66% 9.6 0.2 (0.0; 15.5) 67% 0.135 8.0 0.0 (0.0; 12.1) 73% 10.6 0.1 (0.0; 16.9) 64% < 0.0001

Intake of food groups are standardised to a 2000 kcal/day diet

%adherence represents a proxy for the percentage of the population that adhere to food-based dietary guidelines

BMI Body Mass Index

aYounger and middle-aged adults, aged 18–64 years, were stratified by gender, educational level and overweight status

bp value for the overall comparisons between population subgroups

Foods to increase

Mean fruit and vegetable intake varied significantly between countries with lower intakes for Czech Republic (118 and 95 g/day, respectively) and higher intakes for Italy (199 and 239 g/day, respectively), and varied in the same direction between men and women within all four countries showing higher intakes for women. Higher fruit intake was also observed in all four countries for the elderly and for subjects with a higher educational level, but no differences by overweight status. Vegetable intake tended to be higher among elderly in Denmark and France, among higher educated subjects in Denmark and Czech Republic, and among overweight subjects in Italy and France. Mean intakes of legumes (6.5–16.7 g/day), and nuts and seeds (0.5–2.6 g/day) were generally low in all countries. Mean intake of dairy was higher in Denmark (302 g/day), while fish was higher in Italy (44.6 g/day) and France (34.4 g/day).

Foods to decrease

Mean intake of red and processed meat was generally high in all countries (84–94 g/day). Within-countries, red and processed meat intake was lower for the elderly and women in all four countries, and except in Italy for the higher educated subjects, and in Czech Republic and France for the non-overweight. Alcohol intake varied between countries with lower intakes in Italy (8.2 g/day) and higher intakes for Denmark (14.6 g/day), and varied within countries in the same direction by gender and overweight status with lower intakes for women and the non-overweight. Alcohol intake also tended to be lower for the young and middle-aged adults, except in Czech Republic where intake is lower for the elderly. For the higher-educated subjects, alcohol intake tended to be lower in Czech Republic and Italy, but higher in Denmark and France.

Foods to replace

Mean intakes of whole grains from cereals, pasta and bread were low in all countries, illustrated by the fraction of whole grains on total grains of ≤ 15% with one exception for wholegrain pasta in France. Although mean intake of total breakfast cereals per day was very low, the whole grain variants were primarily eaten. Intake of white meat was much lower than red and processed meat, in particular red and processed meat contributed to 70–80% of total meat intake comprising mainly of red meat in Denmark, Italy and France, and of processed meat in Czech Republic. Intakes of butter and hard margarines were only slightly higher than intakes of soft margarines and vegetable oils, except for Denmark where butter and hard margarines were predominantly chosen as fat source, and for Italy where vegetable oils were dominating.

Nutrients

Table 4 shows the energy-standardised nutrient intakes, their corresponding proxy prevalence figures for inadequate intakes, and the NRD scores in four European adult populations, aged ≥ 18 years. Low intakes were observed for dietary fibre (15.8–19.4 g/day) and vitamin D (2.4–3.0 µg/day) in all countries, and for potassium (2288–2939 mg/day), and magnesium (268–285 mg/day), except in Denmark. Intake of vitamin E was lower in Denmark (6.7 mg/day), and folate in Czech Republic (212 µg/day). Mean intakes were high for protein (67.1–83.5 g/day), and iron (9.1–12.4 mg/day) in all countries analysed. Remaining nutrients, including calcium, zinc, vitamin A, C, B1, B2, and B12, showed varying intake levels between countries. Of the three nutrients to limit, a large penalty was obtained from saturated fatty acids (11.1–15.1 E%) in all countries, and from estimated sodium intake (2797–4244 mg/day) except in Italy. Based on the NRD scores, it is apparent that the nutrient density of the diet was highest in Italy (NRD9.3 of 537, and NRD15.3 of 1051), followed by Denmark (NRD9.3 of 416, and NRD15.3 of 896) and France, and the lowest in Czech Republic (NRD9.3 of 327 and NRD15.3 of 787). Within countries, nutrient density of the diet tended to be higher for women in all four countries and for the higher-educated subject, except in Italy (Table 5).

Table 4.

