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Asian Journal of Urology logoLink to Asian Journal of Urology
. 2017 Dec 6;6(3):275–289. doi: 10.1016/j.ajur.2017.11.009

Comparison of 66 chemical element contents in normal and benign hyperplastic prostate

Vladimir Zaichick a,∗, Sofia Zaichick b
PMCID: PMC6595161  PMID: 31297320

Abstract

Objective

The aim of this study was to clarify the differences between the prostatic levels of chemical elements in patients with benign prostatic hyperplasia (BPH) and healthy male.

Methods

We evaluated the prostatic level of 66 chemical elements in 43 patients with BPH and 37 healthy males. Measurements were performed using five instrumental analytical methods.

Results

In the hyperplastic prostates, we have observed a significant increase in the mean level of Bi, Cr, Hg, K, Sb, and Se accompanied a significant decrease in the mean level of Al, Ce, Cs, Dy, Er, Gd, Ho, La, Mo, Nd, Pb, Pr, Sm, Sn, Tb, Tm, U, and Y. No differences were found in the mean prostatic level of other chemical elements including Ag, Al, Au, B, Ba, Be, Br, Ca, Cd, Co, Cu, Fe, Li, Mg, Mn, Na, Nb, Ni, P, Rb, S, Sc, Si, Th, Ti, Tl, Yb, Zn, and Zr between BPH patients and healthy males.

Conclusions

The finding of chemical element contents and correlation between pairs of chemical element mass fractions indicates that there is a great disturbance of prostatic chemical element metabolism in BPH gland. Trace elements Bi, Cr, Hg, K, Sb, and Se may be regarded as the possible tissue biomarkers of hyperplastic transformation of prostate gland. Obtained data did not confirm a critical role of Cd and Pb accumulation in the pathogenesis of BPH. A potential age-related Zn, Fe, and Se deficiency in the prostate tissue has not been found as being involved in the etiology of BPH.

Keywords: Benign prostate hyperplasia, Prostatic chemical element contents, Trace element supplementations, Energy dispersive X-ray fluorescence analysis, Neutron activation analysis, Inductively coupled plasma atomic emission and mass spectrometry

1. Introduction

Benign prostatic hyperplasia (BPH) represents the most common age-related urologic disease. Prostatic tissue contains two basic components: A glandular component composed of secretory ducts and acini, and a stromal component composed primarily of collagen and smooth muscle. BPH is histologically defined as an unregulated proliferation of glandular epithelium, connective tissue, and smooth muscle [1]. The prevalence of histological BPH is found in approximately 50%–60% of males aged 40–50 years, in over 70% at 60 years and in greater than 90% of men over 70 years [2]. To date, we still have no precise knowledge of the cellular and biochemical processes underlying the etiology and pathogenesis of BPH [3]. There are a few hypotheses on the subject but the most common concept is based on the differentiating and growth-promoting actions of androgens [4].

In our previous studies it was shown that the levels of calcium (Ca), zinc (Zn), and some other chemical elements in prostate tissue are the androgen-dependent parameters and play an important role in prostate functions [5], [6], [7], [8], [9], [10]. Moreover, it is well known that many other chemical elements besides Ca, Zn play important roles in cell proliferation, differentiation, and transformation and are essential for the regulation of DNA synthesis, mitosis and apoptosis [11]. Due to lifestyle, dietary habits, and physiological effects of aging, the elderly male population is normally predisposed to conditions of trace elements deficiency [12], which can increase this population's susceptibility to BPH [13]. According to the proponents of dietary supplemental trace element usage, in the absence of such supplements, cellular trace element uptake will be depressed and trace element levels in prostate tissue will be reduced [13], [14].

On the other hand, in our previous studies it was found a significant tendency for an increase in level of bismuth (Bi), cadmium (Cd), chromium (Cr), mercury (Hg), thorium (Th), uranium (U), and some other potentially harmful trace elements in intact nonhyperplastic prostate from age 21 years to the sixth decade [15], [16], [17]. Moreover, it has been showed the association of Ca, as well as Zn, Cd, Cr, lead (Pb), and some other trace metals to BPH development and progression [18], [19], [20].

The chemical element contents in tissue of the hyperplastic prostate have been studied, producing contradictory results [21], [22], [23], [24], [25], [26], [27], [28], [29], [30], [31], [32], [33], [34], [35]. The majority of these data are based on measurements of processed tissue and in many studies tissue samples are ashed before analysis. In other cases, prostate samples are treated with solvents (distilled water, ethanol, etc.) and then are dried at a high temperature for a few hours. There is evidence that certain quantities of chemical elements are lost as a result of such treatment [36], [37], [38]. Moreover, only a few of these studies employed quality control using certified reference materials for determination of the chemical element mass fractions. Thus, the questions about the differences between chemical element contents in intact and BPH tissue remained open.

This work had five aims. The first was to assess the 66 chemical element mass fractions: Silver (Ag), aluminum (Al), arsenic (As), gold (Au), boron (B), barium (Ba), beryllium (Be), Bi, bromine (Br), Ca, Cd, cerium (Ce), cobalt (Co), Cr, cesium (Ce), coper (Cu), dysprosium (Dy), erbium (Er), europium (Eu), iron (Fe), gallium (Ga), gadolinium (Gd), hafnium (Hf), Hg, holmium (Ho), iridium (Ir), potassium (K), lanthanum (La), lithium (Li), lutecium (Lu), magnesium (Mg), manganese (Mn), molybdenum (Mo), sodium (Na), niobium (Nb), neodymium (Nd), nickel (Ni), phosphorus (P), Pb, palladium (Pd), praseodymium (Pr), platinum (Pt), rubidium (Rb), rhenium (Re), rhodium (Rh), sulphur (S), antimony (Sb), scandium (Sc), selenium (Se), silicon (Si), samarium (Sm), tin (Sn), strontium (Sr), tantalum (Ta), terbium (Tb), tellurium (Te), Th, titanium (Ti), thallium (Tl), thulium (Tm), U, vanadium (V), yttrium (Y), ytterbium (Yb), zinc (Zn), and zirconium (Zr) in normal and BPH prostate using energy dispersive X-ray fluorescence (EDXRF), instrumental neutron activation analysis with high resolution spectrometry of short-lived radionuclides (INAA-SLR), instrumental neutron activation analysis with high resolution spectrometry of long-lived radionuclides (INAA-LLR), inductively coupled plasma atomic emission spectrometry (ICP-AES), and inductively coupled plasma mass spectrometry (ICP-MS). The second aim was to find differences between the results of BPH prostate and the levels of chemical elements in the nonhyperplastic prostate gland of age-matched health subjects, who had died suddenly. The third aim was to compare the results obtained in this work with data from the literature. The fourth aim was to investigate the dependence of chemical element contents from the age of BPH patients and the stage of disease. The final aim was to estimate the inter-correlations between chemical element mass fractions in hyperplastic prostate and to compare these results with data for non hyperplastic gland.

2. Patients and methods

All patients studied (n = 43) were hospitalized in the Urological Department of the Medical Radiological Research Centre. All patients of Medical Radiological Research Centre have signed informed consent. In all cases the diagnosis of BPH (n = 20 in the 1st stage of disease, n = 16 in 2nd stage, and n = 7 in 3rd stage) has been confirmed by clinical and morphological results obtained during studies of biopsy and resected materials. None of the patients were taking a trace element supplement known to affect prostate chemical element contents. The age of patients with BPH ranged from 38 to 83 years, the mean being 66 ± 8 years (mean ± SD). Using a titanium scalpel resected materials were divided into two portions to permit morphological study of prostatic tissue and to estimate their chemical element contents.

Intact prostates were removed at necropsy from 37 men (mean age 55 ± 11 years, range 41–87 years) who had died suddenly (control group). The majority of deaths were due to trauma. The available clinical data were reviewed for each subject. None of the subjects had a history of an intersex condition, endocrine disorder, neoplasm or other chronic disease that could affect the normal development of the prostate. None of the subjects were receiving medications known to affect prostate morphology or chemical element content. All prostate glands were collected within 2 days of death and divided (with an anterior-posterior cross-section) into two portions using a titanium scalpel. One tissue portion was reviewed by an anatomical pathologist while the other was used for the chemical element determination. A histological examination was used to control the age norm conformity as well as to confirm the absence of any microadenomatosis and/or latent cancer.

After the samples intended for chemical element analysis were weighed, they were freeze-dried and homogenized. The pounded sample weighing about 8 mg was applied to a piece of adhesive tape, which served as a sample backing for EDXRF analysis. The sample weighing about 10–100 mg was used for chemical element measurement by INAA-SLR. The samples for INAA-SLR were sealed separately in thin polyethylene films washed with acetone and rectified alcohol beforehand. The sealed samples were placed in labeled polyethylene ampoules. A sample weighing about 10–50 mg was used for chemical element measurement by instrumental NAA-LLR. The samples for NAA-LLR were wrapped separately in a high-purity aluminum foil washed with rectified alcohol beforehand and placed in a nitric acid-washed quartz ampoule.

