Nanomaterial Gas Sensors for Online Monitoring System of Fruit Jams

Abstract

Jams are appreciated worldwide and have become a growing market, due to the greater attention paid by consumers for healthy food. The selected products for this study represent a segment of the European market that addresses natural products without added sucrose or with a low content of natural sugars. This study aims to identify volatile organic compounds (VOCs) that characterize three flavors of fruit and five recipes using gas chromatography–mass spectrometry (GC–MS) and solid-phase micro-extraction (SPME) analysis. Furthermore, an innovative device, a small sensor system (S3), based on gas sensors with nanomaterials has been used; it may be particularly advantageous in the production line. Results obtained with linear discriminant analysis (LDA) show that S3 can distinguish among the different recipes thanks to the differences in the VOCs that are present in the specimens, as evidenced by the GC–MS analysis. Finally, this study highlights how the thermal processes for obtaining the jam do not alter the natural properties of the fruit.

1. Introduction

The term “marmalade” comes from the Portuguese “marmelo,” which means “quince tree”. This method to preserve fruits was already appreciated in the times of the ancient Greeks, who had discovered that the pulp of fruits, acrid and almost inedible, once cooked became very sweet with a strong scent of honey. Hence “quince” which in Greek means “apple of honey”.

The decree 20 February 2004 n°50 implementation of Directive 2001/113/EC concerning jams of the European community defines it as “the mixture brought to a suitable gelled consistency of sugars and pulp of one or more species of fruit and water. It is a particular type of food preserve. The fruit, according to the law, must be fresh, intact and healthy, at the right point of maturation, clean and blunt; the roots of the ginger, tomato, rhubarb (limited to the edible parts of the stems), carrots, cucumbers, pumpkins, melons, and watermelons are equated to the fruit” [1].

Fruit jams are a growing market. In the last year, the export value of the countries that market in this sector was approximately $3.2 billion. In this scenario, European countries have “the lion’s share,” with a turnover linked to exports of $2 billion—equal to 61.1% of the global total—followed by Asian producers (20.2%), those in Latin America (9.3%), North America (5.6%), Africa (2.7%) and Oceania (1.1%) [2].

In Europe, Italy is the second largest exporter of jams (8.4% of total exports worth $270.3 million market), preceded by France (12%) and followed by Turkey (8%) [2]. An explanation for this success is probably the desire of consumers to search for natural and simple products and those that, if possible, are also good for health. The growth in market value appears to be driven above all by the sector of jams without added sugar. Also, in the jam or marmalade market, as in general in many food markets, we are witnessing a shift towards increasing trade and purchase of “healthy” and less processed products, with clean ingredient lists and lower sugar content. The greater attention to diet products and increased awareness of the need to fight diseases such as diabetes with prevention are increasingly pushing the offer towards high-added-value light products.

Research on the volatile compounds of food aims to provide the characterization of aromatic profiles, thus allowing the identification of the most important compounds in defining the characteristics of the product [3,4]. The main components of food (proteins, amino acids, carbohydrates, lipids, and fatty acids) undergo degradation processes following conservation processes (e.g., seasoning) or due technological treatments (e.g., cooking), and thus arise a wide range of compounds such as hydrocarbons, esters, aldehydes, ketones, alcohols, nitrogen and sulfur compounds, which impart the characteristic aroma to the food [5,6,7].

The determination of volatile substances in food plays a role of considerable importance: these substances are in fact responsible for the aroma of the product, which can fall within the norms of acceptability and even be a peculiar characteristic of the product or anomalies due to the presence of substances which impart an unpleasant smell—the so-called “off-flavors” with chemical or microbiological origin [4]. It is therefore particularly important to identify and quantify the compounds normally present in the volatile fraction of food products in order to characterize the aromatic profile and to study the variations depending on, for example, the geographical origin, production technology, seasoning, ripening or interaction with the packaging material [8,9].