Energy-standardised nutrient intakes, prevalence of inadequate intake, and Nutrient Rich Diet scores in four European populations, aged ≥ 18 years

DRV Denmark (n = 2025) Czech Republic (n = 1869) Italy (n = 2831) France (n = 2624)
Mean Median (P25; P75) %<DRV Mean Median (P25; P75) %<DRV Mean Median (P25; P75) %<DRV Mean Median (P25; P75) %<DRV
Unstandardised energy intake, kcal/day 2264* 2155 (1681; 2738) 2523* 2396 (1790; 3106) 2119* 2057 (1666; 2491) 1980* 1912 (1509; 2390)
Qualifying nutrients
 Protein, g/day 0.66 g/BW 68.7 67.6 (59.7; 77.1) 16% 67.1 66.1 (59.1; 73.8) 12% 79.0* 77.8 (70.5; 86.1) 1% 83.5* 81.4 (70.9; 93.4) 2.4%
 Protein, E% 13.9 13.8 (12.4; 15.2) 13.4 13.2 (11.8; 14.8) 15.6* 15.6 (14.1; 17.2) 16.7* 16.3 (14.2; 18.7)
 Animal protein, g/day 44.8* 43.2 (35.6; 52.8) 38.8* 37.5 (30.1; 45.8) 48.6* 47.1 (38.9; 56.8) c
 Plant protein, g/day 20.3* 20.2 (16.9; 23.6) 23.9* 23.8 (20.1; 27.3) 30.3* 30.3 (26.5; 34) c
 Dietary fibre, g/daya 25 19.4* 18.6 (14.5; 23.2) 81% 15.8* 15.1 (12.7; 18.3) 96% 18.1* 17.0 (14.0; 21.0) 88% 16.6* 15.7 (12.3; 19.5) 91%
 MUFA, g/daya 25.7* 25.5 (21.0; 30.0) 32.0* 31.8 (27.8; 36.4) 39.0* 38.7 (33.5; 44.1) 29.7* 28.9 (24.0; 34.2)
 MUFA, E% 10–20 E% 11.7* 11.6 (9.5; 13.6) 31% 14.4* 14.3 (12.5; 16.4) 8% 17.6* 17.4 (15.1; 19.9) 25% 13.4* 13.0 (10.8; 15.4) 23%
 Calcium, mg/day 750 983* 928 (705; 1189) 30% 660* 593 (424; 805) 69% 742* 708 (539; 897) 57% 899* 842 (649; 1066) 38%
 Iron, mg/day M: 6; F: 7 9.1* 8.9 (7.7; 10.2) 8% 10.6* 10.1 (8.5; 12.1) 4% 11.1* 10.5 (9.0; 12.3) 2% 12.4* 11.2 (9.4; 13.8) 2%
 Potassium, mg/dayb 3500 3143* 3073 (2514; 3658) 69% 2288* 2199 (1895; 2573) 96% 2938 2834 (2420; 3326) 81% 2879 2763 (2326; 3287) 82%
 Magnesium, mg/dayb M: 350; F: 300 322* 315 (270; 365) 54% 285 274 (241; 315) 75% 268* 254 (219 299) 80% 282 263 (230 ; 309) 77%
 Zinc, mg/day M: 7.5; F: 6.2 9.5* 9.3 (8.1; 10.8) 10% 7.0* 6.7 (5.6; 8.0) 52% 11.0* 10.5 (9.1; 12.4) 3% 10.2* 9.6 (8.1; 11.8) 9%
Vitamin A, µg RE/day M: 570; F490 1032* 851 (557; 1242) 23% 692* 450 (315; 631) 62% 854* 635 (467; 924) 34% 1200* 822 (552; 1279) 23%
Vitamin C, mg/day M: 90; F: 80 102* 85 (57; 131) 50% 78* 63 (37; 103) 65% 126* 103 (66; 159) 38% 91* 76 (46; 119) 56%
Vitamin E, mg/dayb M: 13; F: 11 6.7* 6.1 (5.1; 7.7) 95% 11.7* 11.1 (8.4; 14.4) 56% 12.7* 11.8 (9.7; 14.1) 53% 10.6* 9.4 (6.9; 13.2) 66%
Vitamin D, µg/dayb 15 3.0 1.9 (1.3; 2.7) 97% 2.9 2.1 (1.4; 3.2) 99% 2.4 1.5 (1.0; 2.4) 99% 2.6 1.7 (1.0; 3.0) 99%
Vitamin B1, mg/day 0.6 1.1 1.1 (0.9; 1.3) 3% 1.1 1.0 (0.9; 1.2) 2% 1.10 0.9 (0.8; 1.1) 53% 1.20 1.1 (0.9; 1.3) 0%
Vitamin B2, mg/day M: 1.1; F: 0.9 1.47* 1.38 (1.13; 1.70) 20% 1.08* 0.99 (0.84; 1.20) 65% 1.40* 1.3 (1.1; 1.6) 16% 1.80* 1.7 (1.4; 2.1) 8%
Vitamin B12, µg/dayb 4 4.7 4.2 (3.1; 5.6) 45% 4.4 3.4 (2.5; 4.8) 64% 6.1 4.1 (3.1; 5.8) 48% 5.6 4.0 (2.9; 5.8) 50%
Folate, µg DFE/d 250 293 268 (214; 334) 41% 212* 182 (146; 242) 76% 350* 305 (254; 380) 23% 278 253 (203; 322) 49%
Disqualifying nutrients MRV %> MRV %> MRV %> MRV %> MRV
 SFA, g/day 30.4 30.2 (25.0; 35.4) 30.6 30.4 (25.5; 35.1) 24.6* 24.2 (20.3; 28.3) 33.5* 33.4 (27.7; 39.1)
 SFA, E%/dayd < 10 E% 13.8 13.7 (11.3; 16.1) 86% 13.8 13.7 (11.5; 15.8) 80% 11.1* 10.9 (9.1; 12.7) 62% 15.1* 15.0 (12.5; 17.6) 91%
 Added sugar, g/day 43.2* 36.4 (21.3; 57.2) 36.6 31.3 (18.8; 50.6) 38.6 35.2 (21.1; 52.5) c
 Added sugar, E%d < 10 E% 8.8* 7.4 (4.3; 11.6) 32% 7.3 6.3 (3.8; 10.1) 21% 7.7 7.0 (4.2; 10.5) 24% c b
 Sodium, mg/dayd < 2400 3012* 2919 (2484; 3439) 80% 4244* 4153 (3576; 4800) 98% 1703* 1648 (1245; 2076) 13% 2797* 2668 (2228; 3223) 85%
Nutrient Rich Diet Scores
 Sub-score NRD9 765 775 (710; 829) 715* 721 (643; 794) 781* 793 (730; 841) 759 767 (701; 826)
 Sub-score NRD15 1245 1259 (1192; 1310) 1175* 1182 (1097; 263) 1295* 1310 (1246; 1356) 1250 1262 (1191; 1324)
 Sub-score NRDX.3 349* 346 (300; 392) 388* 387 (347; 427) 244* 242 (215; 271) c
 Total score NRD9.3 416* 427 (334; 507) 327* 328 (256; 400) 537* 547 (482; 600) c
 Total score NRD15.3 896* 916 (823; 992) 787* 791 (704; 875) 1051* 1062 997; 1115 c

