Table 1.
Characteristics of the population.
| Characteristic | Normal-Weight | Overweight | Obesity | p | |||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Mean (SD) | Mean (SD) | Mean (SD) | |||||
| Maternal characteristics | n | n | n | ||||
| Age (years) | 34 | 31 (4) | 27 | 32 (4) | 17 | 32 (4) | 0.492 |
| Pre-pregnancy BMI (kg/m2) | 34 | 22.14 (1.54) a | 27 | 27.59 (1.35) b | 17 | 33.40 (2.65) c | <0.001 * |
| Weight Gain (kg) | 25 | 13.17 (3.55) | 23 | 10.32 (5.20) | 15 | 9.14 (7.06) | 0.042 |
| Education (%) | 0.660 | ||||||
| <High school | 26 | 14.71 | 19 | 11.11 | 11 | 23.53 | |
| High school | 3 | 8.82 | 5 | 18.52 | 2 | 11.76 | |
| >High school | 5 | 76.47 | 3 | 70.37 | 4 | 64.71 | |
| Smoking during pregnancy (%) | 0.415 | ||||||
| No, never | 17 | 77.27 | 15 | 71.43 | 10 | 73.68 | |
| Yes | 3 | 13.64 | 5 | 23.81 | 1 | 7.14 | |
| Quit | 2 | 9.09 | 1 | 4.76 | 3 | 21.43 | |
| Maternal dietary intake | |||||||
| Energy (Kcal/day) | 27 | 2066.37 (261.93) | 23 | 2089.59 (542.07) | 12 | 2058.08 (469.97) | 0.961 |
| Lipids (g) | 27 | 86.89 (17.29) | 23 | 85.25 (25.86) | 12 | 93.23 (20.95) | 0.468 |
| Lipids (%) | 27 | 37.76 (5.26) | 23 | 39.04 (7.73) | 12 | 41.17 (5.38) | 0.307 |
| SFA(g/d) | 27 | 30.81 (6.36) | 23 | 30.05 (8.67) | 12 | 34.19 (5.87) | 0.203 |
| MUFA (g/d) | 27 | 36.53 (10.92) | 23 | 39.33 (17.63) | 12 | 36.32 (12.08) | 0.926 |
| PUFA(g/d) | 27 | 12.10 (3.17) | 23 | 13.34 (6.59) | 12 | 14.63 (3.95) | 0.285 |
| n6 PUFA (g/d) | 27 | 2.48 (1.95) | 23 | 2.89 (2.53) | 12 | 3.44 (1.50) | 0.122 |
| n3 PUFA (g/d) | 27 | 0.18 (0.11) | 23 | 0.21 (0.13) | 12 | 0.20 (0.09) | 0.427 |
| n-3 from fish (g/d) | 27 | 0.36 (0.31) | 23 | 0.28 (0.34) | 12 | 0.45 (0.34) | 0.690 |
| AA (g/d) | 27 | 0.11 (0.06) a | 23 | 0.17 (0.08) b | 12 | 0.16 (0.08) ab | 0.005 |
| EPA(g/d) | 27 | 0.12 (0.11) | 23 | 0.09 (0.11) | 12 | 0.16 (0.12) | 0.213 |
| DHA (g/d) | 27 | 0.24 (0.18) | 23 | 0.22 (0.21) | 12 | 0.31 (0.21) | 0.269 |
| n6:n3 | 27 | 12.99 (2.98) a | 23 | 13.53 (3.40) a | 12 | 19.12 (8.94) b | 0.004 |
| Infant characteristics | |||||||
| Sex, male (%) | 14 | 41.18 | 11 | 40.74 | 7 | 41.18 | 0.999 |
| Birth weight (g) | 32 | 3359.06 (352.35) | 27 | 3340.37 (511.85) | 16 | 3532.35 (389.61) | 0.277 |
| Birth length (cm) | 31 | 50.52 (1.57) | 27 | 50.30 (1.88) | 16 | 51.22 (1.80) | 0.245 |
| Birth head Circumference (cm) | 26 | 34.31 (1.36) | 22 | 34.36 (1.39) | 16 | 34.69 (1.40) | 0.674 |
| Placenta (g) | 30 | 496.67 (144.11) | 25 | 509.20 (130.25) | 16 | 568.13 (143.17) | 0.332 |
| Newborn according Lubchenco curves # (%) | 0.627 | ||||||
| SGA | 0 | 0.00 | 1 | 4.55 | 0 | 0.00 | |
| AGA | 26 | 81.25 | 16 | 72.73 | 11 | 73.33 | |
| LGA | 6 | 18.75 | 5 | 22.73 | 4 | 26.67 | |
| Breastfeeding † (%) | 0.290 | ||||||
| Exclusive | 16 | 53.33 | 16 | 66.67 | 8 | 50.00 | |
| Mixt | 10 | 33.33 | 3 | 12.50 | 3 | 18.75 | |
| Artificial | 4 | 13.33 | 5 | 20.83 | 5 | 31.25 | |
Different superscript letters indicate differences among BMI groups, according to ANOVA and the Bonferroni post-hoc test. Chi-square test was applied to qualitative variables. p-values ≤ 0.05 are highlighted in bold and those ≤0.002 are additionally marked by stars. # The newborns were divided into three groups according to the Lubchenco curves: SGA: Small for Gestational Age; AGA: Appropriate for Gestational Age; LGA: Large for Gestational Age (LGA). † Breastfeeding practice information was collected at 3 months of age of the child. SFA: Saturated Fatty Acids; MUFA: Monounsaturated Fatty Acids; PUFA: Polyunsaturated Fatty Acids; AA: Arachidonic Acid; EPA: Eicosapentaenoic Acid; DHA: Docosahexaenoic Acid.