Skip to main content
NCBI home page
Saudi Journal of Biological Sciences logoLink to Saudi Journal of Biological Sciences
. 2018 Aug 12;26(5):1037–1042. doi: 10.1016/j.sjbs.2018.08.010

The potential of antioxidant activity of methanolic extract of Coscinium fenestratum (Goetgh.) Colebr (Menispermaceae)

Krishnamoorthy Karthika a, Gangadharan Gargi a, Senguttuvan Jamuna a, Subramaniyam Paulsamy a,⁎, Mohammad Ajmal Ali b,⁎, Fahad Al-Hemaid b, Mohamed Soliman Elshikh b, Joongku Lee c,⁎
PMCID: PMC6601032  PMID: 31303838

Abstract

To explore the possible bioactive compounds and to study the antioxidant capacity of Coscinium fenestratum (Goetgh.) Colebr (Menispermaceae), the qualitative and quantitative phytochemical screening for various secondary metabolites were evaluated. Using the GC–MS analysis, a total number of 30 phytochemical compounds were predicted with their retention time, molecular weight, molecular formula, peak area, structure and activities. The most prevailing heterocyclic compound was Bis(2,4,6- triisopropylphenyl) phosphinicazide (6.70%). The antioxidant activity was evaluated by spectrophotometric methods using the reducing power assay and the DPPH• and ABTS•+ scavenging assays. The activity was determined to be increased in all the test samples with the increase in the volume of the extract. C. fenestratum possess a good source of many bioactive compounds that are used to prevent diseases linked with oxidative stress.

Keywords: Coscinium fenestratum, Menispermaceae, Biochemical characterization, Antioxidant activity

1. Introduction

The natural products from plant origin are safer than the synthetic drug molecules, and are widely recognized in the pharmaceutical industries for their broad structural diversity and the pharmacological activities (Newman and Cragg, 2016, Thenmozhi et al., 2018). Coscinium fenestratum (Goetgh.) Colebr. (-commonly known as ‘tree turmeric’, belongs to the family Menispermaceae), is a medicinally important dioecious threatened liana (Tushar et al., 2008), distributed in Vietnam, Singapore, Thailand, Sri Lanka and in isolated regions of the Western Ghats of India (Ved et al., 2015). The stem and root of C. fenestratum are used in the traditional system of medicine (Tushar et al., 2008). The active chemical berberine (-a natural isoquinoline alkaloid), ceryl alcohol, hentriacontane, palmitic acid, sitosterol, saponin with some resinous material and oleic acid have earlier been reported from C. fenestratum (Rojsanga et al., 2006) which possess variety of pharmacological activities including antidiabetic, anti-inflammatory, thermogenic and antiseptic activity (Kashyap et al., 2016). The free radicals and the other reactive oxygen species (ROS) generated within the living cells as a result of physiological and biochemical processes of the cells causes oxidative damage to the macromolecules of the cells, which lead to liver diseases (Arteel, 2003), asthma (Lobo et al., 2010, Bharathi et al., 2018), cancer (Kinnula and Crapo, 2004), chronic inflammation, diabetes, multiple sclerosis (Lobo et al., 2010, Bharathi et al., 2018), neural disorders (Sas et al., 2007), rheumatoid arthritis (Lobo et al., 2010, Bharathi et al., 2018), cardiovascular disease (Singh and Jialal, 2006), Alzheimer disease (Smith et al., 2000), Parkinson’s disease (Bolton et al., 2000), ulcerative colitis (Ramakrishna et al., 1997), and aging (Hyun et al., 2006). The free radicals and other reactive oxygen species can be scavenged by the protective role of antioxidants from the natural products of wild and medicinal plants (Pietta et al., 1998). Hence, the objective of the present study was to investigate the phytochemical constituents and antioxidant activity of C. fenestratum.

2. Materials and methods

2.1. Collection of the plant sample and the preparation of methanolic crude extract

The fresh leaves of C. fenestratum were collected from Velliangiri hills of Western Ghats, Coimbatore, Tamil Nadu, India. The semidry methanolic crude extract [MeOHCf, test compound] was prepared from 50 g of shade dried powdered leaves using soxhlet extractor.

2.2. In vitro antioxidant activity

There are various in vitro and in vivo methods available for the evaluation of the antioxidant activity of natural products (Alam et al., 2013). The reducing ability (Yildirim et al., 2001), DPPH radical scavenging activity (Blois, 1958), the total antioxidant activity (Siddhuraju and Manian, 2007) of MeOHCf were determined using the standard method in order to evaluate the in vitro antioxidant activity. One way analysis of variance (ANOVA) test was carried out for statistical analysis using SPSS 10.0.

2.3. Identification of the phytochemical components of MeOHCf by GC–MS analysis

The qualitative phytochemical analysis of MeOHCf for the phytochemicals viz., alkaloids, cardiac glycosides, glycosides, flavonoids, phenols, resins, steroids, saponins, tannins, triterpenoids terpenoids, were performed (Harborne, 1973, Trease and Evans, 1983). The alkaloid contents of MeOHCf was determined gravimetrically (Obadoni and Ochuko, 2001). The total phenolic and tannin contents of MeOHCf were estimated, and it was expressed as gallic acid equivalents (GAE) mg/g extract (Siddhuraju and Becker, 2003). The content of total flavonoids was determined spectrophotometrically using a standard curve rutin (Zhishen et al., 1999). MeOHCf was then subjected to the gas chromatography–mass spectrometry (GC–MS) analysis using 5975C Agilent Technologies GC systems equipped with DB-5 ms Agilent fused silica capillary column (30 × 0.25 mm ID, 0.25 μm film thickness) operating with electron impact mode at 70 eV. Finally MeOHCf was assigned for comparison of their retention indices and the mass spectra fragmentation patterns with chemical library of NIST (National Institute of Standards and Technology).

3. Results and discussion

The percentage yield of MeOHCf was 15.8% w/w. The preliminary phytochemical screening of MeOHCf revealed the presence of flavonoids, saponins and steroids in maximum amount. In addition, the chemical constituents such as alkaloids, terpenoids, triterpenoids, glycosides, cardiac glycosides, phenols, tannins and resins were also present (Table 1). Alkaloids have medicinal importance for the treatment of cancer, CNS disorders, hypertension, inflammation, and malaria (Patel et al., 2012). Phenols have been reported to possess the properties of quenching of oxygen-derived free radicals (Oksana et al., 2012). Tannins have been reported to possess a strong astringent properties as well as antimicrobial, anti-inflammatory and antioxidant activity, causing protein precipitation (Tyler et al., 1988). Flavonoids increases the capillary permeability and have been used for the treatment of cardiovascular diseases and possess potential antioxidant and anti-inflammatory properties (Das and Pereira, 1990).

Table 1.

Percentage yield and qualitative phytochemical analysis of MeOHCf.

Phytochemical constituents Trace Qualitative phytochemical analysis
Yield (%) 15.8 –
Alkaloids ++ Total alkaloids (mg/g of dry powder): 52.00 ± 0.19
Flavonoids +++ Total flavonoids (mg of QE/g extract): 42.01 ± 0.06
Terpenoids ++ –
Triterpenoids ++ –
Glycosides + –
Cardiac glycosides + –
Phenols ++ Total phenols (mg of GAE/g extract): 35.11 ± 0.04
Saponins +++ –
Steroids +++ –
Tannins ++ Total tannins (mg of GAE/g extract): 34.46 ± 0.02
Resins + –
Open in a new tab

+: Present, ++: Moderately present, +++: Highly present, GAE: Gallic Acid Equivalent, QE: Quercetin Equivalent. Values were performed in triplicates and represented as mean ± SD.

The spectrum profile of GC–MS was confirmed the presence of a total number of thirty compounds in MeOHCf (Table 2). The prevailing compounds [the total running time: 40.16 min. (Fig. 1)] were Bis(2,4,6-triisopropylphenyl) phosphinicazide, a hetrocyclic compound (peak area: 6.70%) (Fig. 2a), Methyl 2-N-cyclohexylamino-2,3-dideoxy-4,6-o-(phenylmethylene)-3-c-phenylsulfonyl-à,D-glucopyranoside (peak area: 5.99%) (Fig. 2b), Cyclohexane, 1,4-dimethyl-2-octadecyl- (CAS), an alcohol (peak area: 5.82) (Fig. 2c) and à-Cyperone, a sesquiterpene (peak area: 5.81) (Fig. 2d). C. fenestratumis endowed with various medicinal properties. Among the identified compounds, EthylN-(p-tolylsulfinyl)(à-trifluoromethyl)-à-allylglycinate was reported to exert anti-proliferative and antitumor activities (Leonardo et al., 2014). Anti-inflammatory property was shown by compounds 2-Thienylmethylo-(3′-<t-butyl > amino-2′-hydroxypropyl) ketoxime, Ethyl N-benzylanthranilate, à-Cyperone and Pyranthrene (Al-Riyami et al., 2013). Two compounds viz., Cyclohexane, 1,4-dimethyl-2-octadecyl- (CAS) and 10-[(3′,5′-Bis(trifluoromethyl)phenyl]-3-(ethoxycarbonyl methyl)ioalloxazine are reported to have anticancer property (Jungwirth et al., 2012). Aromatic heteropolycyclic compound, 17-(Cyclopropylmethyl)-à-(1′,1′-dimethylethyl) -4,5-epoxy -18,19-dihydro -3-hydroxy -6-methoxy-à-methyl -6,14-ethenomorphinane-7-methanol is a strong opioid antagonist, used as a tranquilizing agent in veterinary medicine (Furst et al., 1995). The compound, 1,5,6, 10b-Tetrahydro-8,9-dimethoxy-10b-(p-methoxyphenyl)-2-methylene- 2H-isoxazolo [3,2-a] isoquinoline-1-carbonitrile is used to lower the blood pressure and acts as antihypertensive agent (Peacock et al., 2015). In addition, various traditional medicinal plant species of Menispermaceae have been analyzed phytochemically using GC–MS, and suggested for drug preparation after succeeding clinical trials (Chandra and Lakshmi, 2015, Ramesh et al., 2016).

Table 2.

Compounds identified in the MeOHCf by GC–MS.

S. no. Name of the compound RT Molecular formula Molecular weight Peak area (%) Category of the compound Activitya
1. EthylN-(p-tolylsulfinyl)(à-trifluoromethyl)-à-allylglycinate 4.16 C15H18F3NO3S 349 2.56 Cyclic compound Antiproliferative and antitumor properties
2. Trimethylester of(4r,5s:4s,5r)-5-(methoxycarbonylmethyl)-1-methyl-2-pyrazolin-3,4,5-tricarbxylic acid 4.98 C13H18N2O8 330 1.76 Hetrocyclic compound No activity reported
3. 2-Thienylmethylo-(3′-<t-butyl > amino-2′-hydroxypropyl) ketoxime 12.60 C14H23N2O2S 283 1.74 Hetrocyclic compound Antiinflammatory activity
4. Benzaldehyde, 4-hydroxy-3-methoxy-(CAS) 14.11 C8H8O3 152 2.12 Phenolic aldehyde Anticonvulsant, antioxidant, antimutagenic agents
5. D-friedoolean-14-en-3-one (CAS) 21.72 C30H48O 424 2.41 Triterpenoid derivatives Antifungal and antioxidant agents
6. Ethyl N-benzylanthranilate 22.03 C16H17NO2 255 2.55 Coumarin Antiinflammatory activity
7. (E)-á-[2-hydroxyphenylethylene]benzeneethanol-D2 23.38 C15H12D2O2 226 1.64 – No activity reported
8. Himachalol 25.23 C15H26O 222 2.63 Sesquiterpene alcohol Insecticidal activity, Antitumor activity
9. 1,5,6, 10b-Tetrahydro-8,9-dimethoxy-10b-(p-methoxyphenyl)-2-methylene-2H-isoxazolo[3,2-a]isoquinoli ne-1-carbonitrile 25.64 C22H22N2O4 378 1.54 Organic compound Lowers blood pressure, Antihypertensive agent
10. 1,9-Dimethoxy-10-methyl-2-(carbamoylmethylcarbonyl)-3-(methoxycarbon ylmethyl)-10-methyl-anthracene 26.15 C23H23NO6 409 2.82 Alkaloid Immunosuppressive agent
11. à-Cyperone 26.78 C15H22O 218 5.81 Sesquiterpene Antiinflammatory activity
12. 17-(Cyclopropylmethyl)-à-(1′,1′-dimethylethyl)-4,5- epoxy-18,19-dihydro-3-hydroxy-6-methoxy-à-methyl -6,14-ethenomorphinane-7-methanol 27.19 C26H35NO4 425 1.68 Aromatic heteropolycyclic compound Strongest opioid antagonist and used for tranquilizing large animals in veterinary medicine.
13. 1-P-menthen-8-yl acetate 27.74 C12H20O2 196 1.76 Aromatic compound Flavor and fragrance agent
14. 6-Bromohexanoic acid, 10-undecenyl ester 28.51 C17H31BrO2 346 2.54 Aliphatic compound No activity reported
15. 2-[Diacetylamino]-6-(3′-methyl-5′-oxo-1′-phenyl-2′-pyrazolin-4′-yl)-4-phenylpyridine-3-carbonitrile 30.32 C26H21N5O3 451 4.80 Aliphatic compound No activity reported
16. Pyranthrene 31.02 C30H16 376 5.16 Aromatic compound Antiinflammatory activity
17. Methyl 2-N-cyclohexylamino-2,3-dideoxy-4,6-o-(phenylme thylene)-3-c-phenylsulfonyl-à,D-glucopyranoside 31.73 C26H32NO6S 486 5.99 – No activity reported
18. 1-Pyrrolidino-benzoanthra-9,10-quinnone 32.03 C22H21NO2 331 2.95 Heterocyclic aromatic organic compound Antibiotic agent
19. (22E)-3áAcetoxy- 7.alpha,-hydroperoxystigmasta-5, 22-diene 32.69 C31H50O4 486 1.54 Triterpene Piscicidal activity
20. 1-Diphenylphosphino-1-dichlorophosphino-[1]-ferrocene 33.34 C22H18C12FeP2 470 4.24 Organophosphorus No activity reported
21. Bis(2,4,6-triisopropylphenyl)phosphinicazide 35.54 C30H46N3OP 495 6.70 Hetrocyclic compound Antitumor and antifolate properties
22. 6-[N-(Cyanoamino)]-3á-methoxymethoxy-cholestane 36.62 C30H50N2O2 470 3.85 Alkaloid Antibiotic agent
23. 2,3-Bis(3′,4′-dimethoxyphenyl)-5,6-difluorobenzo[b]Furan 36.96 C24H20F2O5 426 4.02 Aromatic compound Antidepressant
24. 5á-Androst-16-en-3à-ol-[(t-butyl)dimethylsilyl] ether 37.43 C25H44OSi 388 2.88 Aromatic compound Antidepressant
25. 3-(4-Chlorobenzoyl)-7-methyl-2-(2-methylphenylimino)indole 38.00 C23H19C1N2O 374 4.62 Organochlorine Antifungal and antioxidant properties
26. Cyclohexane, 1,4-dimethyl-2-octadecyl- (CAS) 38.37 C26H52 364 5.82 Alcohol Anticancer agent
27. 10-[(3′,5′-Bis(trifluoromethyl)phenyl]-3-(ethoxycarbonylmethyl)ioalloxazine 38.61 C22H14F6N4O4 512 2.20 Tricyclic compound Anticancer agent
28. 13-Docosenamide, (z)- 39.00 C22H43NO 337 4.46 Carboxylic acid amide Used as a detergent, fabric softener, anti-static agent, anti-caking agent, germicide, lubricant, ore floating agent, emulsifier, water treatment agent and insecticide.
29. {[Thorium-(pentamethylcyclopentadienyl)]-tris[(trimethylsilylamino)-1′,2′-ethylideneamino]} 39.43 C25H54N4Si3Th 726 4.80 Aromatic compound No activity reported
30. Methyl6-deoxy-6-isothiocyanato-2,3,4-tri-o-trimethylsilylà- D-galactopyranoside 39.82 C17H37NO5Si3 451 2.40 Organic compound No activity reported
Open in a new tab
a

Source: Dr. Duke’s Phytochemical and Ethnobotanical Databases.

Fig. 1.

Fig. 1

Open in a new tab

GC–MS chromatogram of methanolic leaf extract of Coscinium fenestratum.

Fig. 2a.

Fig. 2a

Open in a new tab

Mass spectrum of Bis(2,4,6-triisopropylphenyl) phosphinicazid.

Fig. 2b.

Fig. 2b

Open in a new tab

Mass spectrum of Methyl2-N-cyclohexylamino-2,3-dideoxy-4,6-O-(phenylmethylene) -3-C-phenylsulfonyl-à,D-glucopyranoside.

Fig. 2c.

Fig. 2c

Open in a new tab

Mass spectrum of Cyclohexane, 1,4-dimethyl-2-octadecyl- (CAS).

Fig. 2d.

Fig. 2d

Open in a new tab

Mass spectrum of à-Cyperone.

The antioxidants molecules helps in preventing diseases by neutralize the effects of ROS (Sindhi et al., 2013). The antioxidant property of MeOHCf was determined using various methods. In reducing power assay, MeOHCf displayed significant activity which was found to increase with the increase in the concentration (Table 3) which may serve as significant indicator for the potential antioxidant activity. The results of the resent study were in accordance with the previous reports (Karthika et al., 2014, Thenmozhi et al., 2015). The percentage of scavenging activity on the DPPH radical varies from 32.54% (50 µg/mL of extract) to 64.80% (250 µg/mL of extract). The IC50 value of MeOHCf was 182.48 µg/mL (Table 4). The extract showed significant scavenging effect on the DPPH• which was increasing with the increase in the concentration of the sample from 50 to 250 µg/mL, which might be due to abundance of the flavonoid (42 mg of QE/g extract) content, the most required bio compounds for scavenging activity. Similar trend of this activity was also documented previously in our laboratory (Karthika et al., 2014). MeOHCf exhibited higher ABTS•+ scavenging activity. The 2,2′-azinobis (3-ethylbenzothiazoline sulphonate) radical cation (ABTS•+) scavenging activity was 2453.7 µmol trolox equivalent/ g extract (Table 4). This high activity could be due to abundance of secondary metabolites in the plant extracts (Rojsanga et al., 2006, Tushar et al., 2008).

Table 3.

Reducing power activity of MeOHCf compared with certain standard antioxidants.

Sample concentration (µg/ ml) Leaf extract (absorbance at 700 nm) Sample concentration (µg/ ml) Rutin BHA Quercitin BHT
50 0.610 ± 0.03a 20 0.238 ± 0.003a 0.236 ± 0.016b 0.359 ± 0.012a 0.224 ± 0.001a
100 0.645 ± 0.02a 40 0.350 ± 0.013c 0.396 ± 0.017c 0.632 ± 0.023b 0.368 ± 0.009b
150 0.723 ± 0.06b 60 0.408 ± 0.013c 0.496 ± 0.028d 0.718 ± 0.019c 0.478 ± 0.013c
200 0.816 ± 0.04c 80 0.476 ± 0.006b 0.593 ± 0.008a 0.833 ± 0.044d 0.517 ± 0.017d
250 1.060 ± 0.07d 100 0.557 ± 0.014c 0.644 ± 0.011b 0.973 ± 0.029e 0.584 ± 0.012e
Open in a new tab

Values were performed in triplicates and represented as mean ± SD.

Mean values followed by different superscript in a column are significantly different (p < 0.05).

Table 4.

DPPH• scavenging activity of MeOHCf compared with certain standard antioxidants.

Sample concentration (µg/ mL) % of inhibition IC50 value (µg/mL) Standard antioxidants IC50 value (µg/ mL)
50 32.54 ± 0.05a 182.48 Rutin 15.75 ± 0.01
100 32.74 ± 0.04a Quercetin 20.72 ± 0.05
150 44.21 ± 0.03b BHA 21.42 ± 0.11
200 50.09 ± 0.07bc BHT 34.74 ± 0.26
250 64.80 ± 0.04c
Open in a new tab

Values are performed in triplicates and represented as mean ± SD.

Mean values followed by different superscripts in a column are significantly different (p < 0.05).

Acknowledgments

Acknowledgement

The first author gratefully acknowledges the authorities of University Grants Commission, Hyderabad for their financial assistance to carry out this work [F.No. MRP – 6371/16 (SERO/UGC) dated 30.6.2017]. The authors extend their appreciation to the Deanship of Scientific Research at King Saud University for funding the work through the research group project (RG-1439-84).

Conflict of interest

The authors report no conflicts of interest in this work.

Footnotes

Peer review under responsibility of King Saud University.

Contributor Information

Subramaniyam Paulsamy, Email: spaulsamy2018@gmail.com, paulsami@yahoo.com.

Mohammad Ajmal Ali, Email: ajmalpdrc@gmail.com.

Joongku Lee, Email: joongku@cnu.ac.kr.

References

  1. Alam M.N., Bristi N.J., Rafiquzzaman M. Review on in vivo and in vitro methods evaluation of antioxidant activity. Saudi Pharm. J. 2013;21(2):143–152. doi: 10.1016/j.jsps.2012.05.002. [DOI] [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  2. Al-Riyami L., Pineda M.A., Rzepecka J., Huggan J.K., Khalaf A.I., Suckling C.J., Scott F.J., Rodgers D.T., Harnett M.M., Harnett W. Designing anti-inflammatory drugs from parasitic worms: a synthetic small molecule analogue of the Acanthocheilonema viteae product ES-62 prevents development of collagen-induced arthritis. J. Med. Chem. 2013;56:9982–10002. doi: 10.1021/jm401251p. [DOI] [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  3. Bharathi V., Rengarajan R.L., Radhakrishnan R., Hashem A., Allah E.F.A., Alqarawi A.A., Anand A.V. Effects of a medicinal plant Macrotyloma uniflorum (Lam.) Verdc. formulation (MUF) on obesity-associated oxidative stress-induced liver injury. Saudi J. Biol. Sci. 2018;25(6):1115–1121. doi: 10.1016/j.sjbs.2018.03.010. [DOI] [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  4. Blois M.S. Antioxidant determination by the use of a stable free radical nature. Nature. 1958;181:1199–1200. [Google Scholar]
  5. Bolton J.L., Trush M.A., Penning T.M., Dryhurst G., Monks T.J. Role of quinones in toxicology. Chem. Res. Toxicol. 2000;13:135–160. doi: 10.1021/tx9902082. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  6. Chandra J., Nanjaiah Lakshmidevi S. GC-MS analysis of phytochemicals in the methanolic extract of Cyclea peltata (Lam) Hook. F& Thomson. Int. J. Pharm. Bio Sci. 2015;6:637–642. [Google Scholar]
  7. Das N.P., Pereira T.A. Effect of flavonoids on thermal auto oxidation of palm oil. J. Agric. Food Chem. 1990;38:674–677. [Google Scholar]
  8. Furst S., Hosztafi S., Friedmann T. Structure-activity relationships of synthetic and semisynthetic opioid agonists and antagonists. Curr. Med. Chem. 1995;1:423–440. [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  9. Arteel G.E. Oxidants and antioxidants in alcohol induced liver disease. Gastroenterol. 2003;124:778–790. doi: 10.1053/gast.2003.50087. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  10. Harborne, I.B., 1973. Phytochemical Methods: A Guide to Modern Techniques of Plant Analysis. second ed., Chapman and Hall, New York, USA.
  11. Hyun D.H., Hernandez J.O., Mattson M.P., de Cabo R. The plasma membrane redox system in aging. Aging Res. Rev. 2006;5:209–220. doi: 10.1016/j.arr.2006.03.005. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  12. Jungwirth U., Xanthos D.N., Gojo J., Bytzek A.K., Korner W., Heffeter P., Abramkin S.A., Jakupec M.A., Hartisng C.G., Windberger U., Galanski M., Keppler B.K., Berger W. Anticancer activity of methyl – substituted oxaliplatin analogs. Mol. Pharmacol. 2012;81:719–728. doi: 10.1124/mol.111.077321. [DOI] [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  13. Karthika K., Thenmozhi K., Paulsamy S., Manian S. Quantification of phytochemicals and in vitro antioxidant potential of various solvent extracts of certain species of Acanthaceae. Int. J. Green Pharm. 2014:58–64. [Google Scholar]
  14. Kashyap S., Kapoor N., Kale R.D. Coscinium fenestratum: Callus and suspension cell culture of the endangered medicinal plant using vermicompost extract and coelomic fluid as plant tissue culture media. Am. J. Plant Sci. 2016;7:899–906. [Google Scholar]
  15. Kinnula V.L., Crapo J.D. Superoxide dismutases in malignant cells and human tumors. Free Radic. Biol. Med. 2004;36:718–744. doi: 10.1016/j.freeradbiomed.2003.12.010. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  16. Leonardo D., Piera T., Renzo L. Recent advances in the Stereoselective synthesis of aziridines. Chem. Rev. 2014;114:7881–7929. doi: 10.1021/cr400553c. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  17. Lobo V., Patil A., Phatak A., Chandra N. Free radicals, antioxidants and functional foods: impact on human health. Pharmacog. Rev. 2010;4:118–126. doi: 10.4103/0973-7847.70902. [DOI] [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  18. Newman D.J., Cragg G.M. Natural products as sources of new drugs from 1981 to 2014. J. Nat. Prod. 2016;79(3):629–661. doi: 10.1021/acs.jnatprod.5b01055. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  19. Obadoni B.O., Ochuko P.O. Phytochemical studies and comparative efficacy of the crude extracts of some homeostatic plants in Edo and Delta States of Nigeria. Glob. J. Pure Appl. Sci. 2001;8:203–208. [Google Scholar]
  20. Oksana S., Marian B., Mahendra R., Hongbo S. Plant phenolic compounds for food, pharmaceutical and cosmetics production. J. Med. Pl. Res. 2012;6:2526–2539. [Google Scholar]
  21. Patel K., Gadewar M., Tripathi R., Prasad S.K., Patel Dinesh Kumar. A review on medicinal importance, pharmacological activity and bioanalytical aspects of beta-carboline alkaloid ‘Harmine’. Asian Pac. J. Trop. Biomed. 2012;2:660–664. doi: 10.1016/S2221-1691(12)60116-6. [DOI] [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  22. Peacock A.J., Zamboni W., Vizza C.D. Ambrisentan for the treatment of adults with pulmonary arterial hypertension: a review. Curr. Med. Res. Opin. 2015;31:1793–1807. doi: 10.1185/03007995.2015.1074890. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  23. Pietta P., Simonetti P., Mauri P. Antioxidant activity of selected medicinal plants. J. Agric. Food Chem. 1998;46(11):4487–4490. [Google Scholar]
  24. Ramakrishna B.S., Varghese R., Jayakumar S., Mathan M., Balasubramanian K.A. Circulating antioxidants in ulcerative colitis and their relationship to disease severity and activity. J. Gastroenterol. Hepatol. 1997;12:490–494. doi: 10.1111/j.1440-1746.1997.tb00471.x. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  25. Ramesh J., Amanpreet K., Tapan M.K., Priya B. Phytochemical analysis and biological studies of Indian medicinal plants Myristica fragrans and Tinospora cordifolia. Int. J. Adv. Res. 2016;4:245–258. [Google Scholar]
  26. Rojsanga P., Gritsanapan W., Suntornsuk L. Determination of berberine content in the stem extract of Coscinium fenestratum by TLC densitometry. Med. Princ. Pract. 2006;15:373–378. doi: 10.1159/000094272. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  27. Sas K., Robotka H., Toldi J., Vecsei L. Mitochondrial, metabolic disturbances, oxidative stress and kynurenine system, with focus on neurodegenerative disorders. J. Neurol. Sci. 2007;257:221–239. doi: 10.1016/j.jns.2007.01.033. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  28. Siddhuraju P., Becker K. Antioxidant properties of various solvent extracts of total phenolics constituents from three different agroclimatic origins of drumstick tree leaves (Moringa oleifera Lam.) leaves. J. Agric. Food Chem. 2003;51:2144–2155. doi: 10.1021/jf020444+. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  29. Siddhuraju P., Manian S. The antioxidant activity and free radical scavenging capacity of dietary phenolic extracts from horse gram (Macrotyloma uniflorum (Lam.) Verdc.) seeds. Food Chem. 2007;105:950–958. [Google Scholar]
  30. Sindhi V., Gupta V., Sharma K., Bhatnagar S., Kumari R., Dhaka N. Potential applications of antioxidants – a review. J. Pharm. Res. 2013;7(9):828–835. [Google Scholar]
  31. Singh U., Jialal I. Oxidative stress and atherosclerosis. Pathophysiol. 2006;13:29–142. doi: 10.1016/j.pathophys.2006.05.002. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  32. Smith M.A., Rottkamp C.A., Nunomura A., Raina A.K., Perry G. Oxidative stress in alzheimer’s disease. Biochim. Biophys. Acta. 2000;1502:139–144. doi: 10.1016/s0925-4439(00)00040-5. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  33. Thenmozhi K., Anusuya N., Ajmal Ali M., Jamuna S., Karthika K., Venkatachalapathi A., Al-Hemaid F.M., Farah M.A., Paulsamy S. Pharmacological credence of the folklore use of Bauhinia malabarica in the management of jaundice. Saudi J. Biol. Sci. 2018;25:22–26. doi: 10.1016/j.sjbs.2017.08.001. [DOI] [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  34. Thenmozhi K., Karthika K., Jamuna S., Paulsamy S., Manian S., Chitravadivu C. In vitro antioxidant and radical scavenging abilities of aqueous methanolic extracts of Cassia obtuse L. plant parts (Caesalpiniaceae) Int. J. Pharm. Pharmaceu. Sci. 2015;7:340–344. [Google Scholar]
  35. Trease, G.E., Evans, W.C., 1983. Textbook of Pharmacognosy, Tindall, London, UK, 12th edition, 1983.
  36. Tushar K.V., Satheesh G., Remashree A.B., Balachandran I. Coscinium fenestratum (Gaertn.) Colebr.-a review on this rare, critically endangered and highly-traded medicinal species. J. Plant Sci. 2008;3:133–145. [Google Scholar]
  37. Tyler V.E., Brady L.R., Robbers J.E. 9th ed. Lea and Febiger; Philadelphia: 1988. Pharmacognosy; p. 131. [Google Scholar]
  38. Ved D., Saha D., Ravikumar K., Haridasan K. Coscinium fenestratum. The IUCN Red List of Threatened Species. 2015 e.T50126585A50131325. [Google Scholar]
  39. Yildirim A., Mani A., Kara A.A. Determination of antioxidant and antimicrobial activities of Rumex crispus L. extracts. J. Agri. Food Chem. 2001;49:4083–4089. doi: 10.1021/jf0103572. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  40. Zhishen J., Mengcheng T., Jianming W. The determination of flavonoids contents in mulberry and their scavenging effects on super oxides radicals. Food Chem. 1999;64:555–559. [Google Scholar]

Articles from Saudi Journal of Biological Sciences are provided here courtesy of Elsevier

RESOURCES