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. 2019 Oct 23;8(11):438. doi: 10.3390/plants8110438

Developing Chloroplast Genomic Resources from 25 Avena Species for the Characterization of Oat Wild Relative Germplasm

Yong-Bi Fu 1,*, Pingchuan Li 2, Bill Biligetu 2
PMCID: PMC6918232  PMID: 31652703

Abstract

Chloroplast (cp) genomics will play an important role in the characterization of crop wild relative germplasm conserved in worldwide gene banks, thanks to the advances in genome sequencing. We applied a multiplexed shotgun sequencing procedure to sequence the cp genomes of 25 Avena species with variable ploidy levels. Bioinformatics analysis of the acquired sequences generated 25 de novo genome assemblies ranging from 135,557 to 136,006 bp. The gene annotations revealed 130 genes and their duplications, along with four to six pseudogenes, for each genome. Little differences in genome structure and gene arrangement were observed across the 25 species. Polymorphism analyses identified 1313 polymorphic sites and revealed an average of 277 microsatellites per genome. Greater nucleotide diversity was observed in the short single-copy region. Genome-wide scanning of selection signals suggested that six cp genes were under positive selection on some amino acids. These research outputs allow for a better understanding of oat cp genomes and evolution, and they form an essential set of cp genomic resources for the studies of oat evolutionary biology and for oat wild relative germplasm characterization.

Keywords: Crop wild relative, Avena, chloroplast genome, chloroplast gene, positive selection

1. Introduction

Chloroplast (cp) genomics will play an important role in the characterization of crop wild relative (CWR) germplasm conserved in worldwide gene banks. Currently, many CWR collections are expanding to mitigate the threats of losing CWRs from climate change and other habitat disturbances and to conserve germplasm for plant breeding (e.g., see [1,2]). Thus, the need for CWR germplasm characterization is increasing. Most CWR germplasm has complex, polyploid, and/or uncharacterized genomes [3,4], and current tools based on nuclear genome sequences may not always be effective in identifying CWR germplasm and investigating its genetic variability [5,6]. Conserved CWRs are often misclassified or require taxonomic evaluation [7]. More informative barcoding [8] will be needed to distinguish among CWR accessions for specific traits or features. Acquired CWRs will be used to enhance the studies of plant biology and evolution (e.g., see [6,9]). The search for cp genes in conserved CWR will be increased for applications in genetic engineering [10]. Therefore, it is important to develop cp genomic resources for characterizing CWR germplasm.

Oat (Avena L.) is one of the most widely cultivated cereals and a valuable resource in many countries, both for human consumption and animal feed [11]. The genus Avena has up to 30 recognized species, including diploids, tetraploids, and hexaploids [7,12]. The cultivated hexaploid oat has 42 chromosomes, representing three different sets of nuclear genomes (A, C, and D) [6]. Currently, there are more than 31,000 accessions of oat wild relative germplasm conserved in more than 20 gene banks worldwide [13]. These genetic resources are known to harbor an important source of genetic variability [14] for oat genetic improvement through interspecific crossing and introgression [7,15,16]. Conserving and managing these wild relative accessions are challenging tasks [17]. However, there is no report so far on the research to develop oat cp genomic resources for characterizing these oat accessions [18], although several cp-based evolutionary studies of oat species were conducted [9,19,20,21,22,23]. This research has helped to provide insights into the maternal origins of oat genomes, confirming the general consensus in oat phylogeny [9,18,24].

The recent advances in next-generation sequencing have made the sequencing of organelle genomes more feasible than before [25,26,27,28]. We applied a multiplexed shotgun sequencing procedure to sequence the cp genomes of 25 Avena species with variable ploidy levels. In our companion paper [18], we extracted single nucleotide polymorphism (SNP), using the wheat cp genome as the reference and inferred maternal patterns of oat evolution through phylogenetic analyses. In this paper, we will perform various types of bioinformatics analysis to assemble all 25 cp genomes, annotate the genome assemblies, conduct comparative genomic analysis, and analyze sequence divergence and selective pressure for cp genes. It was our hope that these analyses would provide baseline information that could give us a better understanding of the oat cp genome and evolution and for oat wild relative germplasm characterization.