The samples weighing about 10–100 mg for ICP-AES and ICP-MS were decomposed in autoclaves; 1.5 mL of concentrated HNO3 (nitric acid at 65%, maximum of 0.0000005% Hg; GR, ISO, Merck, Darmstadt, Germany) and 0.3 mL of H2O2 (pure for analysis) were added to the prostate tissue samples, placed in one-chamber autoclaves (Ancon-AT2, Ltd., Moscow, Russia) and then heated for 3 h at 160–200°C. After autoclaving, they were cooled to room temperature and solutions from the decomposed samples were diluted with deionized water (up to 20 mL) and transferred to plastic measuring bottles. Simultaneously, the same procedure was performed in autoclaves without tissue samples (only HNO3+H2O2+deionized water), and the resultant solutions were used as control samples.

For quality control, samples of the certified reference materials IAEA H-4 Animal Muscle from the International Atomic Energy Agency (IAEA), and also samples INCT-SBF-4 Soya Bean Flour, INCT-TL-1 Tea Leaves and INCT-MPH-2Mixed Polish Herbs from the Institute of Nuclear Chemistry and Technology (INCT, Warsaw, Poland) were analyzed simultaneously with the prostate tissue samples being investigated. All samples of CRM were treated in the same way as the prostate tissue samples. Detailed results of this quality assurance program were presented in earlier publications [32], [33], [39], [40], [41], [42], [43].

The mass fractions of Br, Fe, Rb, Sr, and Zn were measured by EDXRF, the mass fractions of Br, Ca, K, Mg, Mn, and Na—by NAA-SLR, the mass fractions of Ag, As, Au, Ba, Br, Cd, Ce, Co, Cr, Cs, Eu, Fe, Gd, Hf, Hg, La, Lu, Nd, Rb, Sb, Sc, Se, Sm, Sr, Ta, Tb, Th, U, Yb, Zn, and Zr—by NAA-LLR, the mass fractions of Al, B, Ba, Ca, Cu, Fe, K, Li, Mg, Mn, Na, P, S, Si, Sr, V, and Zn—by ICP-AES, and the mass fractions of Ag, Al, As, Au, B, Be, Bi, Br, Cd, Ce, Co, Cr, Cs, Dy, Er, Eu, Ga, Gd, Hf, Hg, Ho, Ir, La, Li, Lu, Mn, Mo, Nb, Nd, Ni, Pb, Pd, Pr, Pt, Rb, Re, Sb, Se, Sm, Sn, Ta, Tb, Te, Th, Ti, Tl, Tm, U, Y, Yb, Zn, and Zr—by ICP-MS. Details of the analytical methods and procedures used here such as nuclear reactions, radionuclides, γ-energies, wavelength, isotopes, spectrometers, spectrometer parameters and operating conditions were presented in our earlier publications concerning the chemical elements of human prostate gland [32], [33], [39], [40], [41], [42], [43].

A dedicated computer program of INAA mode optimization was used [44]. Using the Microsoft Office Excel software to provide a summary of statistical results, the arithmetic mean, SD, SEM, minimum and maximum values, median, percentiles with 0.025 and 0.975 levels were calculated for all the chemical element mass fractions obtained. For elements investigated by two or more methods the mean of all results was used. The difference in the results between BPH and normal prostates, as well as between two age (38–65 and 66–83 years) groups and stage of disease (stage1–2 and 3) groups was evaluated by both parametric Student's t-test and non-parametric Wilcoxon-Mann-Whitney U-test. Values of p < 0.05 were considered to be statistically significant. For the estimation of the Pearson correlation coefficient between different pairs of the chemical element mass fractions in the normal and BPH prostate tissue the Microsoft Office Excel was also used.

3. Results

All studies were approved by the Ethical Committee of the Medical Radiological Research Center, Obninsk.

The results for 66 elemental mass fractions in nonhyperplastic and BPH prostate glands measured by means of the five analytical methods were obtained in the study. However, the mass fractions of As, Eu, Ga, Hf, Ir, Lu, Pd, Pt, Re, Ta, and V (11 trace elements) were determined only for the few samples measured. The possible upper limit of the mean (≤M) for these elements was calculated as the average mass fraction for each element, using the value of the detection limit (DL) instead of the individual value, when the latter was found to be below the DL:

≤M=(∑iniCi+DL·nj)/n

where Ci is the individual value of chemical element mass fractions in the ith sample, ni is the number of samples with a measured mass fraction above DL, nj is the number of samples with a measured mass fraction below DL, and n = ni + nj is the total number of investigatedsamples. Thus, the possible upper limit of the mean for As, Eu, Ga, Hf, Ir, Lu, Pd, Pt, Re, Ta, and V (mg/kg, dry mass basis) were: As ≤0.018, Eu ≤0.00054, Ga ≤0.081, Hf ≤0.018, Ir ≤0.00042, Lu ≤0.00022, Pd ≤0.0074, Pt ≤0.00059, Re ≤0.00100, Ta ≤0.0053, and V ≤0.22. Generally, the mass fractions of Rh and Te were lower than the corresponding DL (in mg/kg on a dry mass basis) <0.01 and <0.003, respectively. Thus, the all basic statistical parameters of chemical element mass fraction (the arithmetic mean, standard deviation, standard error of mean, minimum and maximum values, median, percentiles with 0.025 and 0.975 levels) in BPH and normal prostate glands were calculated for 53 chemical elements (Table 1, Table 2, respectively).

Table 1.

Basic statistical parameters of chemical element mass fraction (mg/kg, dry mass basis) in the BPH prostate gland (n = 43).

Element Symbol M SD SEM Min Max Median P0.025 P0.975
Silver Ag 0.0402 0.0416 0.0087 0.0040 0.1850 0.0289 0.0046 0.1560
Aluminum Al 24.4 10.2 3.2 8.4 38.2 25.6 10.0 38.2
Gold Au 0.00257 0.00255 0.00077 0.00100 0.0100 0.00200 0.00100 0.00833
Boron B 1.51 0.79 0.26 0.70 3.20 1.20 0.760 3.02
Barium Ba 1.22 0.68 0.20 0.42 2.32 0.97 0.468 2.24
Beryllium Be 0.00092 0.00014 0.00004 0.00070 0.00100 0.00100 0.00070 0.00100
Bismuth Bi 0.140 0.139 0.042 0.005 0.400 0.079 0.006 0.367
Bromine Br 30.4 17.2 3.3 5.5 77.0 25.9 5.8 62.9
Calcium Ca 2032 547 165 1168 2762 1898 1173 2757
Cadmium Cd 1.07 1.42 0.43 0.21 5.20 0.50 0.23 4.20
Cerium Ce 0.0128 0.0063 0.0019 0.0040 0.0250 0.0110 0.0045 0.0238
Cobalt Co 0.0615 0.0366 0.0080 0.0246 0.1700 0.0500 0.0268 0.1520
Cromium Cr 0.991 0.434 0.097 0.046 2.270 0.986 0.262 1.850
Cesium Cs 0.0235 0.0081 0.0025 0.0150 0.0450 0.0220 0.0153 0.0408
Coper Cu 9.86 3.96 1.25 6.00 18.90 8.30 6.25 17.90
Dysprosium Dy 0.00156 0.00080 0.00024 0.00042 0.00285 0.00157 0.00047 0.00283
Erbium Er 0.00072 0.00042 0.00013 0.00018 0.00156 0.00064 0.00019 0.00144
Iron Fe 141 84 14 56 405 117 57 379
Gadolinium Gd 0.00153 0.00088 0.00027 0.00040 0.00370 0.00150 0.00043 0.00330
Mercury Hg 0.254 0.135 0.028 0.086 0.520 0.248 0.088 0.517
Holmium Ho 0.00032 0.00016 0.00005 0.00009 0.00055 0.00039 0.00010 0.00053
Potassium K 14 472 2454 740 11 683 20 519 13 552 12 025 19 744
Lanthanum La 0.0187 0.0096 0.0030 0.0100 0.0410 0.0160 0.0100 0.0374
Lithium Li 0.0385 0.0242 0.0073 0.0130 0.0880 0.0300 0.0138 0.0855
Magnesium Mg 1201 276 83 687 1585 1263 749 1552
Manganese Mn 1.19 0.31 0.09 0.80 1.80 1.20 0.80 1.73
Molybdenum Mo 0.167 0.029 0.009 0.130 0.220 0.170 0.130 0.215
Sodium Na 11 612 2882 869 7762 15 503 10 564 7893 15 400
Niobium Nb 0.0102 0.0262 0.0079 0.0010 0.0890 0.0020 0.0010 0.0680
Neodymium Nd 0.00618 0.00293 0.00088 0.00200 0.01200 0.00600 0.00200 0.01130
Nickel Ni 3.22 3.51 1.06 1.00 12.20 1.90 1.03 11.10
Phosphorus P 7907 1385 418 6279 11 780 7547 6512 10888
Lead Pb 0.686 0.526 0.159 0.190 1.700 0.520 0.203 1.660
Praseodymium Pr 0.00149 0.00090 0.00027 0.00020 0.00340 0.00130 0.00028 0.00313
Rubidium Rb 14.8 4.6 0.8 6.6 24.0 15.0 7.3 22.9
Sulphur S 8787 1616 487 7671 13 507 8289 7726 12 401
Antimony Sb 0.162 0.163 0.035 0.0110 0.7330 0.1240 0.0121 0.5830
Scandium Sc 0.0257 0.0156 0.0040 0.0039 0.0543 0.0213 0.0050 0.0536
Selenium Se 1.11 0.32 0.07 0.43 1.60 1.15 0.53 1.60
Silicon Si 141 79 24 72 333 102 73 307
Samarium Sm 0.00143 0.00125 0.00038 0.00020 0.00420 0.00120 0.00020 0.00388
Tin Sn 0.108 0.097 0.029 0.030 0.300 0.060 0.033 0.295
Strontium Sr 3.87 2.58 0.59 0.20 10.9 3.40 0.83 9.73
Terbium Tb 0.00017 0.00008 0.00002 0.00007 0.00030 0.00016 0.00008 0.00030
Thorium Th 0.00180 0.00111 0.00034 0.00050 0.00410 0.00140 0.00060 0.00380
Titaniuma Tia 1.53 0.66 0.20 0.70 2.00 2.00 0.70 2.00
Thallium Tl 0.00202 0.00180 0.00057 0.00080 0.00700 0.00165 0.00082 0.00592
Thulium Tm 0.00015 0.00007 0.00002 0.00004 0.00026 0.00017 0.00004 0.00026
Uranium U 0.00210 0.00311 0.00094 0.00033 0.01120 0.00097 0.00042 0.00914
Yttrium Y 0.00709 0.00383 0.00115 0.00200 0.01500 0.00790 0.00200 0.01370
Ytterbium Yb 0.00083 0.00066 0.00020 0.00010 0.00230 0.00070 0.00013 0.00213
Zinc Zn 1112 613 83 312 3142 1038 316 2492
Zirconium Zr 0.091 0.115 0.036 0.010 0.400 0.065 0.010 0.335
Open in a new tab

BPH, benign prostatic hyperplasia; M, arithmetic mean; Max, maximum value; Min, minimum value; P0.025, percentile with 0.025 level; P0.975, percentile with 0.975 level; SD, standard deviation; SEM, standard error of mean.

a

Titanium tools were used for sampling and sample preparation.

Table 2.

Basic statistical parameters of chemical element mass fraction (mg/kg, dry mass basis) in the normal prostate gland of males of ages 41–87 years (n = 37).

Element Symbol M SD SEM Min Max Median P0.025 P0.975
Silver Ag 0.0380 0.0296 0.0056 0.0050 0.1550 0.0300 0.0084 0.0976
Aluminum Al 34.1 17.7 3.5 9.6 73.3 29.0 12.0 70.8
Gold Au 0.00412 0.00346 0.00078 0.00100 0.01060 0.00230 0.00100 0.01030
Boron B 1.04 0.85 0.18 0.30 3.00 0.70 0.30 2.89
Barium Ba 1.48 1.01 0.21 0.20 4.33 1.17 0.30 3.73
Beryllium Be 0.00094 0.00035 0.00007 0.00070 0.00210 0.00075 0.00070 0.00187
Bismuth Bi 0.029 0.056 0.011 0.001 0.205 0.006 0.001 0.200
Bromine Br 34.6 17.3 3.2 12.0 80.7 30.9 12.4 68.3
Calcium Ca 2428 1232 233 1180 6893 2195 1197 5553
Cadmium Cd 1.12 0.64 0.13 0.32 2.40 0.99 0.32 2.39
Cerium Ce 0.0309 0.0244 0.0050 0.00600 0.0960 0.0220 0.0060 0.0937
Cobalt Co 0.0467 0.0354 0.0064 0.0165 0.2000 0.0400 0.0169 0.1300
Cromium Cr 0.562 0.433 0.082 0.030 1.810 0.456 0.030 1.670
Cesium Cs 0.0339 0.0170 0.0033 0.0100 0.0870 0.0300 0.0131 0.0720
Coper Cu 9.85 4.66 0.97 4.10 22.20 8.30 4.98 19.80
Dysprosium Dy 0.00293 0.00242 0.00049 0.00069 0.01040 0.00224 0.000696 0.00934
Erbium Er 0.00148 0.00114 0.00023 0.00040 0.00530 0.00116 0.00045 0.00421
Iron Fe 121 34 6 62 210 114 68 192
Gadolinium Gd 0.00290 0.00199 0.00041 0.000600 0.00850 0.00235 0.000715 0.00735
Mercury Hg 0.0521 0.0426 0.0075 0.0077 0.1470 0.0335 0.0165 0.1410
Holmium Ho 0.00057 0.00040 0.00008 0.00016 0.00179 0.00045 0.00017 0.00139
Potassium K 11 650 2340 434 6325 18 198 11 403 7352 15 489
Lanthanum La 0.080 0.100 0.020 0.009 0.324 0.034 0.010 0.309
Lithium Li 0.0419 0.0264 0.0055 0.0150 0.1010 0.0300 0.0161 0.1000
Magnesium Mg 1071 409 76 447 2060 1017 520 1955
Manganese Mn 1.32 0.42 0.09 0.75 2.80 1.30 0.84 2.23
Molybdenum Mo 0.282 0.190 0.038 0.100 0.850 0.230 0.100 0.754
Sodium Na 10 987 2158 394 6415 15 300 10 911 6719 15 151
Niobium Nb 0.0054 0.0058 0.0012 0.0010 0.0200 0.0031 0.0010 0.0194
Neodymium Nd 0.0137 0.0100 0.0021 0.0030 0.0420 0.0100 0.0030 0.0354
Nickel Ni 3.10 2.49 0.51 0.20 9.50 2.85 0.37 8.29
Phosphorus P 7617 1839 368 5969 14 838 7225 6017 11 741
Lead Pb 2.39 2.85 0.56 0.15 10.70 0.83 0.18 9.39
Praseodymium Pr 0.00353 0.00258 0.00053 0.00060 0.01060 0.00285 0.00072 0.00939
Rubidium Rb 14.5 5.1 0.9 5.9 26.5 14.2 6.2 25.5
Sulphur S 8657 1271 254 5662 12 567 8569 6680 11 366
Antimony Sb 0.0427 0.0364 0.0063 0.0080 0.1580 0.0375 0.0096 0.1540
Scandium Sc 0.0294 0.0236 0.0053 0.0046 0.0771 0.0200 0.0066 0.0768
Selenium Se 0.748 0.266 0.047 0.318 1.490 0.735 0.348 1.440
Silicon Si 102 55 11 32 235 94 37 205
Samarium Sm 0.00267 0.00176 0.00035 0.00060 0.00700 0.00260 0.00066 0.00652
Tin Sn 0.320 0.322 0.063 0.050 1.110 0.140 0.056 1.040
Strontium Sr 2.47 1.98 0.41 0.87 8.90 1.60 0.92 6.87
Terbium Tb 0.00039 0.00030 0.00006 0.00007 0.00120 0.00035 0.00007 0.00109
Thorium Th 0.00335 0.00363 0.00074 0.00050 0.01720 0.00180 0.00056 0.01250
Titaniuma Tia 2.82 3.07 0.64 0.70 13.70 1.82 0.70 10.10
Thallium Tl 0.00138 0.00072 0.00015 0.00030 0.00300 0.00130 0.00042 0.00289
Thulium Tm 0.00024 0.00017 0.00004 0.00004 0.00083 0.00020 0.00006 0.00062
Uranium U 0.0070 0.0105 0.0021 0.0008 0.0381 0.0026 0.0008 0.0341
Yttrium Y 0.0187 0.0217 0.0043 0.0005 0.0840 0.0100 0.0021 0.0765
Ytterbium Yb 0.00141 0.00121 0.00025 0.00020 0.00510 0.00110 0.00032 0.00412
Zinc Zn 1072 749 123 229 4298 915 244 2249
Zirconium Zr 0.0358 0.0272 0.0055 0.0100 0.0900 0.0250 0.0100 0.0900
Open in a new tab

M, arithmetic mean; Max, maximum value; Min, minimum value; P0.025, percentile with 0.025 level; P0.975, percentile with 0.975 level; SD, standard deviation; SEM, standard error of mean.

a

Titanium tools were used for sampling and sample preparation.

Arithmetic mean and SEM for determined 53 chemical elements mass fractions in hyperplastic (group of patients with BPH) and nonhyperplastic (age-matched control group) prostate were presented in Table 3. Table 3 also depicts the ratios of means and the differences between mean values of chemical element mass fractions in BPH and normal prostate. For some trace elements (Ag, Au, B, Ba, Bi, Cd, Ce, Co, Hg, La, Li, Nb, Ni, Pb, Sb, Sc, Si, Sn, Sr, Th, Ti, U, Y, and Zr) the big difference between mean and median was found (Table 1, Table 2). It meant that for these trace elements the distribution of individual results were not normal. It was a reason why the differences in the results between BPH and normal prostate were evaluated by both parametric Student's t-test and non-parametric Wilcoxon-Mann-Whitney U-test (Table 3).

Table 3.

Comparison of mean values of the chemical element mass fraction (mg/kg, dry mass basis) in BPH and normal prostate tissue (M ± SEM).

Element BPH 38–83 years, n = 43 Normal 41–87 years, n = 37 t-test p value U-test p-Value Ratio (BPH/normal)
Ag 0.0402 ± 0.0087 0.0380 ± 0.0056 0.833 >0.05 1.06
Al 24.4 ± 3.2 34.1 ± 3.5 0.052 <0.05 0.72
Au 0.00257 ± 0.00077 0.00412 ± 0.00078 0.168 >0.05 0.62
B 1.51 ± 0.26 1.04 ± 0.18 0.160 >0.05 1.45
Ba 1.22 ± 0.20 1.48 ± 0.21 0.392 >0.05 0.82
Be 0.000918 ± 0.000042 0.000942 ± 0.000072 0.781 >0.05 0.97
Bi 0.140 ± 0.042 0.029 ± 0.011 0.026 <0.01 4.83
Br 30.4 ± 3.3 34.6 ± 3.2 0.359 >0.05 0.88
Ca 2,032 ± 165 2,428 ± 233 0.174 >0.05 0.84
Cd 1.07 ± 0.43 1.12 ± 0.13 0.927 >0.05 0.96
Ce 0.0128 ± 0.0019 0.0309 ± 0.0050 0.0028 <0.01 0.41
Co 0.0615 ± 0.0080 0.0467 ± 0.0064 0.153 >0.05 1.32
Cr 0.991 ± 0.097 0.562 ± 0.082 0.0016 <0.01 1.76
Cs 0.0235 ± 0.0025 0.0339 ± 0.0033 0.017 <0.01 0.69
Cu 9.86 ± 1.25 9.85 ± 0.97 0.996 >0.05 1.00
Dy 0.00156 ± 0.00024 0.00293 ± 0.00049 0.018 <0.01 0.53
Er 0.00072 ± 0.00013 0.00148 ± 0.00023 0.0071 <0.01 0.49
Fe 141 ± 14 121 ± 6 0.193 >0.05 1.17
Gd 0.00153 ± 0.00027 0.00290 ± 0.00041 0.0081 <0.01 0.53
Hg 0.254 ± 0.028 0.052 ± 0.008 0.00000031 <0.01 4.88
Ho 0.000321 ± 0.000048 0.000567 ± 0.000079 0.012 <0.01 0.57
K 14 471 ± 740 11 650 ± 434 0.0042 <0.01 1.24
La 0.0187 ± 0.0030 0.0799 ± 0.0196 0.0047 <0.01 0.23
Li 0.0385 ± 0.0073 0.0419 ± 0.0055 0.713 >0.05 0.92
Mg 1,201 ± 83 1,071 ± 76 0.257 >0.05 1.12
Mn 1.19 ± 0.09 1.32 ± 0.09 0.320 >0.05 0.90
Mo 0.167 ± 0.009 0.282 ± 0.038 0.0067 <0.01 0.59
Na 11 612 ± 869 10 987 ± 394 0.522 >0.05 1.06
Nb 0.0102 ± 0.0079 0.0054 ± 0.0012 0.564 >0.05 1.89
Nd 0.0062 ± 0.0009 0.0137 ± 0.0021 0.0027 <0.01 0.45
Ni 3.22 ± 1.06 3.10 ± 0.51 0.924 >0.05 1.04
P 7,907 ± 418 7,617 ± 368 0.606 >0.05 1.04
Pb 0.69 ± 0.16 2.39 ± 0.56 0.0066 <0.01 0.29
Pr 0.00149 ± 0.00027 0.00353 ± 0.00053 0.0016 <0.01 0.42
Rb 14.8 ± 0.8 14.5 ± 0.9 0.798 >0.05 1.02
S 8,787 ± 487 8,657 ± 254 0.816 >0.05 1.02
Sb 0.162 ± 0.035 0.0427 ± 0.0063 0.0027 <0.01 3.79
Sc 0.0257 ± 0.0040 0.0294 ± 0.0053 0.583 >0.05 0.87
Se 1.11 ± 0.07 0.748 ± 0.047 0.000069 <0.01 1.48
Si 141 ± 24 102 ± 11 0.156 >0.05 1.38
Sm 0.00143 ± 0.00038 0.00267 ± 0.00035 0.023 <0.01 0.54
Sn 0.108 ± 0.029 0.320 ± 0.063 0.0046 <0.01 0.34
Sr 3.87 ± 0.59 2.47 ± 0.41 0.061 >0.05 1.57
Tb 0.000166 ± 0.000025 0.000393 ± 0.000062 0.0018 <0.01 0.42
Th 0.00180 ± 0.00034 0.00335 ± 0.00074 0.066 >0.05 0.54
Tia 1.52 ± 0.20 2.82 ± 0.64 0.064 >0.05 0.54
Tl 0.00202 ± 0.00057 0.00138 ± 0.00015 0.305 >0.05 1.46
Tm 0.000151 ± 0.000021 0.000241 ± 0.000035 0.033 <0.05 0.63
U 0.0021 ± 0.0009 0.0070 ± 0.0021 0.042 <0.05 0.30
Y 0.0071 ± 0.0012 0.0187 ± 0.0043 0.082 <0.05 0.38
Yb 0.00083 ± 0.00020 0.00141 ± 0.00025 0.074 >0.05 0.59
Zn 1,112 ± 83 1,072 ± 123 0.787 >0.05 1.04
Zr 0.091 ± 0.036 0.0358 ± 0.0055 0.167 >0.05 2.54
Open in a new tab

BPH, benign prostatic hyperplasia; M, arithmetic mean; SEM, standard error of mean; t-test, Student's t-test; U-test, Wilcoxon-Mann-Whitney U-test. Bold represents significant differences.

a

Titanium tools were used for sampling and sample preparation.

The comparison of this work results with other published information for Ag, Al, Au, B, Be, Bi, Br, Cd, Ce, Co, Cr, Cs, Dy, Er, Fe, Gd, Hg, Ho, La, Li, Mn,Mo, Nb, Nd, Ni, Pb, Pr, Rb, Sb, Sc, Se, Sm, Sn, Tb, Th, Ti, Tl, Tm, U, Y, Yb, Zn and Zr mass fraction in BPH glands of adult males is shown in Table 4. When our results were compared with data of literature a number of values for chemical element mass fractions were not expressed on a dry mass basis by the authors of the cited references. However, we calculated these values using the medians of published data for water (83%) and ash (1%) (on wet mass basis) contents in nonhyperplastic prostate of adult men [45], [46], and also for water (80%) in BPH tissue [47].

Table 4.

Median, minimum and maximum value of means of chemical element mass fractions (mg/kg, on dry mass basis) in BPH tissue according to data from the literature in comparison with this work's results.

Element Published data [Reference]
 This work
Median of means (na) Minimum of means M or M ± SD (nb) Maximum of means M or M ± SD (nb) M ± SD, n = 32
Ag – – – 0.040 ± 0.042
Al – – – 24.4 ± 103.2
Au – – – 0.0026 ± 0.0026
B – – – 1.51 ± 0.79
Ba – – – 1.22 ± 0.68
Be – – – 0.00092 ± 0.00014
Bi – – – 0.140 ± 0.139
Br 23.3 (2) 18 ± 9 (27) [21] 21.5 ± 13.0 (9) [22] 30 ± 17
Ca 3100 (6) 1000 (34) [23] 5100 ± 3200 (9) [22] 2032 ± 547
Cd 1.3 (12) 0.395 ± 0.200(7) [24] 1641 ± 960 (60) [25] 1.07 ± 1.41
Ce – – – 0.0128 ± 0.0063
Co 19 (1) 19.0 ± 1.5 (1) [26] 19.0 ± 1.5 (1) [26] 0.062 ± 0.037
Cr 99 (2) 6.5 ± 0.5 (2) [26] 191 ± 17 (27) [21] 0.99 ± 0.43
Cs – – – 0.0235 ± 0.0081
Cu 15 (12) 3 ± 1 (7) [24] 885 ± 80 (10) [27] 9.9 ± 4.0
Dy – – – 0.00156 ± 0.00080
Er – – – 0.00072 ± 0.00042
Fe 197 (10) 5.9 ± 0.4 (8) [28] 1345 ± 95 (27) [21] 141 ± 84
Gd – – – 0.00153 ± 0.00088
Hg – – – 0.25 ± 0.14
Ho – – – 0.00032 ± 0.00016
K 7400 (5) 1010 ± 100 (27) [21] 12 800 ± 1900 (43) [29] 14 471 ± 2454
La – – – 0.0187 ± 0.0095
Li – – – 0.039 ± 0.024
Mg 820 (7) 566 ± 130 (25) [30] 1560 ± 50 (10) [31] 1201 ± 276
Mn 9 (7) 6.5 (−) [31] 23 ± 13 (27) [21] 1.19 ± 0.31
Mo – – – 0.167 ± 0.029
Na 7800 (1) 7800 (34) [23] 7800 (34) [23] 11 612 ± 2882
Nb – – – 0.010 ± 0.026
Nd – – – 0.0062 ± 0.0029
Ni 22.5 (3) 1.35 ± 1.00 (27) [24] 48.5 ± 9.0 (27) [21] 3.2 ± 3.5
P 7600 (3) 7590 ± 1120 (43) [29] 19 300 ± 14 300 (9) [22] 7907 ± 1385
Pb 125 (1) 125 ± 35 (25) [31] 125 ± 35 (25) [31] 0.69 ± 0.53
Pr – – – 0.00149 ± 0.00090
Rb 15.0 (2) 14.9 ± 1.0 (43) [32] 15 ± 5 (10) [33] 14.8 ± 4.6
S 37 400 (1) 37 400 ± 2100 (9) [22] 37 400 ± 2100 (9) [22] 8787 ± 1616
Sb – – – 0.162 ± 0.163
Sc – – – 0.0257 ± 0.0157
Se 0.98 (10) 0.76 ± 0.37 (10) [34] 11.5 ± 6.0 (27) [21] 1.11 ± 0.32
Si – – – 141 ± 79
Sm – – – 0.0014 ± 0.0013
Sn – – – 0.108 ± 0.097
Sr 4.4 (2) 3.8 ± 0.6 (43) [32] 5.0 ± 3.0 (10) [33] 3.9 ± 2.6
Tb – – – 0.000166 ± 0.000081
Th – – – 0.0018 ± 0.0011
Tia 141 (1) 141 ± 16 (27) [21] 141 ± 16 (27) [21] 1.52 ± 0.66
Tl – – – 0.0020 ± 0.0018
Tm – – – 0.000151 ± 0.000071
U – – – 0.0021 ± 0.0031
Y – – – 0.0071 ± 0.0038
Yb – – – 0.00083 ± 0.00066
Zn 725 (39 55 ± 25 (23) [35] 3800 ± 65 (10) [30] 1112 ± 613
Zr – – – 0.091 ± 0.115
Open in a new tab

BPH, benign prostatic hyperplasia; M, arithmetic mean; na, number of references contribution to this value; nb, number of samples; SD, standard deviation; –, no data available.

a

Titanium tools were used.

To estimate the effect of age on the chemical element mass fractions in BPH tissue, we examined two age groups: The first comprised persons with ages ranging from 38 to 65 years (mean age 60 ± 6 years, n = 22) and the second comprised those with ages ranging from 66 to 83 years (mean age 73 ± 4 years, n = 21). The means, the ratios of means and the differences between mean values of chemical element mass fractions in two age groups, evaluated by both parametric Student's t-test and non-parametric Wilcoxon-Mann-Whitney U-test, are presented in Table 5.

Table 5.

Differences between mean values (M ± SEM) of the chemical element mass fraction (mg/kg, dry mass basis) in BPH.

Element Age Group 1, 38–65 year (n = 22) Age Group 2, 66–83 year (n = 21) t-test p-Value U-test p-Value Ratio (Group 2/1)
Ag 0.0293 ± 0.0058 0.0502 ± 0.0156 0.228 >0.05 1.71
Al 24.8 ± 5.4 24.1 ± 4.1 0.921 >0.05 0.97
Au 0.0037 ± 0.0016 0.0017 ± 0.0002 0.289 >0.05 0.45
B 1.60 ± 0.47 1.47 ± 0.35 0.831 >0.05 0.92
Ba 1.24 ± 0.32 1.21 ± 0.29 0.950 >0.05 0.98
Be 0.00094 ± 0.00006 0.00090 ± 0.00006 0.657 >0.05 0.96
Bi 0.122 ± 0.050 0.154 ± 0.068 0.723 >0.05 1.26
Br 32.7 ± 5.1 28.4 ± 4.2 0.530 >0.05 0.87
Ca 2,104 ± 277 1972 ± 217 0.717 >0.05 0.94
Cd 0.49 ± 0.13 1.56 ± 0.75 0.218 >0.05 3.18
Ce 0.0144 ± 0.0035 0.0115 ± 0.0020 0.498 >0.05 0.80
Co 0.0469 ± 0.0048 0.0748 ± 0.0137 0.078 >0.05 1.59
Cr 0.815 ± 0.108 1.170 ± 0.150 0.070 <0.05 1.44
Cs 0.0280 ± 0.0046 0.0198 ± 0.0015 0.150 >0.05 0.71
Cu 7.88 ± 0.54 11.8 ± 2.2 0.146 >0.05 1.50
Dy 0.00140 ± 0.00039 0.00169 ± 0.00032 0.584 >0.05 1.21
Er 0.00075 ± 0.00025 0.00069 ± 0.00013 0.837 >0.05 0.92
Fe 145 ± 20 136 ± 20 0.749 >0.05 0.94
Gd 0.00140 ± 0.00027 0.00163 ± 0.00046 0.671 >0.05 1.16
Hg 0.219 ± 0.036 0.285 ± 0.042 0.250 >0.05 1.30
Ho 0.000258 ± 0.000072 0.000373 ± 0.000058 0.260 >0.05 1.45
K 15 438 ± 1584 13 666 ± 221 0.328 >0.05 0.89
La 0.0190 ± 0.0028 0.0184 ± 0.0058 0.929 >0.05 0.97
Li 0.041 ± 0.013 0.036 ± 0.009 0.776 >0.05 0.89
Mg 1255 ± 112 1156 ± 127 0.574 >0.05 0.92
Mn 1.16 ± 0.14 1.22 ± 0.13 0.795 >0.05 1.05
Mo 0.166 ± 0.012 0.168 ± 0.014 0.901 >0.05 1.01
Na 11 494 ± 1620 11 712 ± 1008 0.912 >0.05 1.02
Nb 0.0200 ± 0.0170 0.0024 ± 0.0006 0.380 >0.05 0.12
Nd 0.0066 ± 0.0017 0.0058 ± 0.0009 0.709 >0.05 0.88
Ni 5.06 ± 2.13 1.68 ± 0.20 0.188 >0.05 0.33
P 8445 ± 840 7458 ± 283 0.317 >0.05 0.88
Pb 0.65 ± 0.24 0.72 ± 0.23 0.837 >0.05 1.11
Pr 0.00166 ± 0.00053 0.00135 ± 0.00027 0.621 >0.05 0.81
Rb 14.4 ± 1.2 15.2 ± 1.1 0.630 >0.05 1.06
S 9504 ± 1 016 8189 ± 156 0.267 >0.05 0.86
Sb 0.178 ± 0.067 0.146 ± 0.024 0.651 >0.05 0.82
Sc 0.0171 ± 0.0036 0.0333 ± 0.0058 0.036 <0.05 1.95
Se 1.13 ± 0.07 1.10 ± 0.12 0.833 >0.05 0.97
Si 183 ± 45 105 ± 13 0.157 >0.05 0.57
Sm 0.00130 ± 0.00048 0.00153 ± 0.00060 0.769 >0.05 1.18
Sn 0.054 ± 0.006 0.153 ± 0.047 0.089 <0.05 2.83
Sr 3.89 ± 1.29 3.86 ± 0.62 0.983 >0.05 0.99
Tb 0.000154 ± 0.000043 0.000177 ± 0.000031 0.678 >0.05 1.15
Th 0.00178 ± 0.00045 0.00182 ± 0.00053 0.959 >0.05 1.02
Tia 1.48 ± 0.32 1.57 ± 0.27 0.841 >0.05 1.06
Tl 0.00156 ± 0.00025 0.00248 ± 0.00114 0.471 >0.05 1.59
Tm 0.000136 ± 0.000036 0.000163 ± 0.000027 0.560 >0.05 1.20
U 0.0031 ± 0.0020 0.00125 ± 0.00036 0.414 >0.05 0.40
Y 0.0068 ± 0.0023 0.0074 ± 0.0012 0.821 >0.05 1.09
Yb 0.00076 ± 0.00040 0.00088 ± 0.00019 0.790 >0.05 1.16
Zn 1113 ± 88 1212 ± 141 0.239 >0.05 1.09
Zr 0.135 ± 0.089 0.062 ± 0.019 0.476 >0.05 0.46
Open in a new tab

BPH, benign prostatic hyperplasia; M, arithmetic mean; SEM, standard error of mean; t-test, Student's t-test; U-test, Wilcoxon-Mann-Whitney U-test; Bold represents significant differences.

a

Titanium tools were used.

To estimate the effect of stage of disease on the chemical element mass fractions in BPH tissue, we examined two groups: The first comprised persons with stages 1 and 2 combined (mean age 66 ± 8 years, n = 36) and the second comprised those with stage 3 (mean age 69 ± 7 years, n = 7). The means, the ratios of means and the differences between mean values of chemical element mass fractions, evaluated by both parametric Student's t-test and non-parametric Wilcoxon-Mann-Whitney U-test, in two groups were presented in Table 6.

Table 6.

Differences between mean values (M ± SEM) of the chemical element mass fraction (mg/kg, dry mass basis) in BPH of stage 1–2 and stage 3.

Element Stage 1–2 (n = 36) Stage 3 (n = 7) t-test p-Value U-test p-Value Ratio (Stages 3/(1–2))
Ag 0.046 ± 0.012 0.027 ± 0.008 0.205 >0.05 0.59
Al 27.0 ± 4.1 20.5 ± 5.3 0.362 >0.05 0.76
Au 0.0032 ± 0.0012 0.0015 ± 0.0003 0.204 >0.05 0.47
B 1.68 ± 0.47 1.30 ± 0.18 0.480 >0.05 0.77
Ba 1.42 ± 0.30 0.88 ± 0.11 0.123 >0.05 0.62
Be 0.000957 ± 0.000043 0.000850 ± 0.000087 0.323 >0.05 0.89
Bi 0.181 ± 0.055 0.068 ± 0.053 0.175 >0.05 0.38
Br 28.0 ± 3.7 39.1 ± 6.2 0.159 >0.05 1.40
Ca 1967 ± 248 2147 ± 162 0.560 >0.05 1.09
Cd 1.27 ± 0.67 0.73 ± 0.22 0.470 >0.05 0.57
Ce 0.0147 ± 0.0025 0.0095 ± 0.0023 0.157 >0.05 0.65
Co 0.0667 ± 0.0106 0.0485 ± 0.0078 0.184 >0.05 0.73
Cr 0.990 ± 0.061 0.993 ± 0.310 0.992 >0.05 1.00
Cs 0.0259 ± 0.0035 0.0195 ± 0.0017 0.142 >0.05 0.75
Cu 9.63 ± 1.91 10.2 ± 1.6 0.826 >0.05 1.06
Dy 0.00157 ± 0.00027 0.00153 ± 0.00051 0.946 >0.05 0.97
Er 0.00077 ± 0.00016 0.00064 ± 0.00022 0.646 >0.05 0.83
Fe 146 ± 17 118 ± 10 0.161 >0.05 0.81
Gd 0.00137 ± 0.00020 0.00180 ± 0.00069 0.586 >0.05 1.31
Hg 0.287 ± 0.035 0.176 ± 0.033 0.034 >0.05 0.61
Ho 0.000333 ± 0.000057 0.000300 ± 0.000097 0.782 >0.05 0.90
K 15 356 ± 1012 12 924 ± 426 0.058 =0.05 0.84
La 0.0216 ± 0.0038 0.0120 ± 0.0020 0.056 =0.05 0.56
Li 0.0371 ± 0.0096 0.0408 ± 0.0127 0.828 >0.05 1.10
Mg 1188 ± 121 1223 ± 111 0.836 >0.05 1.03
Mn 1.22 ± 0.13 1.15 ± 0.14 0.738 >0.05 0.94
Mo 0.166 ± 0.007 0.170 ± 0.023 0.870 >0.05 1.02
Na 11 400 ± 1039 11 984 ± 1753 0.786 >0.05 1.05
Nb 0.0145 ± 0.0124 0.0026 ± 0.0010 0.377 >0.05 0.18
Nd 0.0069 ± 0.0012 0.0050 ± 0.0011 0.286 >0.05 0.72
Ni 3.27 ± 1.50 3.13 ± 1.55 0.948 >0.05 0.96
P 8305 ± 590 7211 ± 356 0.147 >0.05 0.87
Pb 0.71 ± 0.17 0.65 ± 0.35 0.890 >0.05 0.92
Pr 0.00164 ± 0.00037 0.00123 ± 0.00039 0.461 >0.05 0.75
Rb 14.8 ± 0.9 14.9 ± 1.3 0.961 >0.05 1.01
S 9179 ± 732 8101 ± 228 0.202 >0.05 0.88
Sb 0.193 ± 0.044 0.080 ± 0.033 0.055 <0.05 0.41
Sc 0.0245 ± 0.0047 0.0308 ± 0.0081 0.541 >0.05 1.26
Se 1.13 ± 0.08 1.07 ± 0.15 0.751 >0.05 0.95
Si 162 ± 34 104 ± 18 0.171 >0.05 0.64
Sm 0.00161 ± 0.00056 0.00110 ± 0.00038 0.467 >0.05 0.68
Sn 0.073 ± 0.017 0.170 ± 0.070 0.259 >0.05 2.33
Sr 3.95 ± 0.76 3.63 ± 0.84 0.786 >0.05 0.92
Tb 0.000161 ± 0.000030 0.000175 ± 0.000048 0.819 >0.05 1.09
Th 0.00180 ± 0.00034 0.00180 ± 0.00079 0.999 >0.05 1.00
Tia 1.63 ± 0.24 1.35 ± 0.38 0.557 >0.05 0.83
Tl 0.00260 ± 0.00089 0.00115 ± 0.00020 0.167 >0.05 0.44
Tm 0.000157 ± 0.000025 0.000140 ± 0.000044 0.748 >0.05 0.89
U 0.0029 ± 0.0014 0.00077 ± 0.00017 0.196 >0.05 0.27
Y 0.0075 ± 0.0015 0.0063 ± 0.0020 0.648 >0.05 0.84
Yb 0.00087 ± 0.00026 0.00075 ± 0.00034 0.786 >0.05 0.86
Zn 1107 ± 93 1152 ± 161 0.814 >0.05 1.04
Zr 0.117 ± 0.059 0.053 ± 0.023 0.346 >0.05 0.45
Open in a new tab

BPH, benign prostatic hyperplasia; M, arithmetic mean; SEM, standard error of mean; t-test, Student's t-test; U-test, Wilcoxon-Mann-Whitney U-test; Bold represents significant differences.

a

Titanium tools were used.

Table 7, Table 8 depict the data of inter-correlation calculations (values of r–coefficient of correlation) including pairs of selected Bi, Cr, Cs,Hg, K, Mo, Pb, Sb, Se, Sn, and Zn with all other chemical elements identified in normal and BPH prostate glands, respectively.

Table 7.

Intercorrelations of selected pairs of the trace element mass fractions in normal prostate glands of adults (r–coefficient of correlation).

Pairs Bi Cr Cs Hg K Mo Pb Sb Se Sn Zn
Ag −0.19 −0.27 −0.16 0.32 0.14 0.13 0.15 0.22 −0.19 0.45 0.10
Al −0.09 −0.04 −0.29 −0.09 0.23 −0.04 −0.13 0.04 −0.03 −0.11 −0.13
Au −0.18 0.26 0.11 0.15 −0.27 0.34 −0.04 0.33 0.34 0.18 −0.17
B 0.10 0.02 −0.05 0.09 0.02 0.43 0.20 −0.09 −0.12 0.13 −0.15
Ba 0.14 −0.24 −0.27 0.01 −0.09 −0.16 −0.04 −0.28 −0.27 −0.05 0.19
Be −0.19 0.25 −0.01 0.02 −0.06 0.08 0.01 −0.04 0.19 0.11 0.17
Bi 1.00 −0.26 0.16 −0.15 0.12 −0.23 0.23 −0.28 0.00 0.05 −0.07
Br −0.44 0.03 −0.33 0.09 −0.31 0.38 0.13 0.01 −0.29 0.20 −0.17
Ca 0.16 −0.25 −0.20 −0.17 −0.22 0.06 0.07 −0.13 −0.21 0.20 −0.04
Cd 0.09 0.28 −0.24 0.03 −0.13 −0.01 0.26 −0.10 −0.10 −0.04 −0.27
Ce 0.65 −0.10 0.10 −0.06 0.13 −0.26 0.01 −0.22 −0.05 −0.09 −0.19
Co 0.14 0.12 −0.21 0.01 −0.21 −0.11 −0.01 0.18 −0.07 0.00 −0.09
Cr −0.26 1.00 0.34 0.06 −0.13 0.16 −0.07 0.26 0.42 −0.21 0.03
Cs 0.16 0.34 1.00 0.27 0.21 0.17 0.27 0.07 0.32 0.08 0.15
Cu −0.31 0.16 0.14 0.56 −0.10 0.39 0.14 −0.18 0.17 0.17 0.38
Dy −0.03 −0.15 −0.31 −0.19 0.21 −0.26 −0.34 −0.11 −0.13 −0.21 −0.18
Er −0.06 −0.09 −0.32 −0.26 0.33 −0.27 −0.32 0.01 −0.08 −0.14 −0.18
Fe −0.13 0.42 0.04 0.09 −0.04 0.13 −0.04 0.29 0.28 −0.09 0.08
Gd 0.24 −0.15 −0.21 −0.22 0.32 −0.38 −0.24 −0.09 −0.11 −0.19 −0.23
Hg −0.15 −0.06 0.27 1.00 0.12 0.29 0.36 0.08 0.41 0.19 0.38
Ho −0.05 −0.08 −0.27 −0.20 0.38 −0.17 −0.31 0.02 −0.06 −0.18 −0.24
K 0.12 −0.13 0.21 0.12 1.00 −0.32 −0.18 −0.25 0.28 −0.34 0.02
La 0.03 −0.22 0.03 −0.22 0.12 −0.13 −0.07 0.04 −0.16 0.19 −0.08
Li −0.02 0.31 0.09 −0.01 −0.20 0.31 0.26 0.25 0.19 0.33 −0.14
Mg 0.03 −0.01 0.26 0.15 0.20 −0.18 0.10 0.37 0.16 −0.30 0.57
Mn −0.14 0.05 0.01 0.02 0.10 0.20 0.05 0.28 0.08 −0.02 −0.08
Mo −0.23 0.16 0.17 0.29 −0.32 1.00 0.15 0.32 −0.14 0.61 −0.05
Na −0.08 0.24 0.31 −0.01 0.23 −0.36 −0.14 0.30 0.12 −0.28 0.25
Nb −0.18 −0.02 −0.23 0.34 −0.44 0.56 0.05 0.39 −0.22 0.45 −0.32
Nd 0.60 −0.13 0.01 −0.16 0.19 −0.34 −0.17 −0.16 −0.06 −0.12 −0.22
Ni −0.21 −0.15 −0.06 0.45 −0.28 0.57 0.39 −0.12 −0.16 0.05 0.07
P 0.04 0.05 0.01 0.37 0.21 −0.03 −0.05 −0.22 0.35 −0.02 0.80
Pb 0.23 −0.07 0.27 0.36 −0.18 0.15 1.00 0.09 −0.05 0.36 −0.01
Pr 0.65 −0.12 0.06 −0.08 0.16 −0.28 −0.03 −0.21 −0.05 −0.10 −0.19
Rb 0.10 0.40 0.58 0.42 0.51 0.03 0.19 0.34 0.35 −0.15 0.27
S −0.16 0.27 0.16 −0.02 0.68 −0.28 −0.25 −0.09 0.43 −0.40 0.08
Sb −0.28 0.26 0.07 0.08 −0.25 0.32 0.09 1.00 −0.08 0.17 −0.09
Sc 0.59 0.01 0.36 0.52 0.22 −0.18 0.14 0.03 0.63 −0.34 0.63
Se −0.01 0.42 0.32 0.41 0.28 −0.14 −0.05 −0.08 1.00 −0.13 0.28
Si 0.42 −0.05 −0.02 −0.01 0.32 −0.23 −0.11 −0.15 0.12 −0.14 −0.17
Sm 0.43 −0.14 −0.07 −0.13 0.24 −0.27 −0.11 −0.08 −0.05 −0.16 −0.21
Sn 0.05 −0.21 0.08 0.19 −0.34 0.61 0.36 0.17 −0.13 1.00 −0.11
Sr 0.39 −0.01 0.09 −0.22 −0.45 0.15 0.18 −0.12 −0.05 0.24 −0.22
Tb 0.15 −0.19 −0.29 −0.23 0.28 −0.35 −0.33 −0.06 −0.06 −0.14 −0.22
Th 0.53 0.01 0.04 −0.20 −0.01 −0.35 −0.12 −0.19 0.04 −0.17 −0.16
Tia −0.01 0.06 −0.04 0.03 −0.02 0.16 −0.22 −0.24 −0.12 −0.05 0.17
Tl −0.20 0.34 0.22 0.34 0.46 −0.25 −0.05 −0.16 0.64 −0.28 0.50
Tm −0.14 −0.11 −0.28 −0.11 0.40 −0.23 −0.21 0.04 −0.10 −0.19 −0.21
U −0.10 0.07 0.45 −0.01 −0.11 0.56 0.01 0.15 −0.29 0.40 0.00
Y −0.03 −0.29 −0.15 0.01 0.04 −0.17 0.21 0.09 −0.21 0.37 −0.04
Yb −0.08 −0.11 −0.35 −0.25 0.34 −0.30 −0.38 −0.03 −0.10 −0.17 −0.20
Zn −0.07 0.03 0.15 0.38 0.02 −0.05 −0.01 −0.09 0.28 −0.11 1.00
Zr −0.19 0.10 −0.13 −0.16 0.23 −0.33 −0.31 −0.17 0.09 −0.31 −0.07
Open in a new tab

Bold represents significant differences.

a

Titanium tools were used.

Table 8.

Intercorrelations of selected pairs of the trace element mass fractions in BPH prostate gland (r–coefficient of correlation).

Pairs Bi Cr Cs Hg K Mo Pb Sb Se Sn Zn
Ag −0.37 0.09 −0.02 0.49 −0.01 0.12 0.34 −0.15 −0.46 0.13 0.72
Al 0.23 0.51 0.45 0.62 0.70 −0.03 0.60 0.42 0.70 −0.16 0.27
Au −0.10 0.07 0.18 0.31 −0.02 0.10 0.13 −0.09 0.12 −0.19 0.06
B 0.40 0.09 −0.48 −0.16 −0.39 0.26 0.02 −0.37 −0.10 −0.22 −0.42
Ba −0.22 0.29 0.42 0.79 0.58 −0.08 0.39 0.16 −0.11 0.04 0.57
Be −0.05 0.37 0.18 0.53 0.18 0.09 0.55 −0.02 0.05 −0.06 0.33
Bi 1.00 0.13 0.09 0.02 0.25 0.15 −0.15 0,42 0.34 −0.56 −0.43
Br −0.33 −0.18 −0.14 −0.39 −0.20 −0.50 0.37 −0.14 −0.22 0.85 −0.05
Ca −0.50 0.63 −0.04 0.47 0.01 0.17 0.07 −0.35 0.29 0.05 0.46
Cd 0.36 0.59 −0.22 0.42 −0.09 0.25 −0.21 −0.16 0.26 −0.22 0.41
Ce 0.04 0.38 0.67 0.81 0.77 −0.11 0.66 0.48 0.41 −0.15 0.31
Co 0.34 0.35 0.44 0.48 0.38 -.0.21 0.31 0.33 0.37 −0.19 0.33
Cr 0.13 1.00 −0.31 0.40 0.01 0.74 −0.15 −0.23 0.49 −0.44 0.29
Cs 0.09 −0.31 1.00 0.47 0.84 −0.54 0.56 0.88 0.36 −0.12 −0.10
Cu 0.19 0.64 −0.21 0.50 0.01 0.29 −0.24 −0.22 0.36 −0.08 0.63
Dy −0.02 0.66 0.02 0.35 0.28 0.09 0.44 −0.02 0.53 0.06 0.31
Er 0.04 0.58 0.26 0.44 0.58 0.15 0.39 0.15 0.47 −0.15 0.10
Fe 0.27 0.06 −0.34 0.27 −0.23 −0.06 −0.34 −0.16 −0.31 0.12 −0.29
Gd −0.22 0.26 0.23 0.35 0.14 −0.13 0.79 0.16 0.41 0.34 0.36
Hg 0.02 0.40 0.47 1.00 0.54 0.18 0.43 0.26 −0.13 −0.23 0.56
Ho 0.04 0.75 −0.18 0.35 0,16 0.30 0.30 −0.18 0.27 0.01 0.45
K 0.25 0.01 0.84 0.54 1.00 −0.33 0.39 0.75 0.40 −0.26 −0.13
La 0.49 0.06 0.01 0.02 0.14 0.08 0.36 0.06 −0.01 −0.23 −0.32
Li 0.28 0.08 0.56 0.32 0.59 −0.02 0.16 0.65 0.24 −0.23 −0.14
Mg −0.12 0.33 0.56 0.57 0.55 −0.19 0.40 0.38 0.73 −0.01 0.20
Mn −0.19 −0.10 0.20 0.48 0.06 0.01 0.55 0.06 −0.56 0.23 0.44
Mo 0.15 0.74 −0.54 0.18 −0.33 1.00 −0.42 −0.52 −0.16 −0.56 0.14
Na 0.18 −0.28 0.35 0.16 0.26 −0.14 0.06 0.30 0.16 0.04 −0.21
Nb −0.30 0.40 0.06 0.11 0.39 0.03 −0.08 −0.14 0.25 −0.15 0.02
Nd 0.07 0.42 0.58 0.82 0.73 0.04 0.68 0.42 0.29 −0.14 0.31
Ni −0.38 0.46 −0.11 0.03 0.12 0.30 −0.28 −0.31 0.05 −0.30 −0.04
P 0.27 −0.29 0.83 0.48 0.75 −0.33 0.55 0.77 0.01 −0.16 −0.17
Pb −0.15 −0.15 0.56 0.43 0.39 0.42 1.00 0.45 0.12 0.44 0.31
Pr 0.07 0.27 0.64 0.67 0.74 −0.09 0.75 0.53 0.33 −0.08 0.19
Rb 0.09 0.13 0.29 0.12 0.35 0.20 0.26 0.19 0.07 −0.39 0.16
S 0.31 −0.30 0.93 0.41 0.85 −0.43 0.58 0.92 0.31 −0.18 −0.28
Sb 0.42 0.23 0.88 0.26 0.75 −0.52 0.45 1.00 0.15 −0.21 −0.11
Sc −0.82 0.50 −0.48 0.64 −0.32 0.12 0.05 −0.08 −0.29 0.53 0.77
Se 0.34 0.49 0.36 −0.13 0.40 −0.16 0.12 0.15 1.00 −0.31 −0.28
Si 0.21 −0.05 0.89 0.40 0.92 −0.40 0.49 0.83 0.57 −0.25 −0.24
Sm 0.06 0.70 0.21 0.65 0.41 0.02 0.20 0.11 0.61 −0.14 0.48
Sn −0.56 −0.44 −0.12 −0.23 −0.26 −0.56 0.44 −0.21 −0.31 1.00 0.26
Sr −0.04 0.45 0.34 −0.05 0.52 −0.16 −0.07 −0.08 0.50 −0.07 −0.22
Tb 0.09 0.25 0.33 0.53 0.59 0.16 0.16 0.25 0.05 −0.07 0.10
Th −0.17 0.26 0.43 0.44 0.43 −0.33 0.77 0.33 0.52 0.27 0.35
Tia −0.23 0.49 −0.36 0.21 −0.33 0.26 0.18 −0.52 −0.08 0.05 0.45
Tl 0.66 0.03 −0.18 −0.17 0.03 0.09 0.11 0.02 −0.13 −0.14 −0.46
Tm −0.08 0.71 −0.06 0.44 0.20 0.23 0.46 −0.17 0.35 0.05 0.43
U 0.37 −0.08 0.86 0.58 0.86 −0.28 0.54 0.82 0.32 −0.23 −0.17
Y 0.05 0.74 0.05 0.43 0.42 0.23 0.29 −0.04 0.46 −0.13 0.22
Yb −0.11 0.62 0.01 0.25 0.33 0.03 0.30 −0.10 0.50 0.07 0.21
Zn −0.43 0.29 −0.10 0.57 −0.13 0.14 0.31 −0.11 −0.28 0.26 1.00
Zr −0.20 0.08 0.01 0.17 −0.18 0.13 0.16 −0.26 0.02 −0.07 0.09
Open in a new tab

BPH, benign prostatic hyperplasia; Bold represents significant differences.

a

Titanium tools were used.

