Table 2.

Lignin‐based materials used for the entrapment of active substances.

Carrier material[a]	Active substance[b]	EE[c] [%]	LC[c] [wt %]	Ref.
LNPs (WS soda lignin)	budesonide	35	3.5	1
LNPs (SKL)	BZL, SFN	77 BZL, 68 SFN	8 BZL, 7 SFN	64
LNPs (AL, Sigma–Aldrich)	DOX, GFLX	90 DOX, 5–37 GFLX	47 % DOX, 5–27 % GFLX[d]	65
LNPs (AL from HT‐pretreated corn cobs)	resveratrol	71–95	19–26	66
LNPs (dioxane lignin from subabul stems)	Diuron	74	5.2	44
LNPs (OSL)	tyrosinase	69	12	84
LNPs (succinylated SKL)	BZL	50–57	9–11	67
lignin‐based complex micelles (AL)	ibuprofen	74	46	85
chitosan–LNPs (calcium LS)	RNase A	61–40	6.6–43	83
lignin–PVA microparticles (spruce ionic lignin, sugarcane bagasse OSL)	atrazine	39–78	4–15	71
lignin microcapsules (azo‐modified poplar AL)	avermectin	61	17	72
SLS–CTAB microspheres	avermectin	71	63	87
lignin microcapsules (SKL, SLS)	nitrapyrin, chlorpyrifos	>69	6.6	73
cross‐linked xanthan/lignin hydrogel (ALS)	bisoprolol fumarate	n.a.	14–19	74
self‐assembled alkyl‐modified lignosulfonates	avermectin	50	57	75
lignin hydrogel (SKL, sulfonated SKL, lignosulfonate)	ethoprop, methoprene,bioresmethrin	97–100[e]	n.a.	76
Lignin/silica hydrogel (sugarcane bagasse soda lignin)	methotrexate	n.a.	n.a.	77
dried lignin hydrogel (SKL)	2‐chloroallyl diethyldithiocarbamate	n.a.	n.a.	79
lignin–CMC hydrogel (SKL)	aldicarb	4–13	≤3.0	78
functionalized lignin‐based nanocomposite hydrogels	resveratrol	n.a.	n.a.	88

[a] WS—wheat straw; SKL—softwood kraft lignin; PVA—poly(vinyl alcohol); CTAB—cetyltrimethylammonium bromide; SLS—sodium lignosulfonate; ALS—ammonium lignosulfonate; CMC—carboxymethyl cellulose. [b] BZL—benzazulene, SFN—sorafenib; DOX—Doxorubicin; GFLX—gatifloxacin; the active substances are classified in Figure 4 into pesticides, pharmaceuticals, and enzymes. [c] n.a.—not available. [d] Calculated from the reported EE and initial mass ratio of lignin and active substances. [e] Based on mass balance.