Principal Sources of Information African American Fathers Draw Upon to Inform their Sons about Sex and Sexual Health Risks

Abstract

Background

While parent-child communication about sex is associated with safer sexual practices among African American youth, there is a noticeable gap in the representation of fathers’ perspectives on talking with their sons about sexual and reproductive health. Moreover, less is known about the sources from which fathers seek information to inform such conversations.

Purpose

To explore the sources of information used by African-American fathers that formulate the basis of conversations they have with their sons about sex and sexual health risks.

Methods

This was a qualitative study of African American fathers (N = 29) who had sons, ages 10–15 years. The fathers participated in one of five focus groups conducted across urban and rural North Carolina communities. Data were collected using a 2-hour, audio-recorded semi-structured interview.

Results

Qualitative content analysis revealed three themes: a) fathers’ personal stories and testimonies; b) instructional media preferences; and c) religious teachings and moral examples. The findings indicated that African-American fathers considered father-son sex education an important and critical aspect of their fathering role. Additionally, we found that the content of father-son sexual and reproductive health communication emphasized the importance of sexual risk reduction, open communication, and sharing their values and beliefs regarding initiation of and appropriate context for sex. The findings have implications for social work, nursing, and public health.

INTRODUCTION

Parent-child communication about sex is associated with safer sexual practices among African American youth, including delayed initiation of sexual intercourse, higher rates of condom use, and lower rates of sexually transmitted infections (STIs) and unintended pregnancies.^1–6 Despite this, many parents have difficulty engaging their children in such conversations and have particular challenges with discussing sexual health topics that might be sensitive or uncomfortable.^7,8 Moreover, some parents lack the necessary sexual health knowledge to engage their children in effective and informative communication about sex.^9,10

Over the past two decades, there has been a growing awareness of the importance of fathers in the sexual socialization of African American children, especially sons. However, the prevalence of single mother households and the challenges with recruiting African American men for participation in research studies has led to a significant gap in our understanding of how these fathers talk with their sons about sex. Moreover, the nature of sexual values transmission—the process of communicating expectations and specific cultural values between generations through discourse and modeling^3,11–14—within African-American father-son dyads is unclear.

One study suggested that fathers had less communication with their children about sex than mothers, but mothers tended to communicate more frequently with their daughters about sex than their sons.¹⁵ Moreover, fathers were not more likely to talk with their sons about sex than their daughters; in fact, a previous study suggested that fathers might engage their daughters in more frequent conversation about dating and relationships than their sons.¹⁵ When fathers do engage their children in sexual health communication, concerns have been raised regarding the degree to which the information shared with youth is developmentally appropriate.^16,17

THEORETICAL BASIS

Parenting self-efficacy theory may help us understand how African American fathers apply the knowledge and skills they have acquired to educate their sons about sex and sexual health risks. Parenting self-efficacy refers to parents’ belief in their ability to effectively parent their children.¹⁸ Regarding parenting self-efficacy, some theorists suggest that parents must develop confidence in their ability to parent in order to act successfully in the parenting role.^19,20 Engaging children and adolescents in developmentally appropriate communication about sex is an important parenting role and in the context of father-son sexual health communication, fathers must have parenting self-efficacy to engage their sons in conversations on maintaining optimal sexual health.

The information that fathers use to educate their sons about sexual health may be heavily influenced by sexual scripts, which refers to widely accepted cultural or gender-based guides that govern sexual behavior.²¹ Sexual script theory (Gagnon, 1990²²; suggests that one’s sexual behavior is influenced by cultural scenarios (beliefs or norms that govern interpersonal scripts), interpersonal scripts (peoples’ interpretations of how cultural scenarios should be enacted), and intrapsychic scripts (motivations for engaging in sex). We posit that the content of fathers’ sexual communication with their sons is influenced by cultural scenarios and interpersonal scripts; however, less is known about the origins of African American fathers’ sexual scripts, from their own perspectives.

The purpose of this paper is to explore the sources of information used by African-American fathers that formulate the basis of conversations they have with their sons about sex and sexual health risks. Our primary research question was: Where do African American fathers seek sexual health information in preparation for communication with their sons about sex?