Volatile compounds can be extracted using different sampling techniques, both classic and innovative, such as dynamic headspace and solid-phase microextraction. In this study, both will be used in parallel. In fact, they will constitute the fundamental database that will pave the base for the algorithm design that will constitute the neural network capable of supporting the production process of jams.

Although very precise, the analysis methods currently used, are costly in terms of expensive instrumentation, at the time of analysis as well as to obtain a result, without neglecting the need to have prepared technical personnel [10,11,12,13,14,15]. The rapid methods currently available are instead still considered unsatisfactory, both due to the long analysis time and to the poor reliability and high costs. For many technologies currently in use, the high-speed response often recalls a lack of sensitivity or accuracy.

Currently, to the authors’ knowledge, just a few articles in the literature have dealt with the evolution of volatile compounds in food products of this type. For this reason, it is not only important to identify new rapid technologies and devices to support the production of high quality, but also to increase knowledge on their aromatic product to better understand the evolution that can occur during the cooking of the fruit used as raw material. As a result, interest in new technologies based on chemical sensor arrays [16] has grown in recent years. Ample interest has been demonstrated by the numerous scientific publications that are distributed both between classes of foods such as meats, vegetables, cereals, etc., but also between raw materials and finished and packaged products, following the entire production chain from the fields to the fork. Applications take into consideration geographical origins, production anomalies, supply chain checks or possible chemical and physical contamination of the matrix [17,18,19].

The aim of this study is to provide the characterization of the aromatic profile of jams, thus allowing the identification of compounds that most contribute to the identification of a particular product. In summary, this study will characterize the volatile compounds emitted by different jams using gas chromatography–mass spectrometry (GC–MS) with solid-phase micro-extraction (SPME) analysis. The jams used will be representative of both different flavors (the type of fruit used) and different recipes (types and percentage of ingredients). In addition, we will try to identify an innovative technique based on nanowire gas sensors, which can be an advantageous online decision-making aid to the business transformation process.

2. Materials and Methods

2.1. Experiment Design

The research works were carried out following three steps. Firstly, the volatile organic compound (VOC) determination of fruit jams was carried out with GC–MS and SPME analysis (for details, see Section 2.2). Secondly, a small sensor system (S3) nanowire gas sensor device was developed and optimized (details see Section 2.3) in our lab with collaboration with the NANO SENSOR SYSTEMS Srl spin-off of the University of Brescia, Italy. The measures used in parallel, in this study, are shown in Figure 1.

Figure 1.

Illustration of online control of fruit jam by using a small sensor system (S3) device (left) and gas chromatography–mass spectrometry (GC–MS) and solid-phase micro-extraction (SPME) (right).

In Table 1 flavors (strawberry, apricot, and cherry) with their recipes are shown. Samples were prepared under sterilized conditions. In total, 10 g of a sample was placed in a sterilized vial, sealed with septa made of polytetrafluoroethylene (PTFE)/silicone. Once closed, the samples were placed at room temperature for 1 hour before being analyzed in order to create a balanced headspace inside the vial. Vials, septa, syringes and all the material used for the preparation of the samples were sterilized in an autoclave at 121 °C for 15 min, in order to eliminate any kind of cross-microbiological contamination, which could alter the characteristic volatile organic compounds (VOCs) of the product, for the duration of the analysis. Samples used were treated and prepared for both techniques, exactly in the same way, to try to reduce the variables related to the preparation as much as possible. The operational conditions were interpreted in Section 2.3 and Section 2.4, respectively.

Table 1.

List of samples analyzed: 3 flavors and 5 recipes for each taste.