DRV dietary reference value, AR average requirement, AI adequate intake, RE retinol equivalents, DFE dietary folate equivalents, E% energy percentage, MUFA mono-unsaturated fatty acids, SFA saturated fatty acids, NRD Nutrient Rich Diet scores, including their sub-scores

Intakes of nutrients are standardised to a 2000 kcal/day diet

a%<AR represents a proxy for the percentage of the population that have an inadequate intake, i.e. intake lower than the dietary reference value

bNutrients where AR cannot be set, hence AI is defined

cCannot be computed

dPercentages shown for SFA, added sugar and sodium reflect the proportion of the population that have an excessive intake, i.e. intake higher than the reference value (Maximum Recommend Value)

*Bonferroni p < 0.0001 test comparison for intake that was significantly different from all other three countries under study

Table 5.

Nutrient density of the diet, using Nutrient Rich Diet scores 9.3 and 15.3, in four European populations in subgroups by age, gender, educational level and overweight status

Subgroups by age Subgroups by gendera
Younger and middle-aged adults Elderly,≥ 65 years p value Men Women p value
Mean Median (P25; P75) Mean Median (P25; P75) Mean Median (P25; P75) Mean Median (P25; P75)
Denmark (n = 1739) (n = 286) (n = 777) (n = 965)
 Sub-score NRD9 764 774 (708; 829) 772 787 (721; 833) 0.120 731 733 (679; 786) 796 808 (758; 853) < 0.0001
 Sub-score NRD15 1243 1256 (1191; 1308) 1256 1275 (1198; 1325) 0.033 1215 1227 (1162; 1280) 1271 1284 (1226; 1328) < 0.0001
 Sub-score NRDX.3 351 348 (301; 395) 333 336 (291; 382) < 0.0001 355 353 (309; 400) 346 339 (297; 388) 0.011
 Total score NRD9.3 413 424 (327; 505) 439 424 (328; 505) 0.001 376 386 (295; 456) 450 465 (388; 537) < 0.0001
 Total score NRD15.3 892 913 (817; 988) 923 940 (847; 1010) 0.003 860 876 (780; 944) 925 944 (859; 1021) < 0.0001
Czech Republic (n = 1666) (n = 203) (n = 793) (n = 873)
 Sub-score NRD9 714 720 (641; 793) 729 728 (666; 807) 0.037 659 656 (597; 719) 763 777 (713; 821) < 0.0001
 Sub-score NRD15 1174 1182 (1092; 1261) 1185 1181 (1114; 1269) 0.208 1119 1115 (1039; 1197) 1223 1235 (1157; 1297) < 0.0001
 Sub-score NRDX.3 387 385 (345; 427) 396 395 (360; 430) 0.053 375 377 (333; 417) 398 397 (358; 436) < 0.0001
 Total score NRD9.3 327 327 (253; 400) 333 342 (270; 401) 0.456 284 283 (216; 349) 366 373 (298; 440) < 0.0001
 Total score NRD15.3 787 790 (703; 876) 789 792 (711; 873) 0.830 744 744 (665; 821) 826 836 (751; 910) < 0.0001
Italy (n = 2313) (n = 518) (n = 1068) (n = 1245)
 Sub-score NRD9 777 790 (725; 837) 796 805 (759; 852) < 0.0001 747 754 (692; 806) 803 814 (764; 856) < 0.0001
 Sub-score NRD15 1293 1307 (1240; 1350) 1305 1321 (1272; 1360) 0.003 1264 1271 (1210; 1330) 1317 1329 (1278; 1367) < 0.0001
 Sub-score NRDX.3 245 243 (215; 271) 242 240 (213; 269) 0.464 242 240 (212; 271) 247 245 (219; 272) 0.004
 Total score NRD9.3 533 541 (476; 598) 554 563 (509; 609) < 0.0001 505 513 (443; 572) 556 565 (509; 614) < 0.0001
 Total score NRD15.3 1048 1059 (991; 1115) 1064 1075 (1021; 1122) 0.002 1022 1032 (959; 1091) 1070 1079 (1024; 1127) < 0.0001