2. Results

2.1. Sequencing and Assembly

Four MiSeq runs generated a total of 95 million sequence reads for 25 Avena samples, each having 3.8 million sequence reads (Table 1). After removing sequence reads of poor quality (Q < 15 and read length <150 bp), an average of 83% high-quality sequence reads were obtained for these samples. Thus, each sample still had a sequence length ranging from 1200 to 2500 Mbp, with an average of 1817 Mbp, corresponding to an approximately 8900× to 18,890× cp genome coverage. Such high genome coverages made the cp genome assembly simpler, with the smallest numbers of contigs and scaffolds under proper k-mer coverage and size setting.

Table 1.

List of 25 studied Avena species from six botanical sections and their cp genome assemblies.

Section/Species Pl Raw Reads CPG Size (bp) CPG Region (bp) GC% NCBI Acc# PGRC Acc#
LSC IRb SSC IRa
Ventricosa
A. ventricosa 2x 3,399,167 135,681 79,793 21,614 12,660 21,614 38.41 MG687301 CN21992
A. clauda 2x 3,037,449 135,557 79,667 21,619 12,652 21,619 38.43 MG687303 CN19205
A. eriantha 2x 3,932,778 135,560 79,669 21,619 12,653 21,619 38.43 MG687291 CN19256
Agraria
A. hispanica 2x 3,138,274 135,935 80,099 21,605 12,626 21,605 38.49 MG687300 CN25788
A. brevis 2x 3,145,903 135,939 80,101 21,606 12,626 21,606 38.49 MG687310 CN3145
A. nuda 2x 3,342,392 135,934 80,100 21,604 12,626 21,604 38.48 MG687306 CN79350
A. strigosa 2x 2,618,401 135,938 80,102 21,605 12,626 21,605 38.48 MG687309 CN22002
Tenuicarpa
A. canariensis 2x 4,285,394 135,955 80,147 21,598 12,612 21,598 38.52 MG687297 CN25449
A. damascena 2x 2,906,067 135,925 80,101 21,602 12,620 21,602 38.51 MG687302 CN19458
A. atlantica 2x 4,092,127 136,006 80,168 21,606 12,626 21,606 38.48 MG687299 CN25859
A. wiestii 2x 4,372,976 135,944 80,109 21,605 12,625 21,605 38.49 MG687296 CN24315
A. lusitanica 2x 4,425,054 135,879 80,166 21,603 12,507 21,603 38.52 MG687295 CN25936
A. longiglumis 2x 4,288,420 135,728 79,881 21,605 12,637 21,605 38.53 MG687305 CN21407
A. agadiriana 4x 4,432,963 135,945 80,129 21,602 12,612 21,602 38.49 MG687294 CN25868
A. barbata 4x 4,362,663 135,946 80,111 21,605 12,625 21,605 38.49 MG687311 CN24462
Pachycarpa
A. insularis 4x 4,001,844 135,967 80,130 21,603 12,631 21,603 38.5 MG674209 CN19178
A. maroccana 4x 4,160,684 135,887 80,102 21,604 12,577 21,604 38.51 MG687298 CN23057
A. murphyi 4x 5,199,242 135,892 80,108 21,604 12,576 21,604 38.51 MG687312 CN21989
Ethiopica
A. vaviloviana 4x 3,870,454 135,946 80,111 21,605 12,625 21,605 38.49 MG687304 CN22413
A. abyssinica 4x 2,822,158 135,942 80,109 21,604 12,625 21,604 38.49 MG687293 CN22064
Avena
A. fatua 6x 4,120,412 135,889 80,106 21,604 12,575 21,604 38.51 MG687307 CN21948
A. hybrida 6x 4,330,653 135,900 80,117 21,604 12,575 21,604 38.51 MG687292 CN24926
A. occidentalis 6x 2,947,248 135,893 80,114 21,602 12,575 21,602 38.51 MG687314 CN25946
A. sterilis 6x 2,467,386 135,888 80,107 21,603 12,575 21,603 38.51 MG687308 CN20625
A. sativa 6x 5,329,202 135,886 80,107 21,602 12,575 21,602 38.51 MG687313 CN24549
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Note: Pl is for ploidy level. CPG is chloroplast genome. LSC, SSC, and IR are large single copy, small single copy and inverted repeat regions, respectively. NCBI Acc# are the accession numbers for the cp assemblies deposited in the National Center for Biotechnology Information (NCBI). PGRC Acc# are the accession numbers for the studied samples obtained from the oat collection at Plant Gene Resources of Canada (PGRC).