Taste	Sample Code	Ingredients
Apricot	APS	Apricots; grape sugar; gelling agent: pectin; acidity correctors: citric acid and calcium citrate. Fruit used 70 g per 100 g.
	AL	Apricots; apple sugar; gelling agent: pectin; acidity corrector: calcium citrate. Fruit used 50 g per 100 g.
	AS	Apricots; fructose; water; gelling agent: pectin; acidity corrector: citric acid; calcium citrate; sweetener: steviol glycosides. Fruit used: 50 g per 100 g.
	A100	Apricots; grape sugar; concentrated lemon juice; gelling agent: fruit pectin. Used apricots: 100g per 100 g of product.
	AVL	Apricots; sugar; gelling agent: pectin; acidity correctors: citric acid and calcium citrate; sweetener: steviol glycosides. Fruit used 70 g per 100 g.
Strawberry	SPS	Strawberry; grape sugar; gelling agent: pectin; acidity corrector: citric acid; concentrated elderberry juice. Fruit used 70 g per 100 g.
	SL	Strawberries; apple sugar; gelling agent: pectin; acidity corrector: citric acid and calcium citrate; red fruit juice; concentrated elderberry juice. Fruit used 50 g per 100 g.
	SS	Strawberries; fructose; water; gelling agent: pectin; acidity corrector: citric acid and calcium citrate; concentrated elderberry juice; sweetener: steviol glycosides. Fruit used: 50 g per 100 g.
	S100	Strawberries; grape sugar; gelling agent: pectin; concentrated lemon juice; concentrated elderberry juice. Used strawberries: 100 g per 100 g of product.
	SVL	Strawberries; sugar; gelling agent: pectin; acidity correctors: citric acid and calcium citrate; concentrated elderberry juice; sweetener: steviol glycosides. Fruit used 70 g per 100 g.
Cherry	CPS	Cherries; sugar; concentrated lemon juice; gelling agent: pectin; acidity corrector: calcium citrate. Fruit used 50 g per 100 g of product.
	CL	Cherries; apple sugar; gelling agent: pectin; acidity correctors: citric acid and calcium citrate. Fruit used 50 g per 100 g.
	CS	Cherries; fructose; water; gelling agent: pectin; acidity corrector: citric acid and calcium citrate; sweetener: steviol glycosides. Fruit used: 50 g per 100 g.
	C100	Cherries; grape sugar; concentrated lemon juice; gelling agent: fruit pectin. Used cherries: 100 g per 100 g of product.
	CVL	Cherries; sugar; gelling agent: pectin; acidity correctors: citric acid and calcium citrate; sweetener: steviol glycosides. Fruit used 70 g per 100 g.

2.2. GC–MS SPME Detection

One hour after closure, vials were placed in the autosampler HT280T (HTA s.r.l., Brescia, Italy) to proceed with vial conditioning and volatile organic compound (VOC) extraction. Conditioning of the sample was performed as follows: filled vials where maintained for 15 min at 40 °C in order to equilibrate the headspace (HS) of the sample and to remove any variables. Afterward, VOC extraction was performed using solid-phase microextraction (SPME) analysis and the fiber used for the adsorption of volatiles was a divinylbenzene/carboxen/polydimethylsiloxane (DVB/CAR/PDMS) 50/30 µm (Supelco Co. Bellefonte, PA, USA) placed on the HT280T autosampler. The fiber was exposed to the vial HS in the HT280T oven thermostatically regulated at 40 °C for 30 min.

The GC instrument used in this work was a Shimadzu GC 2010 PLUS (Kyoto, KYT, Japan), equipped with a Shimadzu single quadrupole mass spectrometer (MS) MS-QP2010 Ultra (Kyoto, KYT, Japan). Fiber desorption took place in the GC–MS injector for 6 min at 250 °C. GC was operated in the direct mode throughout the run, while the separation was performed on a MEGA-WAX capillary column, 30 m × 0.25 mm × 0.25 μm, (Agilent Technologies, Santa Clara, CA, USA). Ultrapure helium (99.99%) was used as the carrier gas, at a constant flow rate of 1 mL/min. The GC oven temperature programming was applied as follows: at the beginning, the chromatographic column was held at 40 °C for 2 min and, subsequently, the temperature was raised from 40 to 70 °C at 5 °C/min, and held for 1 min. Next, the temperature was raised from 90 to 240 °C, with a rate of 10 °C/min; finally, 240 °C was maintained for 4 min, for a total program time of 30 min [20,21,22].