France (n = 2276) (n = 348) (n = 936) (n = 1340)
 Sub-score NRD9 754 762 (696; 821) 785 787 (743; 841) < 0.0001 717 723 (668; 775) 788 799 (743; 846) < 0.0001
 Sub-score NRD15 1244 1256 (1182; 1319) 1278 1289 (1222; 1346) < 0.0001 1208 1219 (1147; 1284) 1278 1289 (1228; 1346) < 0.0001
Subgroups by educational levela Subgroup by overweight statusa p value
Low Intermediate High p valueb BMI < 25 kg/m2 BMI ≥ 25 kg/m2
Mean Median (P25; P75) Mean Median (P25; P75) Mean Median (P25; P75) Mean Median (P25; P75) Mean Median (P25; P75)
Denmark (n = 248) (n = 943) (n = 548) (n = 972) (n = 739)
 Sub-score NRD9 746 754 (690; 814) 760 767 (705; 826) 791 803 (743; 844) < 0.0001 769 779 (717; 829) 759 766 (702; 831) 0.054
 Sub-score NRD15 1221 1236 (1165; 1293) 1242 1254 (1193; 1306) 1271 1282 (1224; 1325) < 0.0001 1250 1261 (1204; 1308) 1237 1249 (1177; 1309) 0.021
 Sub-score NRDX.3 356 356 (305; 404) 356 350 (304; 401) 334 334 (291; 370) <0.0001 351 349 (305:392) 351 347 (295; 398) 1.000
 Total score NRD9.3 390 404 (292; 498) 405 414 (324; 492) 456 459 (392; 537) < 0.0001 408 418 (316; 511) 408 418 (316; 511) 0.2448
 Total score NRD15.3 865 893 (767; 978) 887 905 (817; 978) 937 942 (869; 1013) < 0.0001 887 908 (791; 990) 887 907 (791; 990) 0.165
Czech Republic (n = 345) (n = 1194) (n = 127) (n = 802) (n = 864)
 Sub-score NRD9 695 684 (624; 780) 716 722 (644; 794) 740 744 (682; 802) < 0.0001 719 725 (646; 795) 709 713 (633; 791) 0.036
 Sub-score NRD15 1153 1149 (1060; 1252) 1175 1181 (1098; 1259) 1217 1238 (1149; 1281) < 0.0001 1175 1186 (1097; 1260) 1172 1178 (1091; 1261) 0.605
 Sub-score NRDX.3 378 378 (339; 421) 390 387 (346; 430) 384 381 (348; 413) 0.007 389 390 (347; 430) 385 382 (343; 424) 0.196
 Total score NRD9.3 317 307 (237; 387) 327 327 (254; 406) 356 360 (301; 403) 0.003 330 329 (258; 400) 324 323 (248; 399) 0.260
 Total score NRD15.3 775 775 (681; 862) 785 789 (706; 874) 833 847 (771; 904) < 0.0001 786 791 (704; 876) 787 789 (703; 877) 0.872
Italy (n = 692) (n = 985) (n = 507) (n = 1484) (n = 828)
 Sub-score NRD9 774 788 (718; 835) 776 789 (725; 834) 788 801 (734; 851) 0.005 779 792 (728; 838) 775 788 (720; 836) 0.245
 Sub-score NRD15 1291 1309 (1234; 1355) 1292 1304 (1242; 1353) 1300 1316 (1249; 1360) 0.140 1294 1308 (1244; 1355) 1291 1307 (1234; 1354) 0.414
 Sub-score NRDX.3 240 240 (211; 267) 246 243 (217; 273) 249 246 (220; 276) 0.001 248 245 (219; 273) 240 237 (209; 268) < 0.0001
 Total score NRD9.3 534 545 (478; 603) 530 536 (474; 593) 539 550 (480; 603) 0.158 531 539 (475; 598) 535 545 (476; 597) 0.289
 Total score NRD15.3 1051 1065 (992; 1118) 1046 1056 (993; 1111) 1051 1064 (991; 1115) 0.439 1046 1058 (992; 1114) 1051 1064 (990; 1115) 0.206
France (n = 1039) (n = 495) (n = 737) (n = 1379) (n = 871)
 Sub-score NRD9 749 760 (681; 822) 756 763 (702; 817) 761 764 (707; 825) 0.014 753 760 (696; 819) 758 766 (699; 827) 0.181
 Sub-score NRD15 1237 1252 (1166; 1319) 1247 1250 (1194; 1314) 1254 162 (1190; 1326) 0.002 1242 1256 (1177; 1316) 1249 1258 (1191; 1329) 0.110