METHODS

Design and sample

The investigators obtained Institutional Review Board approval for the study from their respective institutions. Participants were recruited from barbershops and their vicinities using a purposive sampling strategy. The sample consisted of 29 African-American fathers of African-American sons ages 10–15 years. Fathers’ ages ranged from 27 to 48 (M = 38.20, SD = 3.69). Most of the fathers (62%) resided with their sons, while others (38%) lived in a separate household (i.e., non-resident). See Table 1 for a list of fathers’ characteristics.

Table 1.

Fathers’ characteristics.

Variable	N = 29%
Legal Status
Biological father	100.0
Do you live with your son(s)?
Yes	62.1
No	37.9
Race/Ethnicity
African American	100.0
Age
20–29	3.4
30–39	34.2
40–49	61.8
Education
Less than high school	3.4
High school degree	41.4
2-year college degree	17.2
4-year college degree	27.6
Graduate degree	10.3
Marital Status
Single	24.1
Married	69.0
Divorced	6.9

Data collection

Two African-American male graduate research assistants facilitated a total of five focus groups held in barbershops in urban and rural North Carolina communities, a library, and a local historically black university. Fathers participated in a 2-hour, audio-recorded semi-structured interview developed by the first two authors (see Appendix 1). They received a $50 gift card for participating in the study.

Data analysis

The data were analyzed using grounded theory.²³ Focus group interviews were digitally recorded and then transcribed by a professional transcriptionist. A qualitative content analysis of the interview transcripts and field notes were conducted by the first and second authors. Each transcript was initially read multiple times in order to become familiar with each group’s distinctive features, followed by aggregating large portions of data into first level codes that shared a central meaning. During this stage, inductive coding was used where NVivo codes were derived from the participants’ own words.²⁴ The resulting inductive codes that shared commonalities were organized into categories. These emergent categories referred to obvious or visible descriptions (manifest content) while the themes generated next were linked to the underlying meanings of the categories (latent content).²⁵ Themes were formulated based on frequency, similarity of core concepts, and marked differences between categories. The resulting collection of themes was conceptualized as a whole and discussed in the results section.

RESULTS

There were three themes that emerged in our exploration of sources of knowledge used by African-American fathers in sexual health conversations with their sons: a) fathers’ personal stories and testimonies; b) instructional media preferences; and c) religious teachings and moral examples.

Fathers’ personal stories and testimonies

Most fathers shared their personal stories to talk to their sons about sex and teach them about sexual health risks. The stories usually conveyed sexual scripts that highlighted a negative consequence from a sexual encounter that would be cautionary for their sons to sexually abstain or to use a condom. While sharing stories about their personal experiences with their sons, they took into consideration the social pressures they felt had a strong influence on boys’ desire to have sex. One participant stated, “We’re trying to give them information based on our past experiences. But at the same time, they do have the outside peer pressure that we’re constantly fighting against.”

For one father, this was the essential source from which he educated his son about sex and sexual health risks: “I really just use personal experience with my son…” Another father agreed that a personal story can be a helpful tool to utilize when discussing sex and relationships: “And real-life conversations with him have seemed to work… [my son] said, ‘ … I’ve seen what you go through with mom.’ I said, ‘Exactly. Nothing against your mom… But we found out that [sex] was the only place we were compatible.’”

When fathers shared their personal experience with their sons, some reported that they were not afraid to discuss graphic situations or use language that is explicit. For example, “What I’m saying is I was prepared to sit him down and go gangsta with it. You know, let him know straight up how Momma brought it out to me, how people brought it out to me and spit it at me.”

Another participant advised that he would not share his experiences, nor initiate a conversation with his son regarding sex as he feared his son would emulate his transgressions. He stated, “I’m going to let him come and tell me what he went out there and did. But I wouldn’t sit down and share my experiences with him, because he might try to do something I did.” Similarly, another father felt that knowing too much about a father’s past can influence a son to want to follow in his footsteps: “He had sex the first time younger, and I just wasn’t really happy with it. I was kind of—I was really hurt. I was embarrassed … I felt like I failed. I was hurt. I was betrayed. … he heard a lot of stories about stuff we did, and he tried to live up to that. He tried to live up to getting girls and cars and stuff, and I was kind of ashamed of it. I’m like, man, I was a terrible father.”

Instructional media preferences

Most fathers reported that they used the Internet as a tool to access factual information about sexual health and STIs during conversations with their sons. A father summed it up in this way: “The Internet—you can learn a lot on the Internet. They even have free classes that you can take on the Internet. You know what I mean? So the website is good. I’ll use the website to get knowledge and information.”

Some acknowledged generational differences in preferences for technology over print media such that their sons were accustomed to accessing the Internet regularly and thus preferred to learn about new things online rather than from books. For instance, one father who used the Internet to educate his son suggested that print media was outdated in the eyes of youth, saying:

“…those books are played out, magazines. I wouldn’t even bring that in, because he’s going to look at me like I’m crazy. I’m going to have to turn Google on and go on one of these websites and let him watch it. Let him watch it. Every time you get excited, I want to know—What’s up? Talk to me. Go ahead.”

Relatedly, another father suggested that, because youth are so accustomed to using the Internet for education, parents must use it, as opposed to print media, as well to effectively communicate with their children:

“Kids and school, everything is done online and computers. When you come to them with these books and stuff, that’s out of date technology. You’ve got to be able to communicate. You’ve got to be able to be on the same wavelength with them in order for them to sit down with you and actually keep it cold-blooded honest with you. If you don’t want no lies, no bullshit, you’ve got to actually be able to communicate with these kids…”

While most fathers appreciated the accessibility of information obtained from the Internet, some expressed concerns about the abundance of misinformation and contradictions available on the Internet and suggested that youth require guidance to sort through information:

“I feel as though if we don’t have the guidance on these phones and computers and everything, we are lost. It’s a lost cause, because we are fighting against the Internet. The Internet has thousands and thousands of things for these kids to explore. If I tell you something and you want to be curious and look up something else, you see what I’m saying?”

Such concerns led some fathers to avoid the Internet and instead use physical books to educate their sons about sexual health. In this way, there was a belief that they had more control over the messages communicated about sex to their sons. One father, for example, preferred that his son read physical books and then discuss them with him instead of seeking information on the Internet about sex:

“If I sit here with you and I bring this book out and I tell you I need you to read this and get an understanding of it, you know what he’s going to do? He’s going to read that.” Another added the following: “I brought out the book that my mom introduced us to sex with. It was a reproductive encyclopedia or something—some old-school book that she still had.

I went to her house, grabbed it, sat down with them, and explained. They had pictures of different venereal diseases and herpes and all sorts of things, so with him it was kind of—oh, okay. This can happen.”

One father suggested that using a physical book instead of the Internet was more comfortable for him and believed that it could help his son understand his perspective in a way that technology could not:

“I’m with the old-school type raising, even though we have technology to do that. What my point of this is, I don’t want to go through a conversation with you with the technology you have. I want to go through the conversation and show you where I come from…”

A father used a process to educate his son that entailed both print and electronic media, though he emphasized the benefit of using print media:

“He’s not going to get the same direct message to where if I sit him down and let him read, have that quiet time and just be himself and read this book—we’ll get to the computer. Don’t get me wrong. But I’m not going to throw that computer at you like that, because that’s the problem.”

Another father discussed his practice of using other supportive aides in conjunction with books to ensure that his son trusted the information was factual rather than just taking his word for it:

“Depending on how open that conversation is, I might use objects, like condoms. I might get a book or something, read on certain situations. I can show him it’s not just what Daddy is talking about.”

Religious teachings and moral examples

Most of the fathers conveyed their expectations to their sons based on their religious faith and moral beliefs. They often used sexual scripts from biblical references in conversations with their sons as guidance for them to abstain from sex until marriage. A father stated:

“I’m a strong believer of the Bible. I’m a strong believer of the Word, and I try to tell mine—people are going to talk about you. But the Bible also teaches you that there are consequences, and I try to tell mine all the time, ‘Look, just because it may look right, sound right, and it might even feel right, doesn’t necessarily make it right.’”

Another father talked about discouraging his son from accumulating multiple sex partners and encouraging him to seek to marry a woman who has sexually abstained:

“…I said, ‘Men grow up and we want to grow up having notches on our belt. But trust me. Pray for your wife now. Pray that she’s pure.’”

According to one father, the Bible has made talking to his son about sex easy:

“To me, it’s pretty much easy because that’s how I raise my household. And the Bible makes it clear, so I pretty much base it off that, and it’s pretty much easy and cut and dry, and my son is receptive to that.”

In addition to the Bible, fathers also acknowledged that they used other Christian books to help them communicate their sexual values to their sons:

“They have one called, ‘Every Man’s Battle for Teens.’ Those are some really good resources. Like I said, they’re written from a Christian world view.”

One father found Christian websites to be a helpful resource to educate his son. He stated, “I know that a couple of resources that I use websites. I mean there’s books. But being a Christian, there’s a website called covenanteyes.org. There’s also a website called xxxchurch.com … But the websites, especially covenanteyes.org, it has so much information: statistics; ways to talk to your children; they have blogs.”

DISCUSSION

The primary research question for our study was: Where do African American fathers seek sexual health information in preparation for communication with their sons about sex? This study explored the principle sources of information used by African American fathers that formulate the basis of conversations they have with their sons about sex and sexual health risks. Results suggest that African American fathers play an active role in the sexual socialization of their sons and consider father-son sex education an important and critical aspect of their fathering role. Moreover, the content of father-son sexual and reproductive health communication emphasized the importance of sexual risk reduction, open communication, and values and beliefs regarding initiation of and appropriate context for sex. Three themes emerged as the sources of knowledge used to inform these sexual scripts or guidelines: Personal stories and testimonies, instructional media preferences, and religious teachings and moral examples.

We found that some fathers incorporated their personal stories as examples, which included their own childhood experiences, to positively influence their sons’ sexual behaviors. In doing so, the fathers wanted their sons to understand their point of view (i.e., where they were coming from) and understand why—based on the recounted examples—their sons should follow their advice regarding sexual risk reduction or deduce, with the understanding of relevant sexual scripts, the appropriate behaviors that minimize sexual risk when they encounter a similar situation. The findings showed that most fathers believed that sharing their stories was the best approach—making the information real and relatable. Many of the fathers’ stories they shared portrayed their childhood or adolescent selves as naïve or vulnerable.

These findings are consistent with earlier studies that contend that it is important for parents to expressly share with their children their values and expectations about sex. Specifically, research shows that this effort results in decreased risky sexual behaviors.^4,5,10,26,27 We suggest that fathers use stories and testimonies as a way of bonding or establishing a more personable and intimate interaction with their sons, therefore decreasing the potential awkwardness of such talks, which has been a barrier to parents talking with their youth about sex.

Furthermore, to enhance parenting self-efficacy in talking with youth about sex, researchers suggest families explore hypothetical discussions concerning sexuality of fictional characters rather than the adolescent’s personal experience.^10,26,27 We recommend this for the fathers who—like some in the present study—might express fear that sharing the truth about their personal experiences might have unintended consequences (i.e., encouraging sexual activity). When fathers share information with their sons about their past experiences, they could be encouraged to include a discussion about the sexual health risks involved as well as healthy sexual relationships and factors that predict those outcomes.^3,28

Our study also revealed that an important aspect of fathers’ preferences with regard to whether they used instructional media (e.g., digital or print) to assist them in sexual communication with their sons. Like previous research, some fathers reported using the Internet as a resource to enhance their knowledge and skills.²⁹ While such efforts could be helpful, they shared concerns about the abundance of misinformation found on the Internet. Even more, the veracity of Internet information comes into question if it was derived from subjective sources such as social media or blogs, as one father referenced as a source of information for talking with children about sexual health. To counter this, practitioners could direct fathers to reputable Internet sites that contain reliable sexual health and STI prevention information, as well as provide instruction regarding how to identify subjective versus objective sources of information on the Internet.

However, not all fathers felt comfortable with seeking their sexual and reproductive health information on the Internet. One father’s disclosure about referencing a book that his mother used to educate him on sexual health placed him at risk of relaying dated and possibly debunked information to his son, potentially putting him at even greater risk of adverse outcomes. Practitioners can help fathers enhance their self-efficacy to engage their sons in conversations about sexual health risks by introducing them to resources from a variety of respected organizations, programs, and agencies such as, the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention that can be accessed either electronically or in print (e.g., books, scholarly journals). In this way, fathers will be confident in their ability to transmit accurate information to their sons, knowing that is came from reliable sources.

Lastly, study findings revealed that African-American fathers place a high value on religious teachings and moral examples when communicating with their sons about avoiding risky sexual behavior and delaying sex. Fathers’ sexual socialization of their sons often incorporated sexual scripts about abstinence. Specifically, they shared messages about their values and conveyed their expectations for their sons regarding monogamy and delaying sex until marriage based on biblical teaching. Considering that African Americans report more commitment to and investment in religious activities than any other ethnic group within the United States,^30–32 religiosity may serve as a key determinant of father-son communication about sex within African American families.³³ For instance, religiosity may directly influence whether and how African American parents engage their children in communication about sex in terms of the frequency and depth of the content.^33–35 Moreover, research from a nationally representative study of 1,170 black adolescents indicated that as black adolescents received more messages about religious beliefs and practices, their religiosity was greater and, in turn, they were less likely to report sexual initiation.³⁶

Thus, there are implications for practitioners using culturally-sensitive practices that are aligned with fathers’ cultural beliefs from which fathers can draw strength. Faith-based services could be used as a resource to fathers (who are religious or open to religion) who might not normally seek help from a public agency. Fathers might also prefer to consult with a trusted pastor about situations that might conflict with their faith rather than a professional who may not be familiar with them or the importance of their religious values.³⁷ Additionally, many church services and classes are free and conveniently located where congregants reside, ideal for those who cannot travel to or pay for such resources.²⁹

Researchers point out that the African American Church has been instrumental in general health promotion programs’ success and sustainability in the African American community, and in recent years, its engagement in the HIV prevention crusade has grown.^36,38–41 The researchers attribute the Church’s initial reluctancy to the stigma of HIV, the congregation’s perception of their low risk for HIV, and its moral stance regarding homosexuality and pre-marital sex.^40,42

Directions for future research

Given the conclusions from multiple research studies regarding the shortcomings of some African-American fathers’ preparedness to engage in sexual health conversations with their sons,^6,8,16,17 the researchers in the present study sought to understand what strengths these fathers possessed that could counterpoise those discrepancies. We anticipated that fathers would have used various sources with a range of characteristics and qualities that appealed to them (e.g., readability level, comprehensiveness, trustworthiness, culturally and gender-specific, etc.), and might or might not have been effective sources to could aid with father-son sexual health conversations. Because many of the fathers stated they used some form of instructional media to educate their sons about sex and sexual health, there are implications for interventions that remove barriers that prevent fathers from absorbing the information from sources they have read or listened to.

Therefore, a promising approach for future research would be to develop hybrid interventions that use a mix of instructional media, as well as engage formal and informal social networks that could meet the needs of both fathers and sons. This approach would facilitate open communication that is structured to ensure that pertinent information is transmitted and received between fathers and sons, yet flexible that fathers can present current and accurate information to their sons that is consistent with their preferences and values.

Also, future research should include the development of culturally (including religion and morals) and gender-specific interventions that incorporate various sources of media to enhance African American fathers’ self-efficacy and knowledge about prevention of STIs, HIV, and early parenthood. Future studies can examine whether fathers’ sexual health knowledge and confidence to convey sexual health information to their sons will impact their sons’ sexual health knowledge, as well as their attitudes, intentions, and behavior regarding engaging in sex. The authors also encourage future longitudinal and experimental studies with African American fathers to add to our understanding of the role of fathers in preventing STIs and other negative outcomes in African American male youth.

Limitations

Though information contained in our study results might confirm what previous studies have found, we caution the readers to take into consideration the following limitations when interpreting findings. The small sample size poses a potential bias in volunteer participants in that African American fathers with different experiences and points of view might have been excluded unintentionally. Additionally, those who were more confident in their abilities might have been more likely to participate in the study than those who did not feel they possessed sufficient confidence or knowledge to talk with their sons about sex or sexual health. Also, given the sensitive nature of the interview content, it is possible that some fathers may have withheld some of their ideas, beliefs, and experiences. The above instances would limit the breadth of the potential range of experiences among African American fathers and sons. Further, the study included a heterogeneous convenience sample of older, African American fathers in the southeast region of the United States known as the “Bible Belt.” Therefore, we caution readers on generalizing the findings of this study to fathers from other regions or to fathers whose socio-demographic characteristics differ from those in our study’s sample.

We also note that although fathers seemed to be forthcoming and responded favorably to the interview process, interviewer bias might have affected the breadth and depth of the data. For instance, the interviewing styles, level of comfort or prowess to ask follow-up questions may have differed across interviewers. Future studies can reduce the potential for bias by allowing multiple opportunities to establish interviewer-participant rapport, and including a protocol to probe certain responses from fathers that are common in the existing body of literature, but missing the rationale for their decisions (e.g., fathers share information that is not suitable for children). Intentional probing may have produced additional findings that contained greater specificity than what we discovered in this study.

Finally, a limitation of this study is our inability to link fathers’ socio-demographic data with their responses, as we did not label or track responses (i.e., interview text segments) for each father. The interviews were conducted in groups to assure fathers of their anonymity, thus encouraging them to speak candidly. However, this approach did not allow us to compare differences in fathers’ age, marital status, sons’ age, etc. on fathers’ reliance on the sources of information to educate their sons about sex and sexual health. In retrospect, given that our interviewers were able to establish sufficient rapport with the focus group fathers, we recommend future studies to use an enhanced approach, which entails establishing unique IDs or pseudonyms to link fathers’ socio-demographic data and their interview responses.

CONCLUSION

To optimally serve the needs of African American fathers and sons, we must acknowledge unique perspectives and roles that fathers bring to parent-youth sexual health communications. Given that African American male youth are disproportionately affected by sexually transmitted infections, and the noticeable gap in father-son dyadic intervention programs targeting African American youth, it is important that practitioners and researchers intentionally consider fathers (and father figures since most African American families are single-mother headed) in the development and implementation of sex education interventions with African American male youth. This study represents an important step towards the development of curriculum enhancements for father-focused sexual education programs for African American families and informs the adaptation of existing evidence-based sexual education models targeting this group. Furthermore, focusing on strategies that are informed by fathers’ experiences, religiosity and morals, and instructional media is a worthy mechanism to promote optimal sexual health and prevent STIs and sexual reproductive health disparities among African American male youth.

APPENDIX 1. FOCUS GROUP QUESTIONS

1. When do you talk to your son(s) about sex?

2. What topics do you discuss?

3. What are some things that promote or inhibit you from talking to your son(s) about sex?

4. Tell us of a time when you talked to your son(s) about sex and what led to this conversation. What was the response of your son(s) when talking to him; how did your son(s) receive the communication?

5. How do your past interactions with your father impact your role now as a father and your ability to communicate with your son(s) about sex?

6. How do your own personal experiences impact your communication with your son(s) about sex?

7. How do your morals, values, and beliefs impact your communication with your son(s)?

8. How does culture (pop/mainstream or African American culture) inhibit or promote constructive conversations about sex?

9. Do you use any specific resources (websites, literature, handouts) to assist you in communicating with your son(s) about sex? What resources do you think will be useful in talking with your son(s) about risky sexual behaviors (e.g., multiple sex partners, sex without a condom)?

10. What goals do you have for your son(s); what do you want their sexual behaviors and views about sex to look like?