During the analysis, the GC–MS interface was kept at 200 °C, with the mass spectrometer in the electron ionization (EI) mode (70 eV) and related to instrument tuning, and the ion source was kept at 200 °C. Mass spectra were collected over 35 to 500 m/z in range in the total ion current (TIC) mode, with scan intervals at 0.3 s. VOC identification was carried out using the NIST11 and the FFNSC2 libraries of mass spectra.

Chromatogram peak integration was performed using the peak area as target parameter programming an automatic integration round using 70 as the minimum number of peak detection and 500 as the minimum area to detect. Other parameters used in the automatic peak integration were: slope 100/min, width 2 s, drift 0/min, doubling time (T.DBL) 1000 min, and no smoothing method was applied. The final round of peak integration was performed by manual peak integration for all the obtained chromatograms.

2.3. S3 Detection

S3 is an acronym for small sensor systems, which is a device developed by the collaboration of the groups involved in this study. S3 was previously used, with considerable success, in numerous studies applied to the field of food technology and quality control [23,24]. S3 consists of an electronic part to manage the signal, in order to send acquired data to the cloud, where it is possible to store and analyze them; an element that allows its connection to the internet; a pump to bring the volatile compounds to the heart of the instrument, as shown in Figure 2.

Figure 2.

Diagram representing S3 device components.

The volatile compounds collected by a pneumatic pump are conveyed inside an autosampler HT280T, supporting a 42-loading site carousel, (HTA s.r.l., Brescia, Italy), able to reduce the possible variables due to the preparation of the sample. The autosampler, used for the S3 device is the same model also used to prepare the samples seen in Section 2.2 associated with the GC–MS. S3 is equipped with an array of chemiresistor type sensors. The sensors grown and developed for this work were created with two techniques, Rheotaxial Growth Thermal Oxidation (RGTO) and nanowire technology. The RGTO technique involves two deposition steps: the first stage of a metallic thin film by DC magnetron sputtering from a metallic target on a substrate at higher temperatures than the melting point of the metal, then the thermal oxidation cycle in order to get a metal oxide layer with stable stoichiometry [25]. The surface of the thin film is rough, and this is an advantage since it provides a high surface-to-volume ratio and reactivity with gaseous species [26]. In addition, the existence of such very rough surface morphology, usually named ‘spongy agglomerates’, gives rise to a high specific area required for high-sensitivity gas sensors [27].

Nanowires exhibit exceptional crystalline quality and a very high length-to-width ratio, subsequent in enhanced sensitivity as well as long-term material stability for prolonged operation [28,29]. The experimental process consists of the evaporation of the powder (metal oxide) at high temperatures in a controlled atmosphere at pressures lower than hundreds of mbar (50–200 mbar) and the following mass transport of the vapor (50–100 sccm) towards the substrates kept at lower temperatures with respect to the source evaporation region. This growth technique is called the vapor–liquid–solid (VLS) mechanism. For SnO₂ sensors, powders are positioned in the center of the furnace at 1370 °C, then an inert air flow at temperatures between 350 and 500 °C is used as carrier from furnace to substrates, where nanowires start growing.

Regarding CuO sensors, a thin layer of metallic copper was deposited on target substrates by RF magnetron sputtering, with a constant gas flow kept at 7 sccm. Copper is very reactive in environmental atmosphere, and the interaction with oxygen spontaneously produces a thin layer of copper oxide that must be removed to allow the growth of nanowires. After copper oxide layer removal, the sensors undergo a forced oxidation in a carbolite tubular furnace for 15 h [30].

The list of the 5 sensors produced at Sensor Lab and used for this study is presented in Table 2. The other 4 sensors were commercial sensors—MQ2, MQ3, TGS2611 and TGS2602.

Table 2.

List of sensors produced at Sensors Lab, University of Brescia.

Materials	Morphology	Working Temperature (°C)
SnO2 + Au	RGTO	400
SnO2	RGTO	400
CuO	Nanowire	350
SnO2 + Au	Nanowire	350
SnO2	Nanowire	350

RGTO, Rheotaxial Growth Thermal Oxidation.

In Table 3, a list of replicas analyzed for each sample is reported. Again, from the table, the number of total measures for each flavor is 45 for apricot, 34 for strawberry, and 37 for cherry.

Table 3.

List of samples analyzed with an S3 device, divided for the different recipes.

Taste	Sample Code	Number of Replicas for S3
Apricot	APS	10
	AL	10
	AS	11
	A100	7
	AVL	7
Strawberry	SPS	6
	SL	7
	SS	6
	S100	9
	SVL	6
Cherry	CPS	6
	CL	10
	CS	7
	C100	7
	CVL	7

2.4. Data Analysis Methods

From GC–MS analysis, a list of all the VOCs of the samples was found. The aim of this study was to find which compounds were in common for different recipes of the same flavor. Common VOCs were obtained comparing VOC lists obtained from GC–MS analysis, considering all the recipes for every single fruit. Only VOCs present in all the recipes were considered and shown in the following tables.

S3 analysis output consists of the resistance variation of the sensor due to VOC analysis. First, sensor responses in terms of resistance (Ω) were normalized when compared to the first value of the acquisition (R0). For all the sensors, the difference between the first value and the minimum value during the analysis time was calculated; hence, ΔR/R0 has been extracted as featured. For each taste, a specific matrix has been created: the rows contain all the measures for that taste considering all the recipes, the columns features are extracted from the sensors array.

Linear discriminant analysis (LDA) was applied to the three matrices built in this way. LDA is a well-known supervised technique for the dimensionality reduction of a dataset or classification purposes. Its aim is to minimize intra-class variability and to maximize separation between classes. Hence, LDA was used to determine whether the recipes could be distinguished by sensors. To calculate the accuracies of recipe recognition, venetian blinds was used as a cross validation method dividing each dataset in 10 folds.

3. Results and Discussion

In this section, the results obtained during this study will be presented. All the results obtained in the phase of the identification and analysis of volatile compounds (VCs) with GC–MS and SPME analysis will be used for the creation of the database and for training through artificial intelligence of the S3 device.

3.1. Determination of VOCs

The results obtained from the characterization of the jams of t three flavors and five analyzed recipes will be presented below. The results obtained are representative of three replicas for each of the recipes and flavors analyzed, for a total of:

3 flavor × 5 recipe × 3 replicas = 45 samples

All the compounds presented in the table were found in all three replicas of all the five recipes analyzed, belonging to the strawberry, apricot and cherry taste (Table 4, Table 5 and Table 6). The table below will highlight the individual contributions of the individual compounds with the characteristic smell of the analyzed jams. The abundance work shown in the table is obtained by averaging the three replicas of each sample.

Table 4.

List of the compounds identified in all the strawberry recipes.

Retention Time	Compound	SPS	SVL	S100	SL	SS	Description
11.343	Acetoin	5.90 × 105	9.62 × 105	6.90 × 105	7.36 × 105	1.40 × 106	Pleasant, buttery odor. Acetoin is used as a food flavoring (in baked goods) and as a fragrance. It can be found in apples, butter, yogurt, asparagus, blackcurrants, blackberries, wheat, broccoli, brussels sprouts, cantaloupes and maple [31].
14.527	Linalool oxide	6.66 × 105	8.44 × 105	1.72 × 106	7.97 × 105	1.23 × 106	Furanoid with floral odor type, and musty, camphoreous, herbal, balsamic, and pine notes. Other name: 2-(5-ethenyl-5-methyloxolan-2-yl) propan-2-yl ethyl carbonate (IUPAC) [32].
14.689	Ammonium acetate	6.16 × 106	6.77 × 106	7.92 × 106	4.18 × 106	6.22 × 106	Slight odor of acetic acid. Its use as a food additive regulator of acidity is authorized in Australia and New Zealand, where it is identified by the number INS 264 and in the European Union where it is identified by the code E264 [33].
14.931	Furfural	2.27 × 107	1.07 × 107	1.88 × 107	1.23 × 107	1.35 × 107	The compound is an aldehyde group attached to the 2-position of furan. It is a product of the acid catalyzed dehydration of five-carbon sugars (pentoses), particularly xylose. These sugars may be obtained from hemicellulose present in lignocellulosic biomass, which can be extracted from most terrestrial plants. It is found in many foods: coffee (55–255 mg/kg) and whole-grain bread (26 mg/kg). When heated in the presence of acids, furfural irreversibly polymerizes, acting as a thermosetting polymer [34].
15.585	Ethanone and 1-(2-furanyl)-	1.94 × 106	1.08 × 106	1.67 × 106	1.48 × 106	9.83 × 105	It is found in alcoholic beverages. It is present in cooked apples, marasca cherry, wine grapes, peach, strawberry, plum, blueberry, asparagus, kohlrabi, baked potatoes, pineapple, bread products, rice, yogurt, wines, soy, and black tea. It contributes to the aroma of many foods and beverages. It is used in aromatic compositions. Another name: 2-acetylfuran [35].
15.893	Benzaldehyde	4.65 × 106	3.64 × 106	1.55 × 107	1.24 × 107	2.34 × 107	Benzaldehyde has a role as a flavoring agent, fragrance and a plant metabolite. Benzaldehyde can be derived from natural sources and is colorless liquid that turns to brown on exposure to air. It is an aromatic aldehyde that carries a single formyl group with an almond smell. Benzaldehyde was first extracted from bitter almonds [36].
16.159	1,6-octadien-3-ol and 3,7-dimethyl-	1.50 × 107	9.20 × 106	9.33 × 106	2.35 × 106	3.87 × 106	Known as linalool, it is a monoterpene abundantly present in the essence of rosewood. It is also found free or combined in the natural essential oils of coriander, basil, lavender or bergamot. It has an antimicrobial effect and it is present in the total pull of volatile organic compounds (VOCs) of many fruits and flowers. It is confirmed that linalool is the most important compound for strawberry flavor [37,38].
16.921	3(2H)-furanone and 4-methoxy-2,5-dimethyl-	2.56 × 106	2.39 × 106	2.25 × 106	9.20 × 105	6.99 × 105	Furanone methyl ether typical of strawberries. Nice, caramelic, sweet moldy mushroom, vegetable potato, burnt sugar, nut skin, wasabi, fruity, brandy with cocoa and coffee notes [39].
17.769	Acetophenone	4.31 × 106	6.67 × 105	1.52 × 106	8.89 × 105	1.21 × 106	It is the simplest aromatic ketone and an ingredient in fragrances that resemble almond, cherry, honeysuckle, jasmine, and strawberry. It is used in chewing gum. It is also listed as an approved excipient by the U.S. Food and Drug Administration (FDA) [40].
17.944	Butanoic acid and 2-methyl-	1.94 × 106	2.87 × 106	3.27 × 106	1.59 × 106	1.78 × 106	(S)-2-Methylbutyric acid has a pleasantly sweet, fruity odor. (R)-2-methylbutanoic acid has a pervasive, cheesy, and sweaty odor [41].
18.305	L-α-terpineol	4.53 × 106	4.02 × 106	1.15 × 107	1.47 × 106	2.98 × 106	α-Terpineol is a monoterpene alcohol that has been isolated from a variety of sources such as cajuput oil, pine oil, and petitgrain oil. It has a characteristic lilac odor, with a sweet taste reminiscent of peach on dilution. It is found in the composition of various essential oils [39,42].
20.141	Heptanoic acid	2.58 × 106	2.85 × 106	3.32 × 106	1.24 × 106	2.65 × 105	It makes part of flavoring agents and related substances. Cheese and other dairy-type flavors, and ripe fruit especially apple and strawberry [43].
20.573	Benzyl alcohol	3.59 × 105	6.02 × 105	2.44 × 106	2.85 × 105	5.73 × 105	Benzyl alcohol is an aromatic alcohol and a colorless liquid with a mild pleasant aromatic odor. It is a component of some essential oils such as jasmine, neroli, violet and ylang-ylang. It can be used as a preservative [44].
20.975	Phenylethyl alcohol	5.90 × 105	2.00 × 105	4.36 × 105	2.22 × 105	4.96 × 105	Also known as 2-phenylethanol, it is an organic compound that consists of a phenethyl group attached to an OH group. It is a colorless liquid that is widely available in nature, found in a variety of essential oils. It has a pleasant floral odor [45].
22.531	Octanoic acid	3.00 × 105	2.40 × 105	2.87 × 105	4.04 × 105	3.98 × 105	Octanoic acid is a volatile organic acid detected in strawberry jam at a conc of 2.9 mg/kg. [44,46].
23.573	2(3H)-furanone and 5-hexyldihydro-	2.78 × 106	3.14 × 106	3.30 × 106	7.91 × 105	1.06 × 106	A furan compound linked to a ketone group with a fruity peach flavor [40].
26.429	Benzoic acid	4.52 × 105	7.12 × 105	7.84 × 105	3.39 × 105	4.74 × 106	A simple aromatic carboxylic acid that occurs naturally in many plants and serves as an intermediate in the biosynthesis of many secondary metabolites, and it is found in post-harvested strawberries up to 29 mg/kg [47].

SPS, SVL, S100, SL, SS: sample code.

Table 5.

List of the compound identified in all the apricot recipes.

Retention Time	Compound	APS	AVL	A100	AL	AS	Description
6.130	Hexanal	2.53 × 105	1.99 × 106	8.99 × 105	8.03 × 105	2.12 × 106	Also called hexanaldehyde or caproaldehyde, it is an alkyl aldehyde. Its scent resembles freshly cut grass, with a powerful, penetrating characteristic fruity odor and taste. It occurs naturally and contributes a hay-like “off-note” flavor in green peas [21,39,48].
6.707	Linalool oxide	1.21 × 106	9.72 × 105	5.27 × 106	7.54 × 105	1.56 × 106	Furanoid with floral odor type, with musty, camphoreous, herbal, balsamic, and pine notes. Linaloil oxide is found in alcoholic beverages. It is an aromatic and fragrant ingredient. Linaloile oxide is present in roselle tea, muscat grapes, lime oil, alfalfa, Riesling wine, grapefruit, yellow passion fruit, apricot, blackberry, blueberry, and nectarine. Other name: 2-(5-ethenyl-5-methyloxolan-2-yl) propan-2-yl ethyl carbonate (IUPAC) [32].
11.964	Cyclohexanone, 2,2,6-trimethyl-	5.02 × 105	4.54 × 105	8.28 × 105	4.63 × 105	9.01 × 105	Found in bilberries, passion fruit and tea. Also found in apricot, bilberry, white wine, black tea, green tea, microbial fermented tea, brewed tea, yellow passion fruit juice and dill herb [40].
12.523	5-Hepten-2-one, 6-methyl-	1.37 × 106	1.69 × 106	2.13 × 106	1.25 × 106	1.84 × 106	Also known as sulcatone, it is an unsaturated methylated ketone with a citrus-like, fruity odor. Sulcatone is one of a number of mosquito attractants and has been also found in apricot scent [39,49].
14.931	Furfural	3.52 × 107	1.46 × 107	5.87 × 107	2.40 × 107	4.37 × 107	The compound is an aldehyde group attached to the 2-position of furan. It is a product of the acid catalyzed dehydration of five-carbon sugars (pentoses), particularly xylose. These sugars may be obtained from hemicellulose present in lignocellulosic biomass, which can be extracted from most terrestrial plants. It is found in many foods: coffee (55–255 mg/kg) and whole-grain bread (26 mg/kg). When heated in the presence of acids, furfural irreversibly polymerizes, acting as a thermosetting polymer [34,39].
15.881	Benzaldehyde	3.08 × 106	2.64 × 106	5.58 × 106	3.03 × 106	7.65 × 106	A colorless liquid that turns to brown on exposure to air. Benzaldehyde has a characteristic odor and aromatic taste, similar to bitter almond, and is also produced during the ripening of apricots [39,50].
16.143	1,6-Octadien-3-ol, 3,7-dimethyl-	3.03 × 107	2.66 × 107	3.27 × 107	3.80 × 106	4.83 × 106	Known as linalool, it is a monoterpene abundantly present in the essence of rosewood. It is also found free or combined in the natural essential oils of coriander, basil, lavender or bergamot. It has an antimicrobial effect and it is present in the total pull of volatile organic compounds (VOCs) of many flowers and fruits such as apricots [39,48].
16.605	2-Furancarboxaldehyde, 5-methyl-	8.24 × 105	2.51 × 105	1.56 × 106	5.97 × 105	1.42 × 106	Organic compounds known as aryl-aldehydes; it contains an aldehyde group directly attached to an aromatic ring. It is found in pepper (c. annuum). The 5-methyl-2-furancarboxaldehyde is isolated from brown algae and other plant sources, doubtless as a secondary produced from saccharides [39,48,50].
16.974	3-Cyclohexen-1-ol, 4-methyl-1-(1-methylethyl)-, (R)-	6.27 × 105	1.13 × 106	1.35 × 106	6.28 × 105	8.61 × 105	It is also known as 4-terpineol and is a flavoring ingredient found in the aroma of apricots. It has a role as a plant metabolite, antibacterial agent, antioxidant, anti-inflammatory agent, and antiparasitic agent [51].
18.247	L-α-Terpineol	1.76 × 107	1.97 × 107	3.94 × 107	4.16 × 106	1.08 × 107	α-Terpineol is a monoterpene alcohol that has been isolated from a variety of sources such as cajuput oil, pine oil, and petitgrain oil. It has a characteristic lilac odor with a sweet taste reminiscent of peach on dilution. It is found in the composition of various essential oils [39,42,51].
20.703	4-Acetyl-1-methylcyclohexene	2.59 × 105	3.23 × 105	7.88 × 105	1.18 × 105	2.21 × 105	It is found in cereals and cereal products. The 4-Acetyl-1-methylcyclohexene is a flavoring ingredient. It is isolated from the famine food Santalum album (sandalwood) [48].
21.252	trans-.beta.-Ionone	9.88 × 105	1.26 × 106	1.44 × 106	8.17 × 105	1.12 × 106	β-Ionone has a characteristic violet-like odor, and is fruitier and woodier than α-ionone.
26.326	Benzoic acid	4.44 × 105	7.11 × 105	9.42 × 105	2.70 × 105	1.53 × 107	It is a simple aromatic carboxylic acid that occurs naturally in many plants and serves as an intermediate in the biosynthesis of many secondary metabolites. It is found during the ripening of apricots [50] and in post-harvest strawberries up to 29 mg/kg [47].

APS, AVL, A100, AL, AS: sample code.

Table 6.

List of the compound identified in all the cherry recipes.

Retention Time	Compound	CPS	CVL	C100	CL	CS	Description
13.630	Nonanal	1.18 × 106	3.49 × 105	2.11 × 105	1.08 × 105	1.90 × 105	Nonanal has a strong, fatty odor, developing an orange and rose note on dilution. It has a fatty, citrus-like flavor [39,40,52].
14.943	Furfural	5.77 × 106	9.86 × 106	7.46 × 106	1.51 × 107	1.26 × 107	The compound is an aldehyde group attached to the 2-position of furan. It is a product of the acid catalyzed dehydration of five-carbon sugars (pentoses), particularly xylose. These sugars may be obtained from hemicellulose present in lignocellulosic biomass, which can be extracted from most terrestrial plants. It is found in many foods: coffee (55–255 mg/kg) and whole-grain bread (26 mg/kg). When heated in the presence of acids, furfural irreversibly polymerizes, acting as a thermosetting polymer [34,39,40].
15.881	Benzaldehyde	1.04 × 107	4.14 × 106	2.52 × 106	4.84 × 107	8.93 × 107	Benzaldehyde has a role as a flavoring agent, fragrance and a plant metