Gender roles, food system biodiversity, and food security in Indigenous Peoples' communities

Abstract

Traditional knowledge and practice of Indigenous Peoples related to their food use and well‐being is a wealth of information for academic study and for public health nutrition. Despite unique long‐evolved heritages of knowledge of ecosystem resources, Indigenous Peoples comprise 15% of the global poor, but only 5% of the world's population, and they experience poverty, discrimination, and poor nutritional health at far greater rates than mainstream populations in their nations of residence. These disparities are unacceptable in all human rights frameworks, and the call to alleviate them resonates through all human development programmes and the United Nations organizations. The scholars contributing to this special issue of Maternal and Child Nutrition describe how gender roles and the right to food for several cultures of Indigenous Peoples can be fostered to protect their unique foods and traditions, providing food sovereignty and food and nutrition security benefits, especially for women and children. Aspects of societal maternal or paternal lineality and locality, division of labour, spirituality and decision‐making are described. These factors structure the impact of gender roles with Indigenous worldviews on the dynamics of family food access, its availability and use, and the use of local food biodiversity. Cultures of Indigenous Peoples in Ecuador, Nigeria, Thailand, India, Canada, Japan, and Morocco are discussed. This publication is a work of the Task Force on Traditional, Indigenous and Cultural Food and Nutrition of the International Union of Nutritional Sciences.

“Indigenous knowledge is embedded in community practices, institutions, relationships, and rituals and is inextricably linked to Indigenous Peoples' identity, their experiences with the natural environment and hence their territorial and cultural rights.”

N. Kipuri, 2009

1. INTRODUCTION

This special issue of Maternal and Child Nutrition is about why and how food is harvested and used in Indigenous communities, with focus and insight on how gender roles moderate food system use and change. It explores how local cultures and environments predispose food selection, and ultimately food security, in Indigenous communities that universally face dietary change today, albeit in different ways, due to globalization. If a society is guided by women's leadership, as is the case in matriarchal and matrilineal cultures, is there a good chance for food security and dietary adequacy if the ecosystem and political‐economical structure are supportive? Do women's priorities and values favour community health, particularly for children? How do patriarchal or patrilineal societies respond to nutritional stress in communities? These are basic questions addressed by authors in this special issue of Maternal and Child Nutrition.

Communities, governments, and international bodies call attention to the imperative to resolve disparities in health status that Indigenous Peoples face in contrast to non‐Indigenous populations in their countries. It is well documented that despite inconsistencies in data compilation methodologies, there is poorer health for the Indigenous and Tribal Peoples than for non‐Indigenous in populations of both high income and middle‐to‐low income countries. This is reflected in statistics for child malnutrition, child and adult obesity, life expectancy, and other key indicators of health status (Anderson et al., 2016). It is also understood that Indigenous Peoples maintain a knowledge base of ecosystem services, including the vast biodiversity of food and medicinal species, a reservoir of human knowledge that ultimately serves and protects our global food supplies and health (Burlingame & Dernini, 2012; Johns, Powell, Maundu, & Eyzaguirre, 2013). The articles in this special issue document this remarkable knowledge in selected areas to encourage greater appreciation for Indigenous Peoples' heritage of knowledge and values, and to enforce a call for their understanding and appreciation to further the principles of the right to food, food sovereignty and food security, and dietary sustainability.

Ensuring food sovereignty and food security for vulnerable Indigenous population necessarily includes principles of effective management and use of food and nutrition resources (FAO, 2016). For this to happen, there must be understanding of cultural values and traditions for protecting local food systems, and the provision of adequate nutrition, particularly for vulnerable women and children. This effectively happens with self‐determination, and can lead to health improvement when Indigenous values for overall health are honoured—including the emotional, spiritual, and mental components, as well as physical health status (Kuhnlein, Burlingame, & Erasmus, 2013). As is known and understood in the world view of many generations of Indigenous Peoples in local ecosystems, well‐being is grounded in intimate relation with the land and ecosystem that enables access to animal and plant foods, as well as water, air, and other components of well‐being. An essential part of the knowledge, heritage, and disposition of these resources is based in gender, with underlying issues of power and equality or inequality in societal structures.

This collection of articles from research with Indigenous communities describes how gender roles and the right to food for several cultures of Indigenous Peoples can be fostered to protect these unique biodiverse food resources and traditions for their food security benefits, especially for women and children. Aspects of societal matriarchy and patriarchy show the impact on dynamics of family food access, availability, and use. Indigenous Peoples' food systems from Morocco, Nigeria, Thailand, India, Canada, Japan, and Ecuador are included. Perspectives from these traditional, transitional, and primarily rural Indigenous cultures give important insights on gender roles that affect use of local food biodiversity and food security at family and community levels. Our purpose has been to document this remarkable knowledge to encourage greater appreciation for Indigenous Peoples' heritage of knowledge and values and to enforce a call for cultural understanding to further our global knowledge on the importance of gender roles, access and use of food systems, including ecosystem provisioning of biodiversity, and how this manifests in food and nutrition security, maternal and child nutrition, and overall health and well‐being.