De novo assembly with the pair-end sequence reads from each sample generated three major scaffolds, without any exception for all the 25 samples, as expected with two inverted repeats (IRs). As illustrated with 2x, 4x, and 6x oat species in Figure 1, all the circular Avena cp genomes consisted of four typical DNA fragment structures: one large single copy (LSC), one small single copy (SSC), and two inverted repeat regions (IRa and IRb). The cp genome sizes ranged from 135,557 to 136,006 bp, with an average of 135,878 bp (Table 1). The 25 complete cp genome sequences and the generic (or consensus) “Avena” cp genome sequence are available on Supplementary File S1 and File S2, respectively. Changes in cp genome size mainly were reflected in the LSC region. The average sizes for LSC, SSC, and IR among the 25 Avena species were 80k bp, 12.6k bp, and 21.6 kb, respectively. The average of GC content ranged from 38.41% to 38.53%, with an average of 38.49% (Table 1).

Figure 1.

Figure 1

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Gene maps of three selected Avena chloroplast genomes: (A) A. eriantha (2x), (B) A. insularis (4x), and (C) A. sativa (6x). Each map is represented in, moving counterclockwise from the right. The larger circle represents the layout of chloroplast genes distribution as per their transcription direction: outside boxes and inside boxes show the counterclockwise and clockwise transcription. The color of the gene box indicates the functional group that the gene belongs to. The smaller circle represents the CG content plot in the corresponding sample. LSC, large single copy region; SSC, small single copy region. IRa/b, inverted repeats. Intron-containing genes are marked by a ‘∗’ symbol and pseudogenes are marked by a ‘Ψ’ symbol.

2.2. Chloroplast Genome Gene Annotation

The gene annotations revealed an identical set of 130 cp genes for these 25 oat species (Table 2; Supplementary File S3). Of all the 130 genes, 84 coding genes, eight rRNA, and 38 tRNA were identified as common genes across the oat species of variable ploidy (Table 2; Figure 1). There were 21 genes (13 coding genes and eight tRNA genes) that had at least one intron. Also, four pseudogenes were found in the two diploid species (A. clauda and A. eriantha), and six pseudogenes were identified for the other 23 oat species. All pseudogenes were distributed in the LSC region. Both IRa and IRb regions shared the same amount of 19 duplicated genes, but one marked difference is that the ndhH gene had different C terminals. As both 3’ ends of the ndhH genes were extended to either side of the SSC fragment, it caused a different translation of peptide tails. Two genes infA and rps16, coding for a translation initiation factor 1 and a S16 ribosomal protein, respectively, were detected in these oat species.

Table 2.

List of 130 genes and their duplications found in the plastids of 25 Avena species.

Category Gene*
Subunits of photosystem I psaA, psaB, psaC, psaI, psaJ
Subunits of photosystem II psbA, psbB, psbC, psbD, psbE, psbF, psbH, psbI, psbJ, psbK, psbL, psbM, psbN, psbT, psbZ
Subunits of cytochrome b/f complex petA, petBa, petDa, petG, petL, petN
Subunits of ATP synthase atpA, atpB, atpE, atpFa, atpH, atpI
Large subunit of rubisco rbcL
Subunits of NADH-dehydrogenase ndhAa, ndhB(1)a, ndhC, ndhD, ndhE, ndhF, ndhG, ndhH(1), ndhI, ndhJ, ndhK
Proteins of large ribosomal subunit rpl2(1)a, rpl14, rpl16a, rpl20, rpl22, rpl23(1), rpl32, rpl33, rpl36
Proteins of small ribosomal subunit rps2, rps3, rps4, rps7(1), rps8, rps11, rps12(1)a, rps14, rps15(1), rps16a, rps18, rps19(1)
Subunits of RNA polymerase rpoA, rpoB, rpoC1, rpoC2
Cytochrome c biogenesis ccsA
Transfer RNAs tRNA-Ala(2), tRNA-Arg(3), tRNA-Asn(2), tRNA-Asp, tRNA-Cys, tRNA-Gln, tRNA-Glu, tRNA-Gly(2), tRNA-His(2), tRNA-Ile(4), tRNA-Leu(4), tRNA-Lys, tRNA-Met(2), tRNA-Phe, tRNA-Pro, tRNA-Ser(3), tRNA-Thr(2), tRNA-Trp, tRNA-Tyr, tRNA-Val(3)
Ribosomal RNAs 16S rRNA(2), 23S rRNA(2), 4.5S rRNA(2), 5S rRNA(2)
Maturase matK
Protease clpP
Conserved hypothetical genes ycf3a, ycf4
Envelope membrane protein cemA
Translation initiation factor infA
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* The superscript a means the gene contains intron(s). The number in parentheses after a gene shows the number of duplications for the gene in the other genome regions.

2.3. Comparison of Genomic Structures

Analyzing mVISTA percent identity plot revealed several major features of genomic variation, as illustrated in Figure 2 for nine oat species (and Supplementary File S4 for 25 oat species). First, no marked differences in genomic structure and gene arrangement were observed. Second, the degree of similarity between any two of 25 cp genome sequences ranged from 98.380% to 99.996%, with an average of 99.529%. Third, most of the nucleotide variations across the 25 cp genomes were located in intergenic regions. Fourth, sequence variation among the 25 genomes was also identified for the ndhH gene. Fifth, there were no specific variations in genomic structure and gene arrangement unique to each ploidy level.

Figure 2.

Figure 2

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Percent identity plot by mVISTA of nine Avena chloroplast genome assemblies representing four diploid, three tetraploid, and two hexaploid Avena species, using A. eriantha as reference. Vertical scale indicates the percentage of identity ranging from 98.385% to 99.377%. Coding regions are in blue and non-coding regions are in orange.

2.4. Sequence Variation and Divergence

The SNP calls based on the full length of 25 cp genome sequence alignments with the most stringent conditions revealed a total of 1313 SNPs for these 25 species (see Supplementary File S5). There were 583 SNPs (44.4%) located in the genic regions, 16 SNPs (1.2%) in the pseudogene, and 714 SNPs (54.4%) distributed in the intergenic regions.

The simple sequence repeat (SSR) analysis revealed considerable SSR polymorphism in these 25 oat cp genomes. A total of 6694 SSRs were identified for the 25 oat species. The SSR counts per species ranged from 256 (A. clauda and A. eriantha) to 280 (A. atlantica), with an average of 276.8. The SSR motifs were mainly poly-A, with eight to 18 repeats; poly-C, with eight to 14 repeats; poly-AT, with five to seven repeats; and poly-AG with five repeats (Table 3). Six abundant SSR motifs were poly-A, with 8, 9, 10, and 11 repeats, followed by poly-C, with eight repeats and poly-AT, with five repeats. However, no SSR motifs for tri-, tetra, pentra-, and hexa-nucleotides were found.

Table 3.

Simple sequence repeat (SSR) polymorphism found in the plastids of 25 Avena species.

