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Journal of Ethnobiology and Ethnomedicine logoLink to Journal of Ethnobiology and Ethnomedicine
. 2019 Nov 27;15:56. doi: 10.1186/s13002-019-0336-x

Wild edible plants collected by Hani from terraced rice paddy agroecosystem in Honghe Prefecture, Yunnan, China

Binsheng Luo 1,2, Bo Liu 1,2, Hongzhen Zhang 3, Hongkang Zhang 3, Xuan Li 3, Lijuan Ma 1, Yizhou Wang 1, Yujia Bai 1, Xinbo Zhang 1, Jianqin Li 1, Jun Yang 4, Chunlin Long 1,2,4,
PMCID: PMC6882008  PMID: 31775804

Abstract

Background

The Hani people in the Honghe Prefecture of Southeastern Yunnan, China, have practiced terraced rice paddy farming for more than 1300 years. These rice fields, combined with the surrounding forests and water systems, form a special agroecosystem that has attracted both tourists and scientists. For centuries, the local people have traditionally collected wild edible plants (WEP) from the agroecosystem, but this unique traditional practice in this area has never been reported.

Methods

Ethnobotanical fieldwork was conducted in four counties (Yuanyang, Honghe, Jinping, and Lüchun) between 2014 and 2019. Local self-identified Hani people (186) were interviewed, and information concerning local WEP species was obtained, documented, and analyzed. Plant samples and voucher specimens were collected for taxonomic identification.

Results

A total of 224 WEP species, belonging to 90 families and 170 genera, were recorded as used by the Hani people in Honghe. The most common WEP parts used include fruits, stems, and leaves, and the most common preparation methods include eating as a potherb (wild vegetable) and eating fresh. Some WEPs, like Phyllanthus emblica and Dioscorea subcalva, have unique preparation methods. The use-value (UV) and frequency of utilization index (FUI) of WEP species were analyzed. The 20 WEP species with the highest UV were noted as particularly important to the Hani people’s daily life in Honghe.

Conclusion

A large majority of these WEP species possess tremendous economic potential for future development. However, the diversity of WEP species, the associated traditional knowledge, and the broader agroecosystem are facing challenges such as biodiversity loss and pollution from chemical pesticides and fertilizers. This study may help local people to recognize the value of local WEP species and associated traditional knowledge, as well as provide ethnobotanical information for the future development of this tourism region.

Keywords: Hani terraced rice paddy fields, Wild edible plants, Ethnobotany, Hani ethnic group

Background

The terraced rice paddy fields of the Hani people of Southeastern Yunnan, China, represent a unique agroecosystem with significant economic, ecological, and esthetic values [1]. Due to the dramatic altitudinal range in this area (144–2939 m) [2], there is a significant diversity of climatic zones and associated micro-climates [3]. These climatic zones, in order from low to high altitude, are southern subtropical, middle subtropical, northern subtropical, warm temperate, temperate, and cold temperate climates [3]. This complex topography and diversity of climates significantly contribute to the richness of local biodiversity [4].

Since the 1960s, the Hani terraced rice paddy fields have attracted scientific interest, and they have even been elected into the Globally Important Agricultural Heritage Systems (2010) and the UNESCO World Heritage List (2013) [5]. For example, Zhu et al. [6] carried out a series of experiments in the terraced rice paddy fields in Honghe Hani and found that crop heterogeneity could solve the vulnerability of monoculture crops to disease; Li et al. [7] studied the agricultural soils by molecular methods and revealed the dynamics of organic matter in Yuanyang Terrace. However, there have been no studies on the wild edible plants (WEP species) collected and consumed by the Hani people in Honghe Hani terraced rice paddy system. In addition to scientific interest, the Honghe rice terraces have attracted more than 20 million tourists since 2014 [8]. Due to their interests in local foods, tourists have driven a demand for WEP species on the menus of local restaurants.

The Hani people speak their own language, which does not have a traditional writing system. After 1957, a set of writing characters of the Hani language based on Latin was invented with the help of the Chinese government and linguists [8].

About 1300 years ago [9], the Hani people migrated to Southeast Yunnan and began the cultivation of rice paddies in terraced hillside fields, forming a sustainable agroecosystem consisting of four major components: forests, villages, terraced rice paddies, and river systems (Fig. 1) [10, 11]. The evergreen forests control the water in the soil, acting like a natural reservoir to maintain the water year long, and also provide water for the villages and terraced rice paddies in lowlands through water channels built by Hani people [10]. Also, the hot and humid valley climate frequently generates a thick fog that helps to maintain moist air throughout the year. This unique four element–based Hani agroecosystem ensures a stable water supply. Consequently, the Hani terraced rice paddy fields did not suffer any significant damage from the historic 2009–2010 drought in China [2, 12].

Fig. 1.

Fig. 1

The construction of the Hani terraced rice paddy field agroecosystem

Due to this unique and complex agroecosystem, together with its rich biodiversity, much traditional ethnobotanical knowledge has been developed and accumulated by the local people, especially knowledge about WEP species. Since WEP species have not been domesticated and grown on a large scale, they must be obtained from the natural environment in order to be used as food [13, 14].

In some parts of Yunnan, there has been a rapid replacement of complex agroecosystems by intensive monocultures of commercial crops, such as bananas, which is often accompanied by the use of inorganic herbicides and pesticides [15]. Rising awareness and concern about the possible health effects of pesticides and herbicides on human health has dramatically increased demand for organic foods in China [15]. This interest extends to WEP species as they are wild harvested. For example, many WEP species have made their way into ethnic minority recipes found on high-end restaurant menus. Consequently, some WEP species have tremendous market potential and are particularly popular in tourist areas because of their perceived advantages of being pesticide-free, naturally grown, high in nutrients, and fresh in taste [13, 16]. According to a Web of Science search of bibliometric and mapping knowledge domains, WEP species have always been an essential hotspot in ethnobotanical research [17]. WEP species in the Hani terraced rice paddy agroecosystem are often used to supplement daily food resources or to help to overcome seasonal food shortages [18]. Additionally, some WEP species possess medicinal properties that may help protect indigenous people against diseases [18, 19].

Although the Hani people have lived in the Honghe Hani terraced rice paddy system for centuries, their traditional knowledge and associated biodiversity are rapidly being lost due to socio-economic changes and access to modern technologies [4, 11]. Consequently, decreasing traditional knowledge will likely lead to a decrease in biodiversity, especially the diversity of WEP species [20]. Therefore, saving local traditional knowledge and protecting biodiversity are urgent [21]. To our knowledge, no previous studies have documented the WEP species in Hani terraced rice paddy agroecosystems. Thus, this investigation on the WEP species in Hani was conducted. This study recorded traditional knowledge of WEP species, which may protect it from disappearing in a rapid-developing era. The related research results may also provide scientific guidance for WEP species consumption, information of economic benefit to local communities for future sustainable development, and application of WEP species.

Methods

Study area

Before the field survey, a literature review was conducted to obtain information about the region of Hani terraced rice paddy fields, including climates, topography, vegetation types, and culture [22]. During 2014–2019, ethnobotanical studies were carried out in four counties (Yuanyang, Lüchun, Honghe, and Jinping), which cover more than 47,000 ha, including most of the area containing Hani terraced rice paddy fields (Fig. 2) [23]. All study sites and their visit times are recorded in detail in Table 1. In consideration of local landscape diversity, this investigation was conducted in almost every landscape of this agroecosystem, including farming areas, forests, villages, home gardens, and water source areas [23]. Additionally, local markets in different villages and counties were surveyed repeatedly, as the markets often reflect the wide variety of local knowledge in daily life [24].

Fig. 2.

Fig. 2

Location and terrain of the study area

Table 1.

Study sites in Honghe Hani terraced rice paddy system

County name Village and township Times visited
Honghe County Lüshuge Village, Jiayin Township 2
Honghe County Lonajia Village, Jiayin Township 1
Honghe County Baohua Township 2
Jinping County Xiongjia Village, Adebo Township 2
Jinping County Shuiyan Village, Ma’andi Township 2
Lüchun County Lüchun County 2
Lüchun County Lagu Village, Sanmeng Township 1
Yuanyang County Xiaoxinjie Township 1
Yuanyang County Niujiaozhai Township 1
Yuanyang County Qingkou Village, Xinjie Township 1
The junction of Lüchun County and Yuanyang County 1

Data collection, voucher specimen collection, and data analysis

A variety of different ethnobotanical and social science methods were used to collect data about the WEP 7species in this region. These methods included participatory rural appraisal (PRA), direct observation, semi-structured interviews, key informant interviews, and focal group discussions (Fig. 3) [4, 25, 26]. In total, 186 native Hani people, including 160 people older than 50 years of age, were interviewed. Seventy of them were male, and 116 were female. They were mostly local farmers, and many of them collected WEPs to sell in local markets. The primary content of the interview consisted of “5 W + H” questions (i.e., questions concerning what, when, where, who/whom, why, and how the subjects utilize WEP) [24, 26, 27]. With the assistance of Hani local experts, voucher specimens were gathered from different habitats around the study sites. Plant species were identified by Dr. Chunlin Long, Dr. Bo Liu, and Ms. Jun Yang. The voucher specimens were deposited at the College of Life and Environmental Sciences at the Minzu University of China in Beijing.