Key messages.

• Traditional values of Indigenous Peoples recognize that gender roles and ecosystem food biodiversity contribute to provisioning of food security.

• Values for care, nurture, and protection of kin and their natural resources are consistent threads in the Indigenous societies discussed in the articles in this special issue.

• Indigenous Peoples' food systems' biodiversity must be studied further for scientific identifications and biochemical values of species.

• Policies to recognize and protect the rights of Indigenous Peoples to their traditional lands and foods will benefit all human societies.

1.1. Describing gender roles, biodiversity in food systems, food and nutrition security, and women's and children's nutrition

There is a surprising number of Indigenous cultures today (dozens, if not hundreds) in which women are recognized as the primary household head and community leader, with obvious connections to food availability, food access, and food utilization. Defining a society as being matriarchal, matrilineal, and/or matrilocal, or as the more prevalent patriarchal or patrilineal or patrilocal societies, provides a window to consider how power and decision‐making take place. Nevertheless, it is prudent to realize that matriarchal or patriarchal societal and political styles in communities are not simply defined, are certainly not directly converse or opposites, and the social structure in each community warrants independent reflection. In this special issue, communities practicing principles of matriarchy or matrilineality are described from Mohawk (Canada), Khasi (North‐East India), Ohafia (Nigeria), and Karen (Thailand); communities practicing principles of patriarchy are Berber (Morocco) and Chakhesang (Nagaland, North‐East India). The Ainu (Hokkaido, Japan) society is described as being bilineal.

Goettner‐Abendroth (2012) describes the philosophy and methods of understanding modern matriarchal societies of Indigenous Peoples in many parts of the world. This impressive work helps to ground thinking about successful functioning societies (for example, as defined by healthy children and adults) with gender balance of power. Four basic principles characterize this balance in matriarchal societies: (a) the economy is mutual among women and men with various ways of sharing—for example, through gift exchange; (b) kinship is matrilineal (disposition of resources through generations of the maternal line) and matrilocal (couples reside with the woman's family) with gender equality, but with mothers at the family centre; (c) political decision‐making in communities is by consensus, often by a council of male designates from families; (d) broad spirituality is expressed for divinity in the entire ecosystem. Further descriptions of gender‐based societies can be found in the article by Lemke and Delormier (2017). These principles have been reflected upon in several ways within the research reported in this special issue. Several of the articles show how well‐functioning Indigenous societies express joint responsibilities and mutual respect among genders to meet the goals of locally defined well‐being. Revision in gender roles due to economic shifts, including employment and possible migration for work in distant‐from‐home communities is a major factor. In this regard, see especially the article by Ellena and Nongkynrih (2017).

Biodiversity within food systems is perhaps more easily researched. The key is to engage community leaders, particularly knowledgeable elders, to free‐list the biological species used as food in focus‐group‐type meetings, and then to explore each food for parameters of interest, such as “which foods give strength,”and “which foods are good during pregnancy” (see, for example, the methodologies in Kuhnlein et al., 2006). This activity is popular in Indigenous communities and develops enthusiasm and pride in the local resources (Kuhnlein, 2009), which can lead to a platform of further scientific and food composition information and activities in health promotion emphasizing locally available traditional food and surrounding food systems from other communities and economies.

Several strategies in various literatures have been used to document the concept of food security and the realities of children's and women's nutritional status from the biological viewpoint. Within this issue of the journal, the researchers usually chose to document food security with the recent FAO (2015c) methodology from the Voices of the Hungry Project. This validated method does not lean exclusively on financial resources, but instead uses an eight‐point questionnaire to the household head to express difficulty in accessing food because of constrained resources of all kinds in the previous 12 months. Nutritional status evaluations were usually done with women and children, or else reference was made to similar recent research. Each research team developed their own objectives and methods to evaluate nutritional status.