SSR type A A A A A A A A A A A C C C C C C AT AT AT AG
Repeat count 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 8 9 10 11 12 14 5 6 7 5
A. ventricosa 62 33 14 5 1 1 2 0 0 0 1 4 3 1 0 0 0 4 0 1 1
A. clauda 58 32 12 8 1 1 2 0 0 0 1 3 1 3 0 1 0 3 1 0 1
A. eriantha 57 30 15 8 1 1 2 0 0 0 1 3 1 3 1 0 0 3 1 0 1
A. hispanica 67 27 17 6 1 1 1 1 1 0 0 7 4 0 0 0 0 4 1 0 1
A. brevis 67 27 16 7 1 0 2 1 1 0 0 7 2 2 0 0 0 4 1 0 1
A. nuda 67 29 15 5 1 1 2 1 1 0 0 9 2 0 0 0 0 4 1 0 1
A. strigosa 67 29 15 2 4 2 1 1 1 0 0 7 4 0 0 0 0 4 1 0 1
A. canariensis 66 29 17 4 1 0 1 0 1 0 0 6 2 2 0 0 0 3 0 1 1
A. damascena 66 27 13 7 4 1 1 0 0 1 0 5 4 0 0 0 1 3 0 1 1
A. atlantica 68 30 15 2 2 2 3 1 0 0 0 7 2 2 0 0 0 4 1 0 1
A. wiestii 66 28 14 7 1 0 1 1 2 0 0 7 1 2 1 0 0 4 1 0 1
A. lusitanica 63 26 17 8 1 1 1 0 1 0 0 6 1 3 0 0 0 3 0 1 1
A. longiglumis 63 28 12 9 3 0 2 0 0 0 0 7 1 0 2 0 0 3 0 1 1
A. agadiriana 62 29 12 9 2 0 1 1 0 0 0 5 4 0 0 0 0 3 0 1 1
A. barbata 66 27 14 7 2 0 1 2 1 0 0 7 1 2 1 0 0 4 1 0 1
A. insularis 63 30 11 8 2 0 2 0 1 0 0 6 1 3 0 0 0 3 0 1 1
A. maroccana 66 29 11 8 1 0 2 0 0 0 0 5 3 0 2 0 0 3 1 0 1
A. murphyi 63 29 12 8 2 0 1 1 0 0 0 7 0 1 2 0 0 3 1 0 1
A. vaviloviana 66 27 13 9 1 0 1 1 2 0 0 7 1 2 1 0 0 4 1 0 1
A. abyssinica 66 27 13 10 0 0 2 1 1 0 0 7 3 0 1 0 0 4 1 0 1
A. fatua 64 30 9 9 2 0 1 1 0 0 0 7 1 0 2 0 0 3 1 0 1
A. hybrida 64 30 11 8 1 0 2 0 0 0 0 7 0 1 2 0 0 3 1 0 1
A. occidentalis 64 32 10 7 1 0 2 0 0 0 0 7 2 1 0 0 0 3 1 0 1
A. sterilis 64 29 9 11 1 0 1 1 0 0 0 7 1 2 0 0 0 3 1 0 1
A. sativa 64 29 10 9 2 0 1 1 0 0 0 7 3 0 0 0 0 3 1 0 1
Mean 64.4 28.9 13.1 7.2 1.6 0.4 1.5 0.6 0.5 0.0 0.1 6.3 1.9 1.2 0.6 0.0 0.0 3.4 0.7 0.3 1.0
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The sliding window analysis of nucleotide diversity showed that the genomic region with the highest nucleotide diversity was SSC, followed by LSC, while two repeat regions (IRa and IRb) had the lowest nucleotide diversity (Figure 3). Three specific genome positions with the highest diversity were the sliding windows near 108,349, 59,494, and 81,000 (Figure 3).

Figure 3.

Figure 3

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Nucleotide diversity (Pi) from the sliding window analysis of 25 complete Avena chloroplast genome assemblies (window length: 2000 bp, step size 200 bp). X-axis: position of the window midpoint, Y-axis: nucleotide diversity within each window.

2.5. Selective Pressure Analysis

The positive selection analysis considered all 130 genes, with a total of 19,941 amino acids. The likelihood ratio tests for three models (M2a vs. M1a; M8 vs. M7; and M8 vs. M8a) appeared to suggest the presence of positive selections with p-values < 0.05 on many cp genes (Table 4). Based on the Naïve Empirical Bayes test, there were 114 codons and six codons showing positive selections with the posterior probability of 50% and 95%, respectively. However, if the Bayesian Empirical Bayes tests were used, there were only six codons showing positive selections with the posterior probability of 84% only. The six positively selected sites on the amino acids of six genes were 817 Gly (matK), 2150 Cys (rpoB), 4457 Val (rpoC2), 10,203 Glu (rbcL), 11,332 Leu (rpl33), and 16,682 Phe (ccsA). Additional maximum likelihood analysis of natural selection on individual codons identified the codon #17177 (CTA at the genome position of 55,930) for the amino acid leucine with the p-value of 0.0096. These results, together, indicate that positive selection was not strong and purifying selection was dominant, acting on these 25 oat cp genomes.

Table 4.

Log-likelihood values (InL) and parameter estimates under models of variable ω ratios among sites of 19,941 codons in 25 Avena chloroplast genomes.