Fig. 3.

Fig. 3

Focal group discussion (a) and Hani women in a local market (b)

The data collected in the Honghe area was collated into an inventory containing all the WEP species and related information. The use-value (UV) of each WEP was calculated to evaluate the relative importance of each plant based on the number of times cited and the number of informants [28, 29]. The formula for UV is

UV=Ui/N

Ui is the times cited by each informant for a certain WEP, while N is the total number of informants [29]. The frequency of utilization index (FUI) of WEP species was graded according to the frequency of consumption by local people. FUI can also reflect the degree of closeness between WEP species and the local community [29]. The FUI scores range from 0 to 5 and varied by the consumption frequency (Table 2) [29].

Table 2.

The FUI value and corresponding category

Consumption frequency FUI
More than once a week 5
Once a week 4
Once a month 3
More than once a year, less than once a month 2
Once a year 1
No consumption in last 30 years 0.5

Results and discussion

Diversity of WEP species in Honghe terraced rice paddy fields

Based on our investigations, 224 WEP species belonging to 170 genera and 90 families, along with related information such as scientific names, family names, life forms, vernacular names, edible parts, and processing methods, were documented (Table 3). According to the recorded WEP species, more than half of the species are woody plants (50.9%), including trees (30.4%) and shrubs (20.5%). There were 80 species of herbaceous plants (35.3%), 21 species of lianas (9.4%), and 10 species of bamboos (4.5%) (Table 4).

Table 3.

