Figure 5. Structure, properties, and applications of fibrin- and albumin-based adhiesives.

(A) Mechanism of fibrin clot formation: (i) Schematic representation of the conversion from fibrinogen to fibrin and subsequent polymerization/crosslinking mechanisms [133], (ii) Fibrinogen structure and its thrombin-mediated conversion to fibrin. Binding sites for the main molecular actors that participate in fibrinogen functions are illustrated. Adapted from Mosesson et al. [109] with permission from Wiley, copyright 2005, (iii) Fibrin clots resulting from the addition of thrombin (0.5–20 nM) solutions to fibrinogen (2 mg/ mL) as observed by SEM. (Scale bar: 1 μm). Adapted from Wolberg et al. [110] with permission from Elsevier, copyright 2007, (iv) Comparison of adhesive strengths of photocrosslinked porcine gelatin, photocrosslinked bovine fibrinogen, and a commercial fibrin tissue sealant (Tisseel). Adapted from Elvin et al. [137] with permission from Elsevier, copyright 2010, (v) An application of fibrin glue in ophthalmology. Left eye of an infant patient with an inferotemporal growth before surgery, graft after attachment with fibrin adhesive, and 10 weeks later. Adequate graft integration with no edema and minimum haze was observed. Adapted from Zhou et al. [118] with permission from Healio, copyright 2016; (B) Albumin based adhesives: (i) The 3D structure of albumin; a globular protein abundantly present in animal serum, (ii) Mechanism of crosslinking and tissue adhesion of BioGlue®, (iii) Schematic illustration of laser soldering using albumin-based solders. Adapted from Chao et al. [126] with permission from Wiley, copyright 2003, (iv) Rat eyes glued with albumin soldering after corneal epithelium removal surgery, and (v) ex-vivo breaking strength measure on mouse skin soldered with albumin-based solder. The ratio of protein to fluorescent dye has a significant effect on breaking strength as measured by tensiometer. Adapted from Khadem et al. [131] with permission from Wiley, copyright 2004.