Model Code InL p-value Estimates of Parameters Count of PSSb
for LRTa NEB BEB
M0 (One-Ratio) –82795.020 ω = 0.11878
M3 (Discrete) –82781.913 0.000013 p0 = 0.10199, p1 = 0.85429, (p2 = 0.04372), 0(114)
ω0 = 0.00000, ω1 = 0.00000, ω3 = 2.81808
M1a (Nearly neutral) –82785.669 p0 = 0.90153, (p1 = 0.09847), ω0 = 0.00000, (ω1 = 1.00000)
M2a (Positive selection) –82781.919 0.011758 p0 = 0.94578, p1 = 0.02070, (p2 = 0.03352), 114(0) 6(0)
ω0 = 0.00110, (ω1 = 1.00000), ω2 = 2.98551
M7 (Beta) –82784.258 p = 0.00500, q = 0.06086
M8 (Beta and ω) –82781.940 0.049250 p0 = 0.97686, p = 0.05383, q = 1.11417, (p1=0.02314), ω=3.81079 114(6) 6(0)
M8a (Beta and ω > 1) –82787.155 p0 = 0.95611, p = 0.07461, q = 0.93085, (p1 = 0.04389), ω = 1.00000
M8 (Beta and ω) –82781.940 0.000671 p0 = 0.97686, p = 0.05383, q = 1.11417, (p1 = 0.02314), ω = 3.81079 114(6) 6(0)
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a LRT = likelihood ration test. b PSS = positively selected site; NEB = Naïve Empirical Byes analysis; BEB = Bayesian Empirical Bayes analysis; and the first number is the count of PSS with posterior probabilities >50%, and the second number (in parenthesis) is the count of PSS with posterior probabilities >95%.

3. Discussion

Our cp genomic analysis here generated the first set of cp genome assemblies for these 25 oat species. The genomes typically had four regions (LSC, SSC, IRa, and IRb), with lengths of roughly 136,006 bp, and they carried 130 genes and four to six pseudogenes. Purifying selection was the dominant force acting on the cp genes. The genomes harbored 1313 SNPs and 277 SSRs per species. More nucleotide diversity was located in the SSR and LSC, rather than IRa and IRb, regions. These research outputs allowed for a better understanding of oat cp genomes and evolution, and they formed an essential set of cp genomic resources for future oat studies and assessing oat genetic resources.

The analysis also revealed many comparative characteristics and some unique features of these oat cp genomes. First, the two genes infA and rps16, coding for a translation initiation factor 1 and a S16 ribosomal protein, respectively, were detected in these oat species, like other grass species, such as wheat and barley, but they were reported to be absent or nonfunctional in Malpighiales: Passiflora edulis, Jatropha curcas, and Manihot esculenta [29,30,31]. Second, a large sequence variation among 25 cp genomes was identified for the ndhH gene. Third, little differences in genomic structure and gene arrangement were identified across 25 species, and no marked genomic variations were unique to an oat ploidy level. Fourth, the positive selection was relatively weak acting on the 130 cp genes.

These comparative genomic features provided some empirical support for the previous inferences of oat evolution [9,18], as these genomes had the same gene count and arrangement, and purifying selection was the dominant force of selection acted on most of the 130 genes. Two C-genome species (A. clauda and A. eriantha) had only four pseudogenes, while the other 23 species had six. Such variation might be related to the major divergence of C-genome species 13–15 million years ago from A-genome species [18]. The indel variations for the ndhH gene seemed to be associated with the divergence of the As- and AB-genomes, but not with the divergence of hexaploid oat lineage. The cp genomic variations appeared to be not associated with the nuclear genome polyploidizations.

Managing more than 13,000 accessions of oat wild relatives is a challenging task, as many difficult issues must be properly addressed, such as taxonomic delimitation, duplication identification, viability monitoring, and field regeneration [17,32]. The cp genomic resources developed here can be utilized to develop taxonomic barcodes [8] for germplasm identification, e.g., from the region between the psbZ and trnfM (CAU) genes (see Supplementary File S4). Specific barcoding to identify wild relative germplasm of specific interests such as ecological types and geographic origin can also be developed. Molecular characterization of wild relative germplasm using cp markers, such as SNPs or SSRs, may be more informative than those using nuclear genomic tools, as cp markers are more conservative and nuclear genomic markers developed from polyploidy plants may not necessarily be informative. The inferred maternal phylogeny from these cp genomic resources (e.g., see [18]) can provide some guide for the search of evolutionarily related, economically important cp genes for gene introgression into oat breeding programs [15,16] through cp genome engineering [10]. The cp genome sequences are also essential for selecting intergenic spacer regions in oat cp genomes for transgene integration and assessing cp genome regulatory sequences in transgene expression [10]. We have initiated research to utilize these developed genomic resources to enhance the conservation, management and utilization of the oat collection in Plant Gene Resources of Canada.