BMI Body Mass Index, NRD Nutrient Rich Diet scores, including their sub-scores

For France, sub-score NRDX.3, total score NRD9.3 and 15.5 cannot be computed due to a lack of data on sugars

aYounger and middle-aged adults, aged 18–64 years, were stratified by gender, educational level and overweight status

bp value for the overall comparisons between population subgroups

Discussion

In this study, we found that dietary intakes varied markedly across the four European countries, irrespective of energy intake. Within countries, food intakes also varied markedly by socio-economic factors such as age, gender, and educational level, but less pronounced by anthropometric factors such as overweight status. However, the set of food-based dietary guideline was not met by a large part of the population and/or population subgroup by age, gender, educational level or overweight status.

When describing food group intakes, mean daily intakes of fruit and vegetables, sweet beverages, and alcohol varied most between countries, showing higher intakes of fruit and vegetables, and lower intakes of sweet beverages and alcohol in Italy. In addition, we observed in Italy and France a similar vegetable intake among the different levels of education, whereas in Denmark and Czech Republic higher intake of vegetables was observed among higher-educated subjects; which is in line with previous studies conducted in European populations [4042]. This region-dependent tendency might be attributed to the long-standing cultural tradition of using vegetables in the Mediterranean diet, as consumed in Italy and France, and is often easily recognisable by all layers of the population. However, a comparison of population subgroups within-countries is often closely related to dietary preferences, beliefs and practices of that particular consumer group. Higher intake of fish, nuts and seeds along with lower intake of red and processed meat are, for example, generally seen among women and higher-educated subjects, which might be driven by their health considerations and awareness of climate change [43].

When describing nutrient intakes summarised by the NRD9.3 and 15.3, the higher scores were observed for Italy, which is mainly attributed to their lower penalty score, i.e. NRDX.3, for the disqualifying nutrients of SFA and sodium. Because of the interrelation between food groups and nutrients intake, our results on variation in nutrient intakes can be partly reflected by our results on variation in food group intake. Low penalty score in Italy is likely to be in correspondence with its lower intakes for important sources of SFA intake such as butter and hard margarines, red and processed meat, and dairy products; however, with the estimates of sodium intake, caution must be applied, as they are very likely to be under-estimated due to difficulties in quantifying sodium content in recipes and discretionary salt intake [44]. Moreover, when focussing on qualifying nutrients, higher sub-scores NRD9 and NRD15 were also observed for Italy, but intake for calcium, potassium and magnesium was lower when compared with Denmark; related to intake of dairy products and whole-grain products. It could, thus, be argued whether these summary estimates could be used solely to describe nutrient intakes, as they do not point out specific inadequate nutrient intakes.

In the context of the SUSFANS project, we prefer to describe dietary intakes in terms of foods rather than nutrients, since foods are the constituents of a dietary pattern and the common denominator for linking dietary intakes with health, environment, affordability, consumer’s preferences, etc. Diet-associated environmental impact, in particular, has been attracting a lot of interest, as current food production and consumption patterns have been recognised as a major human-induced driver of climate change [45]. Some European countries have, therefore, developed guidelines for diets that are both healthy and environmentally-friendly [4649]. Such recommendations mostly emphasise the reduction of greenhouse gas emissions through propagating a shift towards plant-based foods. However, given European dietary intakes, there is still much progress to be made in this respect, simply showed by a percentage of around 35% for the intake of plant protein as opposed to total protein for the countries we studied. Moreover, predominant food groups contributing to animal and plant protein intake have been associated with regional and cultural traditions around dietary habits. Meat intake is regarded as the most important contributor to animal protein in European diets, but with differences related to the amount and types of meat consumed, as also denoted by previous studies [50, 51]. With regard to plant protein, cereals and cereal products have been identified as the main contributor to plant protein in European diets [52], while joint contributions from vegetables, legumes and fruit varied between countries, as observed in the present study.

The present study provides further support for the application of individual-level dietary data to address the food-climate connection. Often diet-associated environmental impact was quantified using food availability data related to food production, but not to food consumption as such. Using individual-level reported dietary data might, therefore, be regarded as a useful tool in the connection between health and environment with foods as their common denominator. Cross-country comparison of individual-level dietary data is, however, challenged by the dietary surveys conducted with different survey characteristics and data collection methods that may influence the comparability of the results. First, sampling procedures used in the surveys reported in this study varied in terms of recruitment methods, household and individual representativeness, number of subjects per household and weighting factors used; however, they all aimed at including a nationally representative sample of at least all age-sex categories. It still remains a possibility that those who have agreed to participate form a group with a greater interest in health, hence more optimistic results.

Second, methods of dietary assessment used in the surveys reported were conducted differently, with regard to the methods used and in the manner in which the assessment was carried out. Replicates of 24-h recall as applied in Czech Republic showed a higher mean energy intake compared to diet records as applied in Denmark, Italy and France. This might be explained by factors related to the methods themselves, such as reliance on memory and portion size estimations [5355], and/or characteristics of the populations. Standardising intake data to a 2000 kcal/day diet had, therefore, the largest impact on results of Czech Republic; lowering its mean dietary intakes under the assumption that energy intake is positively correlated with food group and nutrient intake. Standardisation for energy is one of the more practical ways of reducing part of the extraneous variation in dietary estimates [56], and enables to study the relative contribution of food groups and nutrients intake to the total diet, regardless of energy intake. In the European Food COnsumption VALidation project, it has been suggested to adjust for BMI instead when analysing and interpreting dietary data of nutritional monitoring surveys to reduce mean bias at population level [57]. Given that stratified analyses by overweight status showed no relevant differences in dietary intakes within a country, it is questionable whether BMI-adjusted values should be the main exposure of interest in the present study describing the heterogeneity of European diets.