Inventory of WEP species in Honghe terraced rice paddy system

Scientific name Vernacular Name Life form Family name Parts used Preparation and uses Study sites Voucher number FUI UV
Gymnospermae
Gnetum montanum Markgr. Wo ni ai xi Liana Gnetaceae Seed Cooked thoroughly and eaten (kernel) Lüchun County 201,606–19 0.6 0.21
Gnetum pendulum C.Y.Cheng Mang dao Liana Gnetaceae Seed Cooked thoroughly and eaten (kernel) Lagu Village, Sanmeng Township HHD-31 0.5 0.16
Angiospermae
Kadsura coccinea (Lem.) A.C.Sm. Hei lao hu Liana Schisandraceae Fruit Ripe fruits are eaten fresh Lüshuge Village, Jiayin Township 201,610–04 2.4 0.44
Houttuynia cordata Thunb. Pa huo Herb Saururaceae Rhizome Potherb or flavoring agent Lagu Village, Sanmeng Township HHD-54 4.5 0.89
Piper betle L. Fa qie wei niu Liana Piperaceae Leaf Flavoring agent Lonajia Village, Jiayin Township 201,506–39 2.7 0.55
Michelia hedyosperma Y.W.Law Ma la Tree Magnoliaceae Seed Flavoring agent Lagu Village, Sanmeng Township HHD-39 2.8 0.44
Alphonsea mollis Dunn Tree Annonaceae Fruit Ripe fruits are eaten fresh Lonajia Village, Jiayin Township 201,506–35 2.0 0.57
Litsea akoensis var. sasakii (Kamik.) J.C. Liao Tree Lauraceae Fruit Flavoring agent Lüchun County 201,606–26 2.4 0.54
Litsea cubeba (Lour.) Pers. Mo ye la pi Shrub Lauraceae Fruit Flavoring agent Shuiyan Village, Ma’andi Township 201,511–12 2.0 0.54
Litsea pungens Hemsl. Si bi a si Tree Lauraceae Fruit Flavoring agent Baohua Township 201,511–43 4.9 0.92
Acorus gramineus Aiton Ji xiang Herb Acoraceae Leaf, rhizome Flavoring agent Shuiyan Village, Ma’andi Township 201,511–13 2.8 0.46
Amorphophallus konjac K.Koch Jia mo Herb Araceae Tender leaf, tuber Making “tofu” Niujiaozhai Township 201,606–09 2.9 0.43
Colocasia gigantea (Blume) Hook. f. Bo ju Herb Araceae Petiole Potherb (cooked thoroughly) Xiaoxinjie Township 201,506–06 4.0 0.80
Sagittaria trifolia L. Wo qi Herb Alismataceae Tender leaf, rhizome Potherb (stewed or stir-fried) Lüshuge Village, Jiayin Township 201,610–24 2.4 0.46
Dioscorea cirrhosa Lour. Ai la ma a si Liana Dioscoreaceae Tuber Cereal substitute in famine time Xiaoxinjie Township 201,506–05 2.4 0.43
Dioscorea subcalva Prain et Burkill Mo mo mang Liana Dioscoreaceae Tuber Making “tofu” (similar to konjac tofu) Lagu Village, Sanmeng Township HHD-45 2.6 0.46
Heterosmilax yunnanensis Gagnep. Guo ge niao, a guo guo ne Shrub Smilacaceae Tender leaf Potherb (blanched in boiled water, then soaked in cold water for days. Usually stir-fried or made into soup) The junction of Lüchun County and Yuanyang County 201,506–08 2.7 0.47
Caryota urens L. Ha da a bo Tree Arecaceae Flower Snack (inflorescence sap is sweet) Lüshuge Village, Jiayin Township 201,610–13 0.9 0.20
Commelina benghalensis Forssk. A wei ya mo Herb Commelinaceae Tender Leaf, tender stem Potherb (boiled for 5–10 min, then soaked in water to debitterize) Lüchun County LB-27 2.0 0.49
Commelina diffusa Burm.f. Nuo niu pao Herb Commelinaceae Whole plant Potherb (usually stewed with pork) Lüshuge Village, Jiayin Township 201,610–15 2.9 0.42
Streptolirion volubile Edgew. Mo dui dui han Herb Commelinaceae Tender stem, leaf Potherb (made into soup) Xiaoxinjie Township LB-16 2.2 0.56
Monochoria vaginalis (Burm.f.) C.Presl Mi zuo wa, a bei bei za, e za, e bi ra Herb Pontederiaceae Stem and leaf Potherb Lagu Village, Sanmeng Township HHD-48 2.0 0.47
Musa acuminata Colla Ruo a pao ruo a wo Herb Musaceae Fruit, flower, pith part Fruit: eaten fresh; flower and pith part: cooked as potherb Baohua Township 201,511–44 3.8 0.70
Musa itinerans Cheesman Herb Musaceae Flower, young bract Potherb Xiaoxinjie Township LB-14 2.6 0.41
Amomum maximum Roxb. Sa jia hong bi Herb Zingiberaceae Fruit Flavoring agent Lüshuge Village, Jiayin Township 201,610–12 2.7 0.52
Hedychium coronarium J.Koenig A ci a ye Herb Zingiberaceae Flower, shoot Potherb (usually stewed or stir fried) Lonajia Village, Jiayin Township 201,506–53 2.3 0.45
Zingiber striolatum Diels Herb Zingiberaceae Flower Potherb Lüshuge Village, Jiayin Township 201,610–22 3.0 0.73
Acidosasa hirtiflora Z.P.Wang and G.H.Ye Bamboo Poaceae Shoot Bamboo shoots Shuiyan Village, Ma’andi Township 201,511–20 0.1 0.12
Chimonobambusa yunnanensis Hsueh et W.P. Zhang Bamboo Poaceae Shoot Bamboo shoots Shuiyan Village, Ma’andi Township 201,511–22 1.0 0.18
Chimonocalamus longiligulatus Hsueh and T.P.Yi Ha bo Bamboo Poaceae Shoot Bamboo shoots Xiaoxinjie Township LB-07 0.5 0.18
Dendrocalamus membranaceus Munro A ha a bi Bamboo Poaceae Shoot Bamboo shoots Xiongjia Village, Adebo Township HHD-015 0.6 0.17
Dendrocalamus peculiaris Hsueh and D.Z.Li Bamboo Poaceae Shoot Bamboo shoots Shuiyan Village, Ma’andi Township 201,511–23 0.8 0.25
Indosasa singulispicula T.H.Wen Bamboo Poaceae Shoot Bamboo shoots Lonajia Village, Jiayin Township 201,506–43 0.1 0.15
Indosasa sinica C.D.Chu and C.S.Chao A xiu a bo Bamboo Poaceae Shoot Bamboo shoots Shuiyan Village, Ma’andi Township 201,511–17 0.6 0.06
Melocalamus arrectus T.P.Yi A ha a bo Bamboo Poaceae Shoot Bamboo shoots Shuiyan Village, Ma’andi Township 201,511–18 0.6 0.09
Phyllostachys nigra var. henonis (Mitford) Rendle A mao a bo Bamboo Poaceae Shoot Bamboo shoots Shuiyan Village, Ma’andi Township 201,511–21 0.9 0.04
Schizostachyum funghomii McClure A che Bamboo Poaceae Shoot Bamboo shoots Shuiyan Village, Ma’andi Township 201,511–19 0.5 0.25
Akebia trifoliata (Thunb.) Koidz. Liana Lardizabalaceae Fruit Ripe fruits are eaten fresh Lüshuge Village, Jiayin Township 201,610–05 1.9 0.54
Parabaena sagittata Miers Hua na wei niu Liana Menispermaceae Leaf Potherb Shuiyan Village, Ma’andi Township 201,511–28 2.5 0.55
Mahonia bealei (Fortune) Pynaert Shi shi, sou shou Shrub Berberidaceae Fruit, stem Stem: liquor brewing; fruit: eaten fresh Lonajia Village, Jiayin Township 201,506–45 2.6 0.52
Helicia nilagirica Bedd. Kong bai a bo Tree Proteaceae Seed Cooked seeds are used as grain substitute Shuiyan Village, Ma’andi Township 201,511–01 2.7 0.58
Dillenia indica L. Xi shi a di Tree Dilleniaceae Fruit Ripe fruits are eaten fresh Qingkou Village, Xinjie Township 201,506–13 2.8 0.41
Acacia pennata (L.) Willd. Tuo bo ji niu Liana Fabaceae Tender leaf Potherb Baohua Township HHD-25 3.4 0.65
Bauhinia acuminata L. var. candida (Roxb.) Voigt Du bie a lo Shrub Fabaceae Flower, young pod, seed, tender leaf Potherb, seeds: cooked throughly and eaten (kernel) Xiaoxinjie Township LB-17 2.9 0.40
Chamaecrista mimosoides (L.) Greene Herb Fabaceae Tender leaf Tea substitute Qingkou Village, Xinjie Township 201,506–19 0.5 0.14
Chamaecrista nictitans (L.) Moench subsp. patellaris (DC. ex Collad.) H. S. Irwin et Barneby var. glabrata (Vogel) H. S. Irwin et Barneby Herb Fabaceae Tender leaf, tender stem Tea substitute Lüchun County LB-18 1.2 0.30
Gleditsia sinensis Lam. A si ni ma a hong Tree Fabaceae Tender leaf Potherb Lüshuge Village, Jiayin Township 201,610–20 2.7 0.48
Parochetus communis D.Don A wo la qian Herb Fabaceae Flower Potherb (stir-fried) Lüchun County 201,606–31 2.5 0.57
Senna tora (L.) Roxb. Herb Fabaceae Flower, leaf, young fruit, seed Potherb, seed: substitute of coffee Lüchun County LB-28 2.6 0.48
Tadehagi triquetrum (L.) H.Ohashi Qian ka a bo Shrub Fabaceae Tender leaf, tender stem Tea substitute Lagu Village, Sanmeng Township HHD-43 0.7 0.23
Tamarindus indica L. Bi qian a si Tree Fabaceae Fruit, tender leaf Fruit: eaten fresh or made into compote; tender leaf: potherb (blanched before cooking) Niujiaozhai Township 201,606–08 2.5 0.56
Fagopyrum dibotrys (D.Don) H.Hara A za ca sa Herb Polygonaceae Root Potherb (usually made into soup) Xiongjia Village, Adebo Township 201,506–04 2.2 0.57
Polygala fallax Hemsl. Ha pa ha ma Shrub Polygalaceae Flower, tender leaf Potherb (usually made into soup) Lonajia Village, Jiayin Township 201,506–52 2.3 0.47
Polygonum cupitatum Buch.-Ham. ex D.Don A za za ni Herb Polygonaceae Tender leaf Potherb (usually made into soup) Xiongjia Village, Adebo Township 201,506–03 2.0 0.46
Polygonum hydropiper L. An ji ba qian Herb Polygonaceae Tender leaf, tender stem Potherb Qingkou Village, Xinjie Township 201,506–24 2.8 0.54