4. Materials and Methods

4.1. Plant Material

We selected 25 Avena accessions of known species identity from the Plant Gene Resources of Canada (PGRC) oat collection, based on our previous oat research [3]. The selected accessions originated from various regions around the world and represent 25 species of the six botanical sections of the Avena genus, Ventricosa, Agraria, Tenuicarpa, Pachycarpa, Ethiopica, and Avena, and five distinct nuclear genomes organized in diploid (A or C), tetraploid (AB or AC), and hexaploid species (ACD). Table 1 shows the detailed information on the selected accessions with PGRC accession numbers, including botanical section and ploidy. About 300 seeds from each accession were planted in August 2013 in a 15 cm pot, grown for 8 to 10 days in the greenhouse at Saskatoon Research and Development Centre of Agriculture and Agri-Food Canada, and then incubated in the dark for 48 to 72 h. Up to 15 g from all 300 seedling leaves were collected and washed in cold water. Leaves were cut into 1 cm pieces with scissors, snap frozen with liquid nitrogen in a –20°C mortar, and then ground to a fine powder. Ground samples, while still frozen, were transferred to 50 mL conical-bottom centrifuge tubes, cooled on dry ice, and then stored at –80°C, for up to one week.

4.2. DNA Extraction and MiSeq Sequencing

Plastid DNA isolation was performed following the method of Shi et al. [33] and optimized using the cp DNA extraction protocol developed by Diekmann et al. [34]. All the procedures were carried out on ice or at 4°C with buffers prechilled to 4°C. The enriched cp pellet was allowed to thaw at room temperature, and DNA was extracted using the Qiagen DNEasy Plant Mini kit standard method on a Qiacube robot (Qiagen, Mississauga, Canada) and eluted in 1/3x Qiagen AE buffer (3.33 mM Tris-Cl, 0.17 mM EDTA, pH9.0). DNA samples were quantified using the Quant-iT PicoGreen dsDNA Assay Kit (Life Technologies, Burlington, Canada). Final DNA yields ranged from 0.2 to 4.3 ng/µl and were diluted to 0.2 ng/µl with 10 mM Tris-HCl, with a pH of 8. The acquired cp DNAs were subjected to the genomic DNA library preparation with a Nextera XT DNA Library Preparation Kit (Illumina). Four MiSeq runs, each with six or seven libraries and pair-end of 250 bp, were performed to generate 25 forward and 25 reverse FASTQ files. All raw reads were deposited into the National Center for Biotechnology Information (NCBI), under the Bioproject PRJNA401438 (Table 1).

4.3. Chloroplast Genome Assembling and Annotation

All raw sequence reads were cleaned first with cutadapt [35] to remove sequence adapters and to perform quality trimming. Partial Nextera adapter sequence ‘AGATGTGTATAAGAGACAG’ was used to trim the raw sequence reads. All the sequence reads with both quality lower than 15 and shorter than 150 bp were discarded. SPAdes v3.11.1 [36] was used as the assembler for the circular cp genome assembly in the pair-end mode. Preliminary tests were performed to reach the least contigs number and the longest scaffold size by a series of combinations of different coverages and k-mer sizes. The k-mer size was eventually set to 127, and the coverage was set to 1000 folds, after a series of training analyses. The four major gaps located at the four junctions (LSC-IR, IR-SSC, SSC-IR, and IR-LSC) were filled in by the assistance of the four junction sequences. These junction sequences were obtained from the alignments of the scaffolds with their closely related species, including wheat (Triticum aestivum, NCBI Reference Sequence: AB042240.3; [37]), bent grass (Agrostis stolonifera; NCBI Reference Sequence: NC_008591.1), and ryegrass (Lolium perenne; NCBI Reference Sequence: NC_009950.1) cp genome. Each of the four junction sequences (ranging between 540 and 700 bp) containing both IR and another (either LSC or SSC) structure fragment was used as a bait to screen for reads for further gap sequence recovery. The selected reads from BLAST were also used to link adjacent structure fragments. The additional gaps located within the scaffolds of several Avena accessions were similarly filled with the assistance of the bait sequences acquired from either wheat or other Avena cp genomes with sequences at the same locations.