Another important factor in estimating dietary intakes consistently is the number of days included in the dietary assessment to enable comparison between countries across Europe. In this study, dietary data were, therefore, standardised for the number of days, but have not been corrected for time-interval between the two selected record/recall days, hence not corrected for within-subject day-to-day variability. Correcting for within-subject day-to-day variability would have resulted in comparable means for dietary intakes compared to unadjusted data, though with a shrinkage of intake distributions which in turn would have decreased the percentage of the population above and below a cut-off point [58]. However, relying on consecutive days, including days spaced over a week time-interval, is likely to underestimate the within-subject day-to-day variation [59] because of the interdependence of days that captures some of the day-to-day variation in the between-subject variation [60, 61]. Thus, this day-interdependence would have resulted in a shrinkage of the observed intake distribution that is too much toward the group mean, hence an under-estimation of true percentage of the population above and below a cut-off when statistically correcting intake distributions. In addition, the use of country-specific food composition databases might affect the number of subjects whose intake was below the DRV. In particular, when using different food composition databases, potential systematic errors in estimating nutrient intake would be different between countries, and in all probability alternate with magnitude and direction. With increasing globalisation, however, the foods and mixed dishes available in different countries are not all grown/produced/prepared in the same manner and, therefore, using a country-specific composition database is likely to reflect nutrient intake more accurately.

Exclusion of under-reporters would have increased the prevalence of adherence to the food-based dietary guidelines and decreased the prevalence of inadequate nutrient intakes, and inclusion of supplementation use would have decreased the prevalence of nutrient inadequacy even further. The present study did estimate the percentage of under- and over-reporters (Online Resource 1), but did not estimate intakes excluding them, because some of the mis-reporters may truly be consuming a low- or a high-energy diet. Over the past decades, dietary supplementation use has increased in Europe with a clear north–south gradient [62], showing a high number of users in Denmark (Online Resource 1). Hence, it is likely that in countries with higher level of supplementation use, dietary supplementation might have contributed to improved total nutrient intakes, with its impact dependent on the supplementation formulation, the frequency of use, and the level of micronutrient intakes of those taking supplements. However, our interest is on nutrient intakes from foods only to find nutritional gaps that are most in need to improve the healthiness of dietary intake.

In conclusion, there is considerable variation in food and nutrient intakes across European countries. The present study indicated that the intake of food groups showed larger deviations from food-based dietary guidelines for the overall population and population subgroups of the countries we studied. In addition, results suggested inadequate nutrient intakes from foods for dietary fibre and vitamin D in all countries, and for potassium, magnesium, vitamin E and folate in specific regions. Individual-level dietary data in different European population and population subgroups are, therefore, needed for balancing diets for European citizen.

Moreover, individual-level dietary data from national surveys serve as a practical tool for describing the healthiness of diet in terms of foods and nutrients, but dietary data harmonisation remains challenging. Using a common food classification system is a first step in the alignment of surveys and necessary to enable cross-country comparisons for food group intakes. However, further steps, such as standardisation for energy, number of days, etc., are needed for harmonisation of dietary data. Besides the healthiness of dietary intake, these dietary surveys might also be important in shaping optimised diets where other factors, such as environmental impact, affordability and consumer preferences are incorporated. We aim, therefore, to support further engagement of key stakeholders from the food supply chain and policy-makers in the next stages for the design of SHARP diets.

Electronic supplementary material

Below is the link to the electronic supplementary material.

Author contributions

JMG and PvtV initiated the topic of the paper. MD, LM, LD, AT, CD, SF, and ET were responsible for the data collection and data analysis. EM, AK and were responsible for data interpretation. EM drafted the manuscript, which was reviewed by all authors for intellectual content. All authors read and approved the final submission of the paper.

Funding

Financial support for this original contribution was obtained from funding from the European Union’s H2020 Programme under Grant Agreement number 633692 (SUSFANS: Metrics, models and foresight for European sustainable food and nutrition security) and from the Top Consortia for Knowledge and Innovation of the Dutch Ministry of Economic Affairs.

Compliance with ethical standards

Conflict of interest

The authors have no conflicts of interest.

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