4. Discussion

The use of five analytical methods allowed us to estimate the mass fractions of 66 non hyperplastic chemical elements in non hyperplastic and BPH prostate glands of males in the age range 38–87 years. Good agreement was found between the results obtained with non-destructive (EDXRF, NAA-SLR, and NAA-LLR) and destructive methods (ICP-AES and ICP-MS) for Ag, Br, Ca, Co, Cr, Fe, K, Mg, Mn, Na, Rb, Sb, Se, Sr, and Zn indicating complete digestion of the prostate samples (for ICP techniques) and correctness of all results obtained by the various methods. The fact that the elemental mass fractions (mean ± SD) of the certified reference materials obtained in the present work were in good agreement with the certified values and within the corresponding 95% confidence intervals [32], [33], [39], [40], [41], [42], [43] non hyperplastic suggests an acceptable accuracy of the measurements performed on our prostate samples (Table 1, Table 2).

In the hyperplastic prostates an increase in mass fractions of B, Bi, Co, Cr, Fe, Hg, K, Nb, Sb, Se, Si, Sr, Tl, and Zr in comparison with the normal prostates was observed (Table 3). In particular, a significant higher level of Bi, Cr, Hg, K, Sb, and Se was found in BPH gland (Table 3). For example, in prostate glands of patients with BPH the means of Bi, Hg, and Sb mass fraction were almost 4–5 times greater than in controls. Such elements as B, Bi, Co, Cr, Fe, Nb, Sb, Si, Tl, and Zr bind more tightly within the prostatic cells than within prostatic fluid [48], [49], [50], [51], [52], [53], [54], [55]. Thus, because the major characteristic of BPH is an overgrowth of the prostatic cells, it becomes clear why an increase in the prostatic B, Bi, Co, Cr, Fe, Nb, Sb, Si, Tl, and Zr mass fractions has respect to a hyperplastic transformation. Trace element Se is an important non-enzymatic antioxidant that reduces the activity of number of physiologically generated oxygen radicals. High levels of such trace elements as Co, Cr, Hg, Fe and Zn and an imbalance with other transition metals (for example, low level of Mn) indicate indirectly an increased oxidative stress in BPH tissue. Thus, it might be supposed that the accession of oxidative stress in BPH gland was accompanied by the elevated level of Se.

In the hyperplastic prostates, we have observed an increase in mass fraction of K in comparison with the histologically normal prostates (Table 3). It is well known that K is the major cation of the intracellular fluid and cells are the main pool of this electrolyte in human body [47]. Thus, because the major characteristic of BPH is an overgrowth of the prostatic cells [1], becomes clear why an increase in the prostatic K mass fractions has respect to a hyperplastic transformation.

In the hyperplastic prostates a significant decrease in mass fraction of Al, Ce, Cs, Dy, Er, Gd, Ho, La, Mo, Nd, Pb, Pr, Sm, Sn, Tb, Tm, U, and Y in comparison with the normal prostates was also found (Table 3). The biochemical reason behind the low levels of these element mass fractions in BPH gland requires further study for a more complete understanding. No statistically significant differences between the mean values of all other chemical element mass fractions determined in this study (Ag, Au, B, Ba, Be, Br, Ca, Cd, Co, Cu, Fe, Li, Mg, Mn, Na, Nb, Ni, P, Rb, S, Sc, Si, Sr, Th, Ti, Tl, Yb, Zn, and Zr) for BPH and normal prostates were shown (Table 3).

The obtained mean values for Ca, Cd, Cu, Fe, Mg, P, Rb, Se, Sr, and Zn mass fractions in BPH gland, as shown in Table 4, agree well with median of means cited by other researches. Mean values for Br, K, and Na mass fraction were somewhat higher than the maximum of previously reported mean values while mean value for S were somewhat lower than the minimum of reported means. The means of this work for Co, Cr, Mn, Ni, Pb, and Ti mass fractions were almost from one to two orders of magnitude lower than previously reported minimal results [21], [24], [26], [31]. No published data referring to Ag, Al, Au, B, Ba, Be, Bi, Ce, Cs, Dy, Er, Gd, Hg, Ho, La, Li, Mo, Nb, Nd, Pr, Sb, Sc, Si, Sm, Sn, Tb, Th, Tl, Tm, U, Y, Yb, and Zrmass fractions in BPH gland were found.

In previous publications [15], [16], [17], it was shown that in the histologically normal prostates of males in the sixth to ninth decades, the magnitude of mass fractions of all chemical elements were maintained at near constant levels. No age-related differences in mass fraction of chemical elements in the hyperplastic prostate glands of men aged from 38 to 83 years were found in this study (Table 5). The only exclusion was the mass fraction of Cr, Sc, and Sn. The mean mass fractions of Cr, Sc, and Sn in the hyperplastic prostate glands of males aged 66–83 years were 1.44, 1.95, and 2.83 times higher than in the hyperplastic prostate glands of males aged 38–65 years, respectively.

No differences in mass fraction of chemical elements in prostate of two BPH patient groups with different stage of disease and similar age ranges were found (Table 6). The only exclusion was the mass fraction of Hg and Sb. The mean mass fractions of Hg and Sb in the prostate glands of BPH patient with stage 1–2 of disease were 1.63, and 2.41 times higher than in the prostate of patient with stage 3 of disease. The biochemical reason behind the decrease of Hg and Sb mass fractions in the stage 3 of BPH requires further study for a more complete understanding.

In control group of males a statistically significant direct correlation was found, for example, between the prostatic Zn and Mg (r = 0.57), Zn and P (r = 0.80), Zn and Sc (r = 0.63), and Zn and Tl (r = 0.50) (Table 7). In hyperplastic prostates some correlations between trace elements found in the control group were no longer evident, for example, correlations for some pairs with Zn (Zn—Mg and Zn—P), but other correlations (direct Zn—Ag, Zn—Ba, Zn—Cu, and Zn—Hg) were arisen (Table 8). Thus, accepting the levels and relationships of chemical element mass fractions in prostate glands of males in the control group as a norm, it can be concluded that with a hyperplastic transformation the levels and relationships of chemical elements in prostate significantly changed. No published data referring to correlations between chemical elements mass fractions in BPH gland were found.

Numerous in vitro and in vivo studies have evidenced that the disturbed homeostasis of Ca, Zn, Fe, and Se can play a very important role in the mechanism of uncontrolled cellular hyperplasia [13], [56], [57]. The high level of Ca, Zn, Fe, Se and some other chemical element contents found just in the prostate gland [6], [7], [8], [9], [10] cannot be regarded as pure chance. It indicates that these elements must play here a very essential role in preserving the normal function of prostate cells and retaining the balance between their proliferation and physiological death (apoptosis). Exists an opinion that the elderly male population is predisposed to conditions of Ca, Zn, Fe, Se and some other chemical elements deficiencies [12], [58], [59], [60], [61], which can increase this population's susceptibility to BPH. Since iodine deficiency can make the thyroid gland expand in size, it is thought that a Zn deficiency may also cause the prostate gland to increase in size. According to the proponents of dietary supplemental Zn usage, in the absence of Zn supplements, cellular Zn uptake will be depressed and Zn levels in normal prostate cells will be reduced [14]. This study data reveal that there are no any differences between Ca, Zn, and Fe mass fractions in the prostate of healthy individuals and patients with BPH. Moreover, the mean level of Se content in hyperplastic prostates is significantly higher than in nonhyperplastic glands. Thus, “the potential role Zn, Fe, and Se deficiency” in the prostate [13] has not been confirmed as being involved in the etiology of BPH.

5. Conclusion

This work revealed that there is a significant tendency for an increase in Bi, Cr, Hg, K, Sb, and Se mass fraction in hyperplastic prostates. Present study finding of chemical element contents and correlation between pairs of chemical element mass fractions indicates that there is a great disturbance of prostatic chemical element relationships in BPH gland. Because the biochemical changes preceded the morphological transformations, it can be concluded that not only a high level of some chemical elements but also a great disturbance in the relationships of elements in prostatic parenchyma is a pathogenetic factor of BPH. Obtained data did not confirm a critical role of Cd and Pb accumulation in the pathogenesis of BPH. The potential age-related Ca, Zn, Fe, and Se deficiency in the prostate has not been found as being involved in the etiology of BPH. This work data cast doubts on a beneficial effect of the Ca, Zn, Fe, and Se supplementations on BPH prevention and treatment. An estimation of the significance of prostatic chemical element levels as the BPH markers is planned in the future investigations.

The current study had sufficient sample size to detect the differences between the prostatic levels of 66 chemical elements in patients with BPH and healthy male. A similarly but more larger future study is needed to explore possible chemical element variations in normal and BPH prostate due to peculiarity of diet and cacoethes, such as smoking, alcohol ingestion, etc.

Author contributions

Study concept and design: Vladimir Zaichick.

Data acquisition: Vladimir Zaichick.

Drafting of manuscript: Sofia Zaichick.

Critical revision of the manuscript: Sofia Zaichick.

Final approval of manuscript: Vladimir Zaichick.

Conflicts of interest

The authors declare no conflict of interest.

Acknowledgements

The authors are grateful to Dr. T. Sviridova, Medical Radiological Research Center, Obninsk, and Prof. A.A. Zhavoronkov, Institute of Human Morphology, Russian Academy of Medical Sciences, Moscow, for supplying prostate samples. The authors are also grateful to Dr. V. Karandaschev, Dr. S. Nosenko, and I. Moskvina, Institute of Microelectronics Technology and High Purity Materials, Chernogolovka, Russia, for their help in ICP-AES and ICP-MS analysis.

Footnotes

Peer review under responsibility of Second Military Medical University.

Contributor Information

Vladimir Zaichick, Email: vezai@obninsk.com.

Sofia Zaichick, Email: szaitc1@uic.edu.

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