Gene annotations of 25 cp genomes were made using online DOGMA program [38], along with the cp genome annotations of wheat (NCBI Reference Sequence: AB042240), ryegrass (NCBI Reference Sequence: NC_009950), and bent grass (NCBI Reference Sequence: NC_008591.1). Manual curation was also made for the variations within coding genes, such as rRNA and tRNA, based on multiple sequence alignments with their closely related species in the Triticeae tribe. The circular maps of the Avena cp genomes were generated first with GenomeVx [39] and Circos [40] and finally merged in Inkscape (https://inkscape.org).

4.4. Comparative Genomic Analysis

To identify the genomic regions with substantial variability, the complete cp genomes of 25 Avena species were compared using mVISTA [41], with wheat cp genome as reference. For this comparison, the percent identity matrix among 25 cp genomes was also generated. To illustrate the genomic variations with respect to ploidy, further effort was also made, using A. eriantha cp genome as reference to compare nine cp genomes, representing diploid, tetraploid, and hexaploid species.

4.5. SNP, SSR, and Diversity Analysis

The SNP calling was performed on the basis of multiple sequence alignments (MSA) by SNP-sites with the default options [42]. MAFFT was used to generate MSA data with the FFT-NS-i×1000 alignment algorithm [43]. To identify SSRs, 25 cp genomes were analyzed using MISA [44], with the following setting of minimum numbers of repeats to 8, 5, 4, 3, 3, and 3 for mono-, di-, tri-, tetra, pentra-, and hexa-nucleotides, respectively. The sliding window diversity analysis was done using DnaSP v6 [45] to estimate nucleotide diversity across 25 oat species, with a sliding window of 2000 bp and step size of 200 bp.

4.6. Selective Pressure Analysis

We applied several site models (M0, M1, M2, M3, M7, and M8), implemented in codeml of PAML v 4.9i [46], to estimate the Ka/Ks and ω values, considering F3X4 codon frequencies. MAFFT, with the default options, was used to align the nucleotide sequences of all cp genes, and the phylogenetic tree of 25 Avena species, without tree-branch lengths, was obtained from the previous phylogenetic analysis [18]. Four nested site models (M3 vs. M0; M2 vs. M1; M8 vs. M7; and M8a vs. M8) were evaluated by log-likelihood ratio tests (LRT). The positively selected sites were analyzed by Naïve Empirical Bayes (NEB) analysis and Bayesian Empirical Bayes (BEB) analysis. Extra effort was also made to perform a maximum likelihood analysis of natural selection codon-by-codon, using MEGA 7 [47], following the method of Suzuki and Gojobori [48].

Acknowledgments

We would like to thank Mr. Gregory Peterson and Ms. Carolee Horbach for their technical assistance in the research, as well as Dr. Isobel Parkin for the access to and use of the Illumina MiSeq instrument.

Supplementary Materials

The supplementary materials consist of five files as below. These files are accessible online on FigShare (DOI://10.6084/m9.figshare.9759449). File S1: A FASTA file for 25 complete Avena cp genome sequences; File S2: A FASTA file for a consensus genome sequence from 25 Avena cp genomes; File S3: An Excel file for gene annotation feature table; File S4: A pdf file for percent identity plot of 25 Avena cp genomes; File S5: An Excel file for 1313 cp SNPs across 25 cp genomes.

Author Contributions

Y.-B.F. conceived of the project, codesigned the research, conducted sequencing analysis, and cowrote the paper. P.L. performed sequence data analysis and cowrote the paper. B.B. codesigned the research and revised the paper. All authors read and approved the final manuscript.

Funding

This work was financially supported by an A-base Project of Agriculture and Agri-Food Canada (to Y.-B.F.) and the Beef Cattle Research Council of Canada (to B.B.).

Conflicts of Interest

The authors declare no conflicts of interest.

Ethical Standards

The writing process of this manuscript complies with the current laws of Canada.

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