2. THE IMPORTANCE OF NATURE‐HUMAN CONNECTION FOR WELL‐BEING

Included in the 11 articles in this special issue are discussions of locally practiced religions, which may be based in mainstream, organized religions, and which are integrated with local concepts of spirituality that have foundation within deities in the natural world. Cultures are described that are linked in various ways to the organized religions of Christianity (Tungurahua, Ecuador; Ohafia, Nigeria; Khasi and Chakhesang, North‐East India; Mohawk, Canada), Islam (Berber, Morocco), and Buddhism (Karen, Thailand; Ainu, Japan). Spirituality is often cross‐referenced with gender for provisioning of food resources. An example is the Haudenosaunee mythology and cosmology, where three iconic plant foods originally grew from the body of Sky Woman's daughter (Delormier, Horn‐Miller, McComber, & Marquis, 2017). Another example is the Karen belief that all sustenance is given by Song‐tha‐ree (Mother Earth), who is honoured with special rituals (Sirisai et al., 2017). Indeed, the expressions of Indigenous wisdom in this collection of papers consistently reflect the Indigenous worldview that the nature‐to‐human connection is essential for multiple aspects of holistic well‐being. Native ways of knowing the natural world give unique and profound perspective on mindfulness that can support human health and environmental sustainability (Heke, n.d.; Wamsler et al., 2017; Kealiikanakaoleohaililan & Giardina, 2016). These considerations reflect the importance that Indigenous Peoples place on continued access to the land of their ancestors, and how essential it is to develop food sovereignty based in human rights and the human right to food (Kipuri, 2009). For Indigenous Peoples, this is the bedrock foundation of food and nutrition security (Damman, Kuhnlein, & Erasmus, 2013; Lemke & Delormier, 2017).

3. THE RESEARCH PROCESSES

The Task Force on Traditional, Indigenous and Cultural Food and Nutrition (TF) of the International Union of Nutritional Sciences (IUNS) developed from members of IUNS TFs that were appointed in the 2006–2009 and 2009–2013 IUNS cycles (Task Force on Indigenous Peoples' Food Systems and Nutrition). During these periods food system and nutrition research was conducted with 12 cultures of Indigenous Peoples in different global regions, and resulted in two major publications released in partnership with the United Nations Food and Agriculture Organization (FAO) (Kuhnlein, Erasmus & Spigelski, 2009; Kuhnlein, Erasmus, Spigelski & Burlingame, 2013). The first ideas for the 2013–2017 programme of the TF took root at a meeting of the outgoing 2009–2013 TF at the IUNS Congress in Granada, Spain, in September 2013. Drs. Longvah and Kuhnlein agreed to co‐chair the application for a renewed TF in the next IUNS cycle, which was approved in due course by the IUNS Council. The following year, the TF chairs were contacted by Phrang Roy to consider contributing a research programme grounded in leadership and methods from the Centre for Indigenous Peoples' Nutrition and Environment at McGill University, Canada, and the IUNS TF. The intent was to provide greater understanding on the roles of gender and use of food biodiversity in Indigenous Peoples' food systems for presentation at the Indigenous Terra Madre (ITM), planned for November, 2015, in Shillong, India (see Roy, 2017). The TF co‐chairs agreed to develop the programme and a symposium for the ITM, and engaged scholars familiar with gender roles in Indigenous societies. Despite funding and time constraints the research was conducted and a successful symposium was presented at the ITM (Indigenous Terra Madre, 2015). During the days of the Congress, several lectures by TF members were contributed to local colleges and universities in Meghalaya, and a meeting of TF members present at the ITM was held in Guwahati, India. In the following months intensive communication and enthusiasm resulted in the research in this special issue. In addition to Co‐chairs Thingnganing Longvah (India) and Harriet Kuhnlein (Canada and USA), TF members contributing articles are Rekia Belahsen (Morocco), Sinee Chotiboriboon (Thailand), Treena Delormier (USA and Canada), Henrietta Ene‐Obong (Nigeria), Masami Iwasaki‐Goodman (Japan), Stefanie Lemke (Germany), Solot Sirisai (Thailand), and Marion Roche (Canada).

This rich collaboration of interdisciplinary scholars developed the research, and each article reflects a team effort. Indigenous and non‐Indigenous heritage within the TF teams ensured scientific validity and the worldviews from the partnered Indigenous communities. Brief bios of contributors at the end of the articles reflect expertise in public health nutrition, food composition, anthropology, sociology, nutritional sciences, and community leadership. All the communities described in the articles shared rich descriptions of their ethnicity and traditions, and the biodiversity used in cultural food traditions. Descriptions are shared of how food accessed and used today reflects dietary change resulting from globalization, and, to some degree, the effects of climate change.

4. NEW KNOWLEDGE AND POLICY IMPLICATIONS

In addition to unique new knowledge about each of the cultures described in the chapters, there are several threads of new knowledge expressed in this special issue. The research leaders collectively agreed that we want the evidence supplied here to stimulate others towards promoting the diversity and wisdom of traditional food systems for Indigenous Peoples, and for all people who share the planet. Our vision is that mainstreaming food‐based approaches to health promotion with local resources can be furthered by appreciating the impact of gender roles of both women and men that are practiced at the local societal level. These are important windows to understanding the benefits and constraints of Indigenous Peoples' food systems, food security and well‐being. We are ever more aware that Indigenous values merge with universal parental (from mother and father) values for care, nurture and protection of kin and their natural resources, and the importance of place‐based food knowledge and well‐being. The roles and capacities of all members of societies need to be understood, empowered, and managed for the best outcomes of well‐being.