Polygonum molle D. Don Qian ge a si Shrub Polygonaceae Fruit Ripe fruits are eaten fresh Baohua Township 201,511–33 2.2 0.50
Polygonum perfoliatum L. A qian la qian a pa Herb Polygonaceae Fruit Ripe fruits are eaten fresh Xiaoxinjie Township LB-03 2.1 0.58
Reynoutria japonica Houtt. Suan gan tong Herb Polygonaceae Tender stem Potherb Lonajia Village, Jiayin Township 201,506–37 2.0 0.58
Xanthophyllum yunnanense C.Y. Wu Tree Polygalaceae Fruit Ripe fruits are eaten fresh Lüshuge Village, Jiayin Township 201,610–07 2.7 0.42
Crataegus pinnatifida Bunge Si pu a si Tree Rosaceae Fruit Ripe fruits are eaten fresh Baohua Township 201,511–37 1.8 0.38
Fragaria vesca L. O luo jia ba a si Herb Rosaceae Fruit Ripe fruits are eaten fresh Lüshuge Village, Jiayin Township 201,610–08 2.1 0.44
Pyrus calleryana Decne. Si peng a si Tree Rosaceae Flower, fruit Fruit: eaten fresh; flower: potherb (soaked in water to dibitterize, then stir-fried, made into soup or salad) Lonajia Village, Jiayin Township 201,506–41 2.0 0.54
Pyrus xerophila T.T.Yu A pei pei zi zuo Tree Rosaceae Fruit Ripe fruits are eaten fresh Lüchun County 201,606–22 2.7 0.49
Rubus ellipticus var. obcordatus (Franch.) Focke Huo wo Shrub Rosaceae Fruit Ripe fruits are eaten fresh Lüchun County 201,606–21 2.7 0.38
Rubus multibracteatus H. Lév. and Vaniot Shrub Rosaceae Fruit Ripe fruits are eaten fresh Lagu Village, Sanmeng Township HHD-33 1.9 0.58
Rubus parvifolius L. A guo luo a bei Shrub Rosaceae Fruit Ripe fruits are eaten fresh Qingkou Village, Xinjie Township 201,506–15 2.5 0.56
Elaeagnus conferta Roxb. Ba pen luo niu Shrub Elaeagnaceae Fruit Ripe fruits are eaten fresh Lonajia Village, Jiayin Township 201,506–30 2.5 0.41
Artocarpus lacucha Buch.-Ham. ex D. Don A niao niao bei Tree Moraceae Fruit Ripe fruits are eaten fresh Lüshuge Village, Jiayin Township 201,610–09 2.9 0.57
Artocarpus tonkinensis A.Chev. ex Gagnep. Ci gan gan nü Tree Moraceae Fruit Ripe fruits are eaten fresh Lonajia Village, Jiayin Township 201,506–29 2.3 0.47
Broussonetia papyrifera (L.) L’Her.ex Vent. Ma san Tree Moraceae Flower, tender leaf Potherb Niujiaozhai Township 201,606–16 2.0 0.44
Ficus auriculata Lour. Mu gua cai Tree Moraceae Fruit Ripe fruits are eaten fresh Lüchun County 201,606–23 3.4 0.68
Ficus hederacea Roxb. Jia ni ni bai Shrub Moraceae Fruit Ripe fruits are mixed with salt and eaten fresh Shuiyan Village, Ma’andi Township 201,511–16 1.9 0.55
Ficus henryi Warb. ex Diels A niao niao xiu Tree Moraceae Fruit Fruits eaten fresh or liquor brewing Baohua Township 201,511–40 1.7 0.41
Ficus hirta Vahl Ji zi o si Shrub Moraceae Fruit Ripe fruits are eaten fresh Lagu Village, Sanmeng Township HHD-34 2.0 0.38
Ficus irisana Elmer Qi pu Tree Moraceae Fruit Ripe fruits are eaten fresh Xiongjia Village, Adebo Township HHD-012 1.8 0.39
Ficus oligodon Miq. Xi bo ai xi Tree Moraceae Fruit Ripe fruits are eaten fresh Lüshuge Village, Jiayin Township 201,610–02 2.1 0.46
Ficus pandurata Hance Shrub Moraceae Fruit, seed Fruit: eaten fresh; seed: roasted and eaten (kernel) Lüchun County 201,606–28 2.1 0.48
Ficus racemosa L. A niao niao na Tree Moraceae Fruit, seed Fruit: eaten fresh; seed: roasted and eaten (kernel) Lüchun County 201,606–27 2.1 0.51
Ficus semicordata Buch.-Ham. Ex Sm. Hu gan da pa Tree Moraceae Fruit Ripe fruits are eaten fresh Lagu Village, Sanmeng Township HHD-35 2.4 0.44
Ficus tikoua Bureau Wei chao lao e Liana Moraceae Fruit Ripe fruits are eaten fresh Xiaoxinjie Township LB-01 2.0 0.48
Debregeasia longifolia (Burm.f.) Wedd. Mao ma qiang ga Shrub Urticaceae Fruit Ripe fruits are eaten fresh Lonajia Village, Jiayin Township 201,506–31 2.1 0.51
Debregeasia orientalis C. J. Chen O ce bu Shrub Urticaceae Fruit, leaf, tender stem Leaf and stem: potherb; fruit: eaten fresh Baohua Township HHD-19 2.5 0.55
Elatostema involucratum Franch. and Sav. Luo bu. a bo Herb Urticaceae Tender stem, leaf Potherb Niujiaozhai Township 201,606–13 1.9 0.40
Gonostegia hirta (Blume ex Hassk.) Miq. Pa qian a bo Herb Urticaceae Tender stem, leaf Potherb Lüchun County LB-22 2.1 0.54
Lecanthus peduncularis (Wall. ex Royle) Wedd. A che pa nv Herb Urticaceae Whole plant Potherb (usually made into soup) Baohua Township HHD-30 2.2 0.48
Castanopsis calathiformis (Skan) Rehder and E.H.Wilson A ba a bo Tree Fagaceae Seed Roasted and eaten (kernel) Baohua Township HHD-20 0.8 0.18
Castanopsis carlesii var. spinulosa W.C.Cheng and C.S.Chao Che qian a bo Tree Fagaceae Seed Roasted and eaten (kernel) Niujiaozhai Township 201,606–10 0.5 0.17
Castanopsis indica (Roxb. ex Lindl.) A.DC. Che si a bo Tree Fagaceae Seed Roasted and eaten (kernel) Lüchun County LB-21 0.8 0.05
Castanopsis mekongensis A.Camus Tree Fagaceae Seed Roasted and eaten (kernel) Shuiyan Village, Ma’andi Township 201,511–24 0.7 0.20
Lithocarpus megalophyllus Rehder and E.H.Wilson A biu a bo Tree Fagaceae Fruit Ripe fruits are eaten fresh Baohua Township 201,511–34 2.8 0.46
Myricae esculenta Buch.-Ham. ex D. Don Tree Myricaceae Fruit Fruits eaten fresh or liquor brewing Niujiaozhai Township 201,606–06 2.0 0.41
Gynostemma pubescens (Gagnep.) C.Y.Wu Ka kui zha ha Herb Cucurbitaceae Leaf, tender stem Tea substitute Lonajia Village, Jiayin Township 201,506–44 0.2 0.18
Hemsleya macrosperma C.Y.Wu A za ku xi Herb Cucurbitaceae Tender leaf Potherb Xiongjia Village, Adebo Township 201,506–02 2.5 0.40
Hodgsonia macrocarpa (Blume) Cogn. Zha qi gu lu Liana Cucurbitaceae Seed Eaten directly, or used for pressing oil Shuiyan Village, Ma’andi Township 201,511–02 1.9 0.48
Momordica cochinchinensis (Lour.) Spreng. Bei ba na Liana Cucurbitaceae Tender stem, leaf Potherb Shuiyan Village, Ma’andi Township 201,511–30 2.9 0.44
Salacia sessiliflora Hand.-Mazz. A ka la ma a bo Shrub Celastraceae Fruit Ripe fruits are eaten fresh Lüchun County 201,606–25 2.6 0.41
Oxalis corniculata L. Suan ji cao Herb Oxalidaceae Stem, leaf Potherb: blanched in boiled water, then soaked in cold water for 2 h Niujiaozhai Township 201,606–01 2.3 0.47
Elaeocarpus decipiens F.B.Forbes and Hemsl. Na ci ci ha Tree Elaeocarpaceae Fruit Ripe fruits are eaten fresh Shuiyan Village, Ma’andi Township 201,511–08 1.9 0.58
Garcinia cowa Roxb. ex Choisy Huang xin shu Tree Clusiaceae Fruit Ripe fruits are eaten fresh Baohua Township 201,511–35 2.0 0.47
Garcinia multiflora Champ. ex Benth. Qiu guo a si Tree Clusiaceae Fruit Ripe fruits are eaten fresh Niujiaozhai Township 201,606–02 2.4 0.42
Garcinia xanthochymus Hook.f. ex T.Anderson A bu. bu. qie Tree Clusiaceae Fruit Ripe fruits are eaten fresh Niujiaozhai Township 201,606–04 2.1 0.52
Cratoxylum cochinchinense (Lour.) Blume Jiu ge ge qia Tree Hypericaceae Tender leaf, young fruit Tender leaves: tea substitute; young fruit: flavoring agent Niujiaozhai Township 201,606–11 2.2 0.49
Cratoxylum formosum subsp. pruniflorum (Kurz) Gogelein A on a bo Tree Hypericaceae Tender leaf Tea substitute Lagu Village, Sanmeng Township HHD-44 0.9 0.25
Curculigo capitulata (Lour.) Kuntze Ma ni zu se Herb Hypoxidaceae Fruit, tender leaf, tender stem Fruit: eaten fresh; leaves and stem: potherb Baohua Township HHD-18 2.0 0.56
Curculigo sinensis S. C. Chen Mei la pa jia Herb Hypoxidaceae Fruit Ripe fruits are eaten fresh Baohua Township 201,511–36 1.9 0.56
Passiflora wilsonii Hemsl. Ba ze Liana Passifloraceae Fruit Ripe fruits are eaten fresh Shuiyan Village, Ma’andi Township 201,511–04 2.5 0.51
Flacourtia ramontchi L’Hér. A zi long jie a bo Shrub Salicaceae Fruit Ripe fruits are eaten fresh, or made into jam, or preserved Lüshuge Village, Jiayin Township 201,610–10 2.4 0.58
Baccaurea ramiflora Lour. Si suo a si Tree Phyllanthaceae Fruit Ripe fruits are eaten fresh Lonajia Village, Jiayin Township 201,506–34 4.2 0.89
Phyllanthus emblica L. Bo can xi ka, xi qia ha Tree Phyllanthaceae Bark, fruit Fruit: eaten fresh; bark: scraching off the inside tender bark to make dishes Lüchun County 201,606–29 4.9 0.90
Rotala indica (Willd.) Koehne En ni a bo Herb Lythraceae Tender shoot Potherb Lüshuge Village, Jiayin Township 201,610–16 2.2 0.42
Rotala rotundifolia (Buch.-Ham. ex Roxb.) Koehne Herb Lythraceae Tender leaf, tender stem Potherb Baohua Township HHD-27 2.1 0.52
Cleistocalyx operculatus (Roxb.) Merr. and L.M.Perry Tree Myrtaceae Fruit Ripe fruits are eaten fresh Lonajia Village, Jiayin Township 201,506–27 1.6 0.56
Decaspermum parviflorum (Lam.) A.J.Scott A gong gong ni a bo Tree Myrtaceae Fruit Ripe fruits are eaten fresh Lonajia Village, Jiayin Township 201,506–28 2.4 0.38
Syzygium fluviatile (Hemsl.) Merr. and L.M.Perry Me ran me xiu na ci a bo Shrub Myrtaceae Fruit Ripe fruits are eaten fresh The junction of Lüchun County and Yuanyang County 201,506–09 1.6 0.49
Syzygium yunnanense Merr. and L.M.Perry O ho Tree Myrtaceae Fruit Ripe fruits are eaten fresh Lüchun County 201,606–24 2.8 0.45
Medinilla radiciflora C.Y.Wu ex C.Chen Shrub Melastomataceae Fruit Ripe fruits are eaten fresh Shuiyan Village, Ma’andi Township 201,511–03 2.4 0.39
Medinilla septentrionalis (W.W. Sm.) H.L. Li Qian ben er a si Shrub Melastomataceae Fruit Ripe fruits are eaten fresh Niujiaozhai Township 201,606–05 2.8 0.48
Melastoma affine D. Don Bei bai Shrub Melastomataceae Fruit Ripe fruits are eaten fresh Xiaoxinjie Township LB-04 2.2 0.46
Melastoma normale D. Don. Yang er ba cui Shrub Melastomataceae Fruit, leaf Ripe fruits are eaten fresh Lüchun County 201,606–20 2.6 0.47
Osbeckia opipara C.Y. Wu et C. Chen Bi ji Shrub Melastomataceae Root, stem Potherb (usually stewed with meat) The junction of Lüchun County and Yuanyang County 201,506–11 2.2 0.57
Canarium album (Lour.) DC. Bei le a si Tree Burseraceae Fruit Ripe fruits are eaten fresh, or preserved Shuiyan Village, Ma’andi Township 201,511–10 2.3 0.40
Canarium pimela K.D.Koenig Si mo a si Tree Burseraceae Fruit Ripe fruits are eaten fresh, or preserved Niujiaozhai Township 201,606–07 2.4 0.44
Canarium strictum Roxb. A bo ma dai Tree Burseraceae Fruit Ripe fruits are eaten fresh, or preserved Baohua Township 201,511–42 2.5 0.46
Choerospondias axillaris (Roxb.) B. L. Burtt and A. W. Hill Gei ha a bo Tree Anacardiaceae Fruit Fruits eaten fresh or liquor brewing Baohua Township 201,511–41 2.2 0.55
Dracontomelon duperreanum Pierre A zi ren a Tree Anacardiaceae Fruit Ripe fruits are eaten fresh, or preserved Lagu Village, Sanmeng Township HHD-37 2.3 0.49
Mangifera sylvatica Roxb. Tree Anacardiaceae Fruit Ripe fruits are eaten fresh Qingkou Village, Xinjie Township 201,506–14 2.0 0.40
Rhus chinensis Mill. Ha da da xiu Tree Anacardiaceae Fruit Preserved fruit Lonajia Village, Jiayin Township 201,506–42 2.8 0.53
Arytera littoralis Blume Ta mo si song Tree Sapindaceae Shoot Potherb Lonajia Village, Jiayin Township 201,506–48 2.6 0.52
Acronychia pedunculata (L.) Miq. Tree Rutaceae Fruit Flavoring agent Lüshuge Village, Jiayin Township 201,610–11 2.3 0.43
Tetradium austrosinense (Hand.-Mazz.) Hartley Tree Rutaceae Fruit Fruits are edible and used for pressing oil Xiaoxinjie Township 201,506–07 1.6 0.47
Zanthoxylum bungeanum Maxim. A zao Tree Rutaceae Fruit Flavoring agent Xiongjia Village, Adebo Township HHD-013 2.4 0.48
Zanthoxylum scandens Blume Shrub Rutaceae Fruit Flavoring agent Lonajia Village, Jiayin Township 201,506–38 2.3 0.43
Zanthoxylum simulans Hance Shrub Rutaceae Fruit Flavoring agent Lagu Village, Sanmeng Township HHD-38 2.3 0.44
Ailanthus altissima (Mill.) Swingle Qi la wu ha Tree Simaroubaceae Tender leaf Potherb Lonajia Village, Jiayin Township 201,506–50 1.8 0.41
Bombax ceiba L. Tree Malvaceae Flower Potherb Lagu Village, Sanmeng Township HHD-49 2.2 0.42
Microcos nervosa (Lour.) S.Y.Hu Tree Malvaceae Fruit Ripe fruits are eaten fresh Baohua Township 201,511–38 2.3 0.45
Sterculia brevissima H.H.Hsue Sa qiu huo bi Shrub Malvaceae Seed Roasted and eaten (kernel) Xiongjia Village, Adebo Township HHD-017 0.1 0.21
Sterculia lanceolata Cav. Sa qiu huo bi Tree Malvaceae Seed Roasted and eaten (kernel) Xiongjia Village, Adebo Township HHD-016 0.1 0.16
Sterculia pexa Pierre Ni hei gei zi a bo Tree Malvaceae Seed Stir-fried Lagu Village, Sanmeng Township HHD-41 2.5 0.56
Capparis masaikai H. Lév. Liana Capparaceae Seed Natural sweetener Qingkou Village, Xinjie Township 201,506–20 0.8 0.2
Crateva unilocularis Buch.-Ham. Man nei luo ba Tree Capparaceae Tender stem, leaf Made into pickles (preserved) Lüshuge Village, Jiayin Township 201,610–14 3.9 0.75
Stixis suaveolens (Roxb.) Pierre Liana Capparaceae Fruit, tender leaf Fruit: eaten fresh; tender leaves: tea substitute Lüchun County 201,606–30 2.2 0.42
Capsella bursa-pastoris (L.) Medik. A zu o qi Herb Brassicaceae Tender stem, leaf Potherb Lü shuge Village, Jiayin Township 201,610–19 2.7 0.45
Gynostemma pentaphyllum (Thunb.) Makino Herb Brassicaceae Tender stem and leaves Potherb or tea substitute Lonajia Village, Jiayin Township 201,506–46 2.0 0.49
Nasturtium officinale R.Br. Xi yang cai Herb Brassicaceae Tender leaf Potherb Xiaoxinjie Township LB-10 3.4 0.66
Rorippa islandica (Oeder) Borbás Herb Brassicaceae Tender leaf Potherb (boiled for 5–10 min, then soaked in water to remove pungent taste) Lagu Village, Sanmeng Township HHD-53 2.4 0.50
Erythropalum scandens Blume Ha jia ha na bei ying Liana Olacaceae Tender stem, leaf Potherb Xiaoxinjie Township LB-15 2.1 0.52
Korthalsella japonica (Thunb.) Engl. De la Shrub Santalaceae Fruit Ripe fruits are eaten fresh Lonajia Village, Jiayin Township 201,506–33 1.7 0.39
Pyrularia edulis (Wall.) A. DC. A ke ke ran a si Tree Santalaceae Fruit Ripe fruits are stewed or stir-fried Niujiaozhai Township 201,606–12 2.3 0.50
Myosoton aquaticum (L.) Moench Qian chu a ma Herb Caryophyllaceae Tender leaf, tender stem Potherb Xiaoxinjie Township LB-11 2.2 0.46
Amaranthus spinosus L. Wo zu wo niu Herb Amaranthaceae Tender leaf, tender stem Potherb Qingkou Village, Xinjie Township 201,506–21 2.5 0.53
Amaranthus lividus L. Herb Amaranthaceae Leaf, stem Potherb Lagu Village, Sanmeng Township HHD-52 2.2 0.47
Amaranthus viridis L. La huo pa ni Herb Amaranthaceae Tender leaf, tender stem Potherb Lüshuge Village, Jiayin Township 201,610–23 3.6 0.61
Chenopodium album L. Ge xia wo niu Herb Amaranthaceae Shoot Potherb Baohua Township HHD-28 2.3 0.49
Phytolacca acinosa Roxb Kan bo Herb Phytolaccaceae Leaf Potherb Qingkou Village, Xinjie Township 201,506–22 2.3 0.44
Portulaca oleracea L. Yi ca mo ni Herb Portulacaceae Tender leaf, tender stem Potherb Lagu Village, Sanmeng Township HHD-51 1.8 0.52
Dendrobenthamia hongkongensis (Hemsl.) Hutch. Tree Cornaceae Fruit Fruits eaten fresh or liquor brewing Baohua Township 201,511–39 1.9 0.56
Dendrobenthamia melanotricha (Pojark.) W.P.Fang Tree Cornaceae Fruit Ripe fruits are eaten fresh Shuiyan Village, Ma’andi Township 201,511–06 2.5 0.47
Nyssa javanica (Blume) Wangerin Tree Cornaceae Fruit Ripe fruits are eaten fresh Shuiyan Village, Ma’andi Township 201,511–07 2.3 0.44
Swida macrophylla (Wall.) Soják Tree Cornaceae Fruit Used for pressing oil Xiaoxinjie Township LB-06 2.0 0.51
Pouteria grandifolia (Wall.) Baehni Tree Sapotaceae Fruit Ripe fruits are eaten fresh Xiaoxinjie Township LB-02 1.9 0.52
Diospyros lotus L. var. mollissima C.Y. Wu Tree Ebenaceae Fruit Fruits eaten fresh, making liquor or vinegar Lonajia Village, Jiayin Township 201,506–36 2.4 0.58
Embelia ribes Burm.f. Shrub Primulaceae Fruit, shoot Fruit: eaten fresh; shoot: potherb Shuiyan Village, Ma’andi Township 201,511–14 2.3 0.42
Embelia subcoriacea (C. B. Clarke) Mez Shrub Primulaceae Fruit Ripe fruits are eaten fresh Niujiaozhai Township 201,606–03 2.1 0.42
Maesa montana A. DC. Ke tu a bo Shrub Primulaceae Leaf Tea substitute Lüchun County LB-20 0.2 0.39
Maesa parvifolia A. DC. Shrub Primulaceae Leaf Tea substitute Lüchun County LB-19 1.4 0.37
Camellia pitardii Coh.-St. Shrub Theaceae Petal Potherb Lüshuge Village, Jiayin Township 201,610–21 2.7 0.40
Actinidia kolomikta (Rupr. and Maxim.) Maxim. A zi ku nu Shrub Actinidiaceae Fruit Ripe fruits are eaten fresh Lonajia Village, Jiayin Township 201,506–32 2.5 0.54
Saurauia napaulensis DC. Tree Actinidiaceae Fruit Ripe fruits are eaten fresh Baohua Township 201,511–32 2.7 0.58
Saurauia napaulensis DC. var. montana C. F. Liang and Y. S. Wang Tree Actinidiaceae Fruit Ripe fruits are eaten fresh Lüshuge Village, Jiayin Township 201,610–01 2.8 0.39
Saurauia tristyla var. hekouensis C. F. Liang and Y. S. Wang A nuo xi Tree Actinidiaceae Fruit Ripe fruits are eaten fresh Xiaoxinjie Township LB-05 2.7 0.42
Gaultheria leucocarpa Bl. var. crenulata (Kurz) T.Z.Hsu Xie Shrub Ericaceae Leaf Potherb (made into soup) Xiaoxinjie Township LB-09 2.1 0.48
Gaultheria longibracteolata R.C.Fang Ye lan mei Shrub Ericaceae Fruit Ripe fruits are eaten fresh Shuiyan Village, Ma’andi Township 201,511–09 1.9 0.45
Vaccinium bracteatum Thunb. Ha na Shrub Ericaceae Fruit Ripe fruits are eaten fresh The junction of Lüchun County and Yuanyang County 201,506–10 2.5 0.55
Pittosporopsis kerrii Craib Ha piao mei che Shrub Icacinaceae Fruit, seed Fruit: eaten fresh; seed: roasted and eaten (kernel) Lagu Village, Sanmeng Township HHD-40 2.3 0.55
Canthium horridum Blume Ha da da nue Shrub Rubiaceae Fruit Ripe fruits are eaten fresh Shuiyan Village, Ma’andi Township 201,511–05 2.4 0.51
Hedyotis tenelliflora Blume Gu suo na ci Herb Rubiaceae Whole plant Potherb (made into soup) Lagu Village, Sanmeng Township HHD-42 2.0 0.55
Amalocalyx yunnanensis Tsiang Liana Apocynaceae Fruit Young fruit slices are eaten fresh with the source made by pepper and salt Lagu Village, Sanmeng Township HHD-32 2.0
Dregea volubilis (L.f.) Benth. ex Hook.f. Ku cai Liana Apocynaceae Flower, tender leaf Potherb Xiaoxinjie Township LB-12 3.0 0.72
Melodinus henryi Craib Ke se pa ha Liana Apocynaceae Fruit Ripe fruits are eaten fresh Lüshuge Village, Jiayin Township 201,610–06 2.6 0.45
Lithospermum erythrorhizon Siebold and Zucc. Herb Boraginaceae Tender stem, leaf Potherb Baohua Township HHD-26 2.0 0.50
Lycium yunnanense Kuang and A.M.Lu Shrub Solanaceae tender stem Potherb Lonajia Village, Jiayin Township 201,506–47 2.0 0.46
Solanum nigrum L. Wo lun Herb Solanaceae Tender leaf, fruit Fruit: eaten fresh; tender leaf: potherb Xiongjia Village, Adebo Township HHD-014 2.3 0.42
Solanum torvum Sw. Si ma ma ha Shrub Solanaceae Root Potherb (usually stewed) Xiongjia Village, Adebo Township HHD-018 2.9 0.46
Ligustrum sinense Lour. Ci kong ba deng a bo Tree Oleaceae Fruit Liquor brewing Lagu Village, Sanmeng Township HHD-46 0.6 0.05
Rhynchotechum obovatum (Griff.) B.L. Burtt Shrub Gesneriaceae Fruit Ripe fruits are eaten fresh Lüshuge Village, Jiayin Township 201,610–03 1.7 0.39
Plantago asiatica L. Ka pae ca Herb Plantaginaceae Whole plant Potherb Xiongjia Village, Adebo Township 201,506–01 2.3 0.51
Plantago asiatica L. subsp. erosa (Wall.) Z. Y. Li Ka pae ca Herb Plantaginaceae Tender leaf Potherb (usually stewed or made into soup) Baohua Township HHD-22 2.8 0.53
Plantago depressa Willd. Ha pa yu cai Herb Plantaginaceae Whole plant Potherb (soaked in water and sir-fried) Xiaoxinjie Township LB-08 2.3 0.55
Mayodendron igneum (Kurz) Kurz A ci ma ha nen Tree Bignoniaceae Flower Potherb Lüchun County LB-23 2.8 0.43
Clinopodium chinense (Benth.) Kuntze Zhaun zhuan cai Herb Lamiaceae Tender leaf, tender stem Potherb Lagu Village, Sanmeng Township HHD-50 2.4 0.44
Mentha canadensis L. Wo zhi zhi ma Herb Lamiaceae Tender leaf, tender stem Flavoring agent Shuiyan Village, Ma’andi Township 201,511–11 4.6 0.75
Rabdosia coetsoides C.Y.Wu Nu ha ma Herb Lamiaceae Whole plant Tea substitute or cooked with meat (Potherb) Shuiyan Village, Ma’andi Township 201,511–15 0.7 0.23
Helwingia japonica (Thunb.) F.Dietr. Huo tie tie du Shrub Helwingiaceae Tender stem, leaf Potherb (blanched in hot water, then soaked in cold water before cooking) Niujiaozhai Township 201,606–18 1.9 0.53
Campanumoea javanica Blume A mi nan guo Liana Campanulaceae Fruit Ripe fruits are eaten fresh Lagu Village, Sanmeng Township HHD-36 1.6 0.56
Lobelia angulata G.Forst. Herb Campanulaceae Tender leaf, tender stem Potherb Shuiyan Village, Ma’andi Township 201,511–31 1.8 0.42
Adenocaulon himalaicum Edgew. Bu lü wu hu Herb Asteraceae Tender leaf Potherb Niujiaozhai Township 201,606–15 1.8 0.45
Bidens pilosa L. Hei ni zuo ge mo Herb Asteraceae Tender leaf Potherb (stewed until it is tender) Qingkou Village, Xinjie Township 201,506–26 2.0 0.53
Cirsium japonicum (Thunb.) Fisch. ex DC. Che pei a gong Herb Asteraceae Root Stewed with pork for nourishing Baohua Township HHD-21 2.9 0.43
Crassocephalum crepidioides (Benth.) S. Moore O mi o sa Herb Asteraceae Tender leaf Potherb Baohua Township HHD-29 3.9 0.76
Eclipta prostrata (L.) L. A ji mei, a ge wo chi Herb Asteraceae Tender leaf Potherb Qingkou Village, Xinjie Township 201,506–25 2.2 0.49
Gnaphalium affine D. Don A mi sha chu Herb Asteraceae Leaf, stem Potherb Qingkou Village, Xinjie Township 201,506–23 2.1 0.42
Ixeris polycephala Cass. Herb Asteraceae Tender leaf, tender stem Potherb (blanched before eating and making salad) Lüchun County LB-26 3.9 0.75
Lactuca serriola L. Herb Asteraceae Tender leaf, tender stem Potherb Xiaoxinjie Township LB-13 2.8 0.52
Lagedium sibiricum (L.) Soják E si lao gong zi Herb Asteraceae Tender leaf, tender stem Potherb Shuiyan Village, Ma’andi Township 201,511–29 2.8 0.54
Laggera pterodonta (DC.) Sch.Bip. ex Oliv. Wo sa la ma Herb Asteraceae Whole plant Potherb (blanched in hot water, then soaked in cold water before cooking) Lüchun County LB-25 2.9 0.51
Viburnum dilatatum Thunb. Pu tong a bo Shrub Adoxaceae Fruit Fruits eaten fresh or liquor brewing Qingkou Village, Xinjie Township 201,506–16 2.7 0.51
Dipsacus asperoides C.Y.Cheng and T.M.Ai Pao tou cao Herb Caprifoliaceae Tender leaf, root Potherb (Usually stewed with pork or made into soup) Baohua Township HHD-23 2.7 0.51
Valeriana jatamansi Jones Ye zuo zuo pu Herb Caprifoliaceae Flower, root Flower: eaten fresh (Potherb); root: stewed for nourishing Lonajia Village, Jiayin Township 201,506–40 1.7 0.51
Acanthopanax trifoliatus (L.) Voss Jiu duo Shrub Araliaceae Tender stem Potherb Lüchun County LB-24 2.5 0.50
Eleutherococcus senticosus (Rupr. et Maxim.) Maxim. Shrub Araliaceae Tender stem, leaf Potherb Lüshuge Village, Jiayin Township 201,610–18 2.3 0.42
Centella asiatica (L.) Urb. Ban chao wo ba Herb Apiaceae Tender leaf, tender stem Potherb Shuiyan Village, Ma’andi Township 201,511–27 3.0 0.58
Eryngium foetidum L. Ga la ya so Herb Apiaceae Tender leaf, tender stem Flavoring agent or stir-fried (potherb) Qingkou Village, Xinjie Township 201,506–18 1.9 0.52
Ligusticum chuanxiong S.H.Qiu, Y.Q.Zeng, K.Y.Pan, Y.C.Tang, and J.M.Xu Tong e jian sa Herb Apiaceae Tender leaf Flavoring agent or stir-fried (potherb) Qingkou Village, Xinjie Township 201,506–17 2.6 0.53
Oenanthe javanica (Blume) DC. Zha suo Herb Apiaceae Tender leaf, tender stem Potherb Niujiaozhai Township 201,606–14 4.3 0.82
Sanicula astrantiifolia H. Wolff ex Kretschmer Xiao hei yao Herb Apiaceae Whole plant Potherb (usually sir-fried) Lonajia Village, Jiayin Township 201,506–54 2.9 0.48
Pteridophyta
Lygodium digitatum C. Presl Ha da da xiu Liana Lygodiaceae Tender stem Potherb Lüshuge Village, Jiayin Township 201,610–17 2.5 0.54
Pteridium aquilinum var. latiusculum (Desv.) Underw. ex A. Heller Ye qie Herb Dennstaedtiaceae Shoot Potherb Shuiyan Village, Ma’andi Township 201,511–26 2.7 0.45
Ceratopteris thalictroides (L.) Brongn. Da lie Herb Pteridiaceae Shoot Potherb Niujiaozhai Township 201,606–17 2.6 0.47
Callipteris esculenta (Retz.) J. Sm. ex T. Moore and Houlston Herb Athyriaceae Tender leaf Potherb Lagu Village, Sanmeng Township HHD-47 2.5 0.56
Callipteris esculenta var. pubescens (Link) Ching Herb Athyriaceae Tender leaf Potherb Baohua Township HHD-24 1.8 0.56
Gymnocarpium remotepinnatum (Hayata) Ching Ha Herb Athyriaceae Tender leaf Potherb The junction of Lüchun County and Yuanyang County 201,506–12 2.1 0.58
Parathelypteris glanduligera (Kunze) Ching Ha da Herb Thelypteridaceae Shoot Potherb Lonajia Village, Jiayin Township 201,506–49 2.7 0.56
Marsilea quadrifolia L. He dou a ya mo Herb Marsileaceae Tender leaf Potherb Shuiyan Village, Ma’andi Township 201,511–25 3.3 0.59

The order of plant species in this table is followed by the APG IV system, gymnosperms classification system (1978), and Qinrenchang fern plant classification system (1978)

Table 4.

Life forms of WEP species in Honghe terraced rice paddy system

Life form Records Percentage
Herbs 79 35.3%
Trees 68 30.4%
Shrubs 46 20.5%
Lianas 21 9.4%
Bamboo 10 4.5%

All WEP species were also classified by their edible parts (Table 5). The recorded edible parts of WEP species included the whole plant, root, stem and leaf, flower, fruit, seed and shoot, and other parts like bark and tuber. For several WEP species, like Bauhinia acuminata var. candida and Senna tora, multiple parts can be consumed. These results embody the diversity of edible parts of WEP species in Honghe terraced rice paddy fields and indicate that local people have become well adapted to the local environment for centuries. The various uses and preparation methods are recorded in Table 6.

Table 5.

Edible parts of WEP species in Honghe terraced rice paddy system

Part used Records Percentage
Fruit 98 43.8%
Stem and leaf 83 37.1%
Shoot 18 8.0%
Seed 18 8.0%
Flower (petal, bract) 16 7.1%
Whole plant 8 3.6%
Root 6 2.7%
Rhizome 3 1.3%
Tuber 3 1.3%
Bark 1 0.4%

Table 6.

Preparation and uses of WEP species in Honghe terraced rice paddy system

Preparation and uses Records Percentage
Potherb 95 42.4%
Eaten fresh 84 37.5%
Flavoring agent 16 7.1%
Nuts 12 5.4%
Tea substitute 11 4.9%
Bamboo shoots 10 4.5%
Liquor brewing 8 3.6%
Grain substitute 2
Special tofu 2
Sweetener 1

The plant stems and leaves are also collected widely (Table 6), and these are mostly consumed as a potherb, which is generally referred to as “wild vegetables” locally. The Hani people usually consume potherbs by stir-frying or by boiling them in a soup. The blended vegetables in soups are usually mixed with natural spices before eating. There are 16 species with edible flowers (Table 5), including Musa itinerans (bracts only). These edible flowers could be an essential source of nutrition for local people. It has been previously reported that edible flowers are rich in nutrients and micronutrients and that some of their extracts are useful as medicines [3032]. Potherb is the most consumed group (Table 6) of WEP species in Honghe with 75 species (33.5%). In China today, wild vegetables, or “ye cai,” have become popular food products that are increasingly being served in restaurants due to their flavor and a widespread perception of their superior nutritional values [33]. In the Honghe area, wild vegetables also play a vital role in local livelihood as food and dietary supplements. These wild vegetables are mainly collected in the mountains above the rice paddy fields and forest lands, and the collection time lasts from January to October but mainly occurs in the spring. Some plants, like Houttuynia cordata and Oenanthe javanica, can be collected throughout the year.

According to Table 5, edible fruit is the most popular group (98 species, 43.8%). These are usually consumed freshly without processing, which is the second most common food preparation method for the Hani WEP species (Table 6). Also, fruits can be consumed in several different ways. For example, Amomum maximum fruits are used locally as a natural spice that can help infirm people regain their appetite; the fruits of Ligustrum sinense are used by the local Hani people to brew a unique alcoholic drink, and Canarium album’s fruits can be preserved into pickles.

Ten species of bamboo shoots can be made into different dishes that are high in nutritious fibers. Some WEP species in the Honghe region can also be used as natural flavoring agents (16 species), nuts (12), tea substitutes (11), liquor-brewing ingredients (8), grain substitutes (2), and special tofu (2). Exceptionally, there is only one species, Capparis masaikaii, that is used as a natural sweetener by local communities. The locals usually remove the seed coat and chew the kernel directly. C. masaikaii contains high levels of mabinlin, a sweet protein with 400 times the sweetness of sucrose but with meager calories, and consequently, this plant has a high potential for future application in the food industry [34].

Two special cases of WEP species

During our investigation, some unique cases of utilizing and processing WEP species were observed. In the Honghe area, Phyllanthus emblica bark is prepared in an unusual way (Fig. 4a). Local Hani people collect the P. emblica from mountainous forests, remove the branches, and peel off the outer layer of bark, grating off the bitter-tasting inner bark by using pottery shards. Traditionally, they adjust the bitter taste by mixing rice porridge paste with the tender inner bark. Then, the grated inner bark is mixed with roasted ribs, sliced pork liver, salt, and spices and eaten as a traditional dish. Besides its culinary use, P. emblica is also used medicinally for its potential anti-microbial, antioxidant and anti-tumor, hypolipidemic, hypoglycemic, and antihypertensive properties [35].

Fig. 4.

Fig. 4

Dish of Phyllanthus emblica (a). Dioscorea subcalva and dish of D. subcalva (b, c)

The traditional preparation of Dioscorea subcalva in cuisine is also distinctive. Local women first peel the thin skin from the D. subcalva tubers (Fig. 4). They then use a special tool to grate the peeled tubers into a container with a hot water-ash solution. When the solution has cooled, all of the grated tubers congeal into a sticky and elastic clump. These clumps can be cut into slices and stir-fried with meat. In another use of D. subcalva, local people scrape off the exudate from its tuber and apply this exudate directly onto wounds for wound healing [36, 37]. The exudate has high polysaccharide content and possesses good antioxidant bioactivity [36, 37].

The UV and FUI value of WEP species in the Honghe area

Quantitative analyses were calculated to determine the local importance of each wild edible species. The use values (UV) and frequency of utilization indices (FUI) of each species were calculated. The 20 WEP species with the highest UV are listed along with their average FUI in Table 7.

Table 7.

Top 20 WEP species with highest use value in Honghe terraced rice paddy system

Scientific name Preparation and uses FUI UV
Litsea pungens Flavoring agent 4.9 0.92
Phyllanthus emblica Fruit: eaten fresh; bark: special dishes 4.9 0.90
Baccaurea ramiflora Ripe fruits are eaten fresh 4.2 0.89
Houttuynia cordata Potherb or flavoring agent 4.5 0.89
Oenanthe javanica Potherb 4.3 0.82
Colocasia gigantea Potherb (cooked thoroughly) 4.0 0.80
Crassocephalum crepidioides Potherb 3.9 0.76
Crateva unilocularis Made into pickles (preserved) 3.9 0.75
Mentha canadensis Flavoring agent 4.6 0.75
Ixeris polycephala Potherb 4.0 0.75
Zingiber striolatum Potherb 3.0 0.73
Dregea volubilis Potherb 3.0 0.72
Musa acuminata Fruit: eaten fresh; flower and pith part: potherb 3.8 0.70
Ficus auriculata Ripe fruits are eaten fresh 3.4 0.68
Nasturtium officinale Potherb 3.4 0.66
Acacia pennata Potherb 3.4 0.65
Elatostema involucratum Potherb 3.3 0.65
Amaranthus viridis Potherb 3.6 0.61
Marsilea quadrifolia Potherb 3.3 0.59
Centella asiatica Potherb 3.0 0.58

Litsea pungens had the highest UV and average FUI (Table 7). Because of its unique flavor and positive effects on human health, it has become the most commonly used edible species as a spice. Some local people even use the oil extracted from this species to repel mosquitos. Based on both local medical theory and scientific research, L. pungens can help to promote appetite and improve digestion [38]. Mentha canadensis is also a popular spice among local people, especially for cooking meat. However, its average FUI value and UV are relatively lower than for L. pungens. The second highest UV belongs to Phyllanthus emblica, while its average FUI value is similar to that of L. pungens. The high UV and average FUI values of P. emblica may be attributed to its juicy and tasty fruits and its special cultural property: its tender bark is consumed in every October Festival and God Walled Festival.

Several other plants were found to be popular as wild vegetables in our study area based on their high UV and average FUI, including the following: Acacia pennata, Ixeris polycephala, Amaranthus viridis, Centella asiatica, Colocasia gigantea, Crassocephalum crepidioides, Dregea volubilis, Elatostema involucratum, Houttuynia cordata, Oenanthe javanica, and Zingiber striolatum. For example, H. cordata is the most common wild vegetable in Southern China. Many modern scientific studies have indicated that this species possesses excellent anti-microbial, anti-cancer, anti-inflammatory, and immuno-enhancement bioactivities [39, 40]. C. gigantea is also a popular food plant, especially in Southwest China, and we found that the stem of C. gigantean contains high levels of nutrients and no heavy metals [41]. In addition, the inflorescence of Musa acuminata and Zingiber striolatum and the fruits of Ficus auriculata, Baccaurea ramiflora, and Musa acuminata are all relatively popular and important in local daily life.

The effect of WEP species on communities’ economic income

Based on our interviews with key informants in local markets, the trading volume of WEP species was on a very small scale (less than 15 yuan each stall), which means selling WEP species could only bring a small income supplement and was usually unstable for local people. Therefore, driven by economic profits, many villagers have switched from growing rice to other economic plants like bananas in Hani terraced rice paddy fields. Many Hani informants reported that planting bananas can bring more income than growing rice. While in the short term, Hani farmers can get a higher income by growing bananas; they have to dry the rice paddy fields before planting bananas, which is against the Hani traditional ideas of sustainability. In doing so, the original construction and wetland habitats, as well as biodiversity, will be destroyed in the long term. Nevertheless, according to our observations, drying rice paddy to plant others was shown in different places in the Honghe region, especially in Jinping County.

The sources of and threats to the diversity of WEP species in the Honghe region

Our investigation revealed the diversity of WEP species in the Honghe area. Several reasons contributing to local biodiversity and WEP diversity have been analyzed (Fig. 5). The varied natural geographic environments and weather conditions are two of the main reasons for the diversity of WEP species. Secondly, the sustainable landscape structure constructed by the locals, including the four critical elements of forests, villages, terraces, and rivers, has a robust regulating ability, particularly for the regulation of essential water resources. Additionally, with the guidance of abundant traditional knowledge concerning reasonable agricultural management, excellent ecological benefits have been made to improve and maintain stability and biodiversity in the whole agroecosystem. Some Hani taboos, village regulations, and non-governmental agreements, as well as local religious beliefs like the worship of the mountain deity and magic woods, have restrained the behaviors of local people and protected the surroundings.

Fig. 5.

Fig. 5

The relationship between local biodiversity and its effect factors

However, the stability of Hani terraced rice paddy fields, which has been maintained for centuries, is now facing a series of challenges (Fig. 5). In our research area, traditional rice planting methods have been damaged by modernization. Based on our investigation, local young people prefer to work in urban areas to make more money instead of doing farm works in their hometowns. Traditional knowledge related to farmland management is only mastered by the older generation and is fading away rapidly (Table 3), and 18% of recorded species lack local Hani names. One reason for this lack of local names is that the Hani people are traditionally illiterate so that traditional knowledge can only be passed on orally by generations, so this knowledge is vulnerable to loss via acculturation. Although a writing system of the Hani language has been in place since 1957, it has not been widely adopted in the Hani communities. In addition, large-scale growing of hybrid rice requires less use of traditional agricultural methods and instead relies on pesticides and chemical fertilizers. Furthermore, the excessive exploitation of natural resources and the drying and changing of traditional rice terraces fields into economic fields are becoming increasingly frequent in the Honghe area nowadays. These phenomena are leading to a sharp decrease in the diversity of traditional knowledge and local biodiversity, which might damage the agroecosystem in this region [42, 43].

Since 2013, when the Hani agroecosystem was elected into the UNESCO World Heritage List, tourism has increased markedly. In 2015, the tourism industry generated about 191.5 billion yuan and accounted for about 70% of local government revenues (out of 275.6 billion yuan). However, the local villagers have obtained minimal economic benefits from the local tourism industry. The traditional agroecosystem cannot sustain the daily food needs of the local people anymore. The Hani are now turning to the tourism industry, which may help to protect the traditional knowledge and biodiversity in this agroecosystem.

Conclusion

An ethnobotanical study on WEP species from the Hani terraced rice paddy agroecosystems in Southeast Yunnan, China, was conducted. Two hundred and twenty-five species (belonging to 170 genera and 90 families) of wild edible species and the information of their life forms, edible parts, and preparation methods were documented. Based on our analysis, the most widely eaten parts of WEP species are fruits, stem, and leaves. The most common processing methods for WEP species are cooking them as a potherb or eating them fresh. These results are closely related to the local lifestyle and reflect the local biodiversity. The use values (UV) of WEP species were also calculated, and the 20 species with the highest use value were listed. Compared with other WEP species, these 20 species are relatively more important to local daily life, and Litsea pungens, a local common natural spice, is the most popular WEP based on its high UV metric.

The reasons for local biodiversity and the challenges for local agroecosystem have been analyzed. This agroecosystem is facing severe problems concerning natural resource conservation, environmental protection, and the economic development of local communities in this agroecosystem. Prestigious designations like UNESCO World Heritage Site have helped to promote ecotourism, which has begun to improve the livelihood of local people while sustaining the operation of this agroecosystem.

In conclusion, there are abundant plant resources in the Hani terraced rice paddy field system because it is an ancient sustainable agroecosystem. However, in modern times, this region has suffered a series of threats. It is, therefore, critical to develop an effective way to protect it and to ensure its sustainability for its inhabitants.

Acknowledgements

We thank Prof. Edward Kennelly from the City University of New York and Mr. Eric Miller from the University of California at San Fransisco, who edited the English language. We are very grateful to the local people in Honghe Hani terraced rice paddy agroecosystem, Yunnan Province, who provided valuable information about local wild edible plants.

Authors’ contributions

CLL conceived and designed the study. BSL, CLL, BL, HZZ, HKZ, XL, LJM, YZW, YJB, XBZ, JQL, and JY conducted data collection. CLL, BL, and JY identified wild edible plants. BSL interpreted and analyzed data and wrote the draft manuscript. All authors read and approved the final manuscript.

Funding

This work was financially supported by the National Natural Science Foundation of China (31761143001 and 31870316), Biodiversity Survey and Assessment Project of the Ministry of Ecology and Environment of China (2019HJ2096001006), Key Laboratory of Ethnomedicine (Minzu University of China) of Ministry of Education of China (KLEM-ZZ201906 and KLEM-ZZ201806), Minzu University of China (Collaborative Innovation Center for Ethnic Minority Development and yldxxk201819), Ministry of Education of China and State Administration of Foreign Experts Affairs of China (B08044), and Bureau of World Heritage of Honghe Prefecture.

Availability of data and materials

All data generated or analyzed during this study are included in this published article (and its supplementary information files).

Ethics approval and consent to participate

Not applicable.

Consent for publication

Not applicable.

Competing interests

The authors declare that they have no competing interests.

Footnotes

Publisher’s Note

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Contributor Information

Binsheng Luo, Email: 360812805@qq.com.

Bo Liu, Email: boliu@muc.edu.cn.

Hongzhen Zhang, Email: 13231356@qq.com.

Hongkang Zhang, Email: 524219505@qq.com.

Xuan Li, Email: 444738532@qq.com.

Lijuan Ma, Email: maljsmile@126.com.

Yizhou Wang, Email: 845023563@qq.com.

Yujia Bai, Email: 1404297595@qq.com.

Xinbo Zhang, Email: zhangsymbol@163.com.

Jianqin Li, Email: 384150986@qq.com.

Jun Yang, Email: yangjuna@mail.kib.ac.cn.

Chunlin Long, Email: long@mail.kib.ac.cn, Email: long.chunlin@muc.edu.cn.

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Data Availability Statement

All data generated or analyzed during this study are included in this published article (and its supplementary information files).


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