Another important concept that permeates the research from several of the case studies is the extent of biodiversity known and used by Indigenous Peoples, with a great deal of knowledge about food species that are still to be documented in the scientific literature. Scientists working with communities have large tasks to complete scientific nomenclature and laboratory evaluations for nutrient composition. This important work must be fostered and supported. This has been especially described for the extensive biodiversity in Asian cultures of Karen, Khasi, and Chakesang, (Chyne et al., 2017; Longvah et al., 2017; Sirisai et al., 2017) which are among the cultures where the highest numbers of unique local food species have been recorded, but also for the traditional cultural dishes described for the Ohafia, Haudenosaunee, Tungurahua, Berber, and Ainu (Ene‐Obong, Onuoha & Eme, 2017; Delormier et al., 2017; Roche, Ambato, Sarsoza, & Kuhnlein, 2017; Belahsen, Naciri, & El Ibrahimi, 2017; Iwasaki‐Goodman, 2017). Making better use of local food biodiversity and its related Indigenous knowledge can improve dietary diversity, enjoyment of food and cultural practices, and nutritional status in communities, and thereby prevent malnutrition expressed as undernutrition and/or overweight that results from unhealthy food consumption patterns.

Indigenous Peoples place profound importance and commitment on protecting their land and access to natural resources, especially their food resources. The United Nations system and its member states are active in developing policy frameworks that recognize traditional customs and lands of Indigenous Peoples, and the valuable knowledge they hold as custodians of much of the world's biodiversity of food resources.

Strategies and policies that promote the autonomous use and management of the natural resources in their territories depends on recognition and respect for cultural knowledge. The United Nations Permanent Forum on Indigenous Issues meets annually to promote equitable development policies, and to promote the Indigenous Peoples' human rights within the framework of the Declaration on the Rights of Indigenous Peoples that was adopted by the United Nations General Assembly in 2007 (Kuhnlein et al., 2013). Two International Decades of Indigenous Peoples, the Declaration on the Rights of Indigenous Peoples, and the International Labour Organisation Convention on Indigenous and Tribal Peoples' Rights (ILO 169 established in 1989) underpin the rights of Indigenous Peoples to their traditional lands and food that contribute to Indigenous economies, cultures, and identities (Damman, Eide, & Kuhnlein, 2008). Recently the FAO released the Voluntary Guidelines on the Responsible Governance of Tenure of Land, Fisheries, and Forests in the Context of National Food Security (FAO, 2016). Other FAO resources are the FAO Policy on Indigenous and Tribal Peoples (FAO, 2015). Both documents are available on the Indigenous Peoples window of the FAO website (FAO, website 2017).

The members of the IUNS TF and the authors of the articles in this issue hope that this publication has developed meaningful aspects of this knowledge for the reader, and will contribute to improved policies benefiting Indigenous Peoples at the local, state, national, and international levels. Greater recognition and use of strategies derived from Indigenous values, knowledge, and practices will benefit the health of all human societies.

CONFLICTS OF INTEREST

The author declares no potential conflicts of interest with respect to the research, authorship, and/or publication of this article.

CONTRIBUTIONS

The author created the manuscript, sought external readings and advice on the draft, and revised the manuscript to the final draft.

Biography

Harriet Kuhnlein is from a Pennsylvania agricultural family. Her career developed from a love of natural food shaped by interests in social justice and diverse cultures and ecosystems. She received her PhD from the University of California, Berkeley, and was awarded an LLD. (hon.) from The University of Western Ontario. She is honored as a Fellow of the American Society of Nutrition, a Fellow of the International Union of Nutritional Sciences, and Honorary Member of the Canadian Nutrition Society. Guiding interdisciplinary participatory research with many cultures of Indigenous Peoples over more than 40 years, she has friends and colleagues around the world. Dr. Kuhnlein co‐chairs the Task Force on Traditional, Indigenous, and Cultural Food and Nutrition of the International Union of Nutritional Sciences. She and her husband, Urs, spend family time in Anacortes (Washington State, USA), Vancouver (British Columbia, Canada), and Switzerland.

Kuhnlein HV. Gender roles, food system biodiversity, and food security in Indigenous Peoples' communities. Matern Child Nutr. 2017;13(S3):e12529 10.1111/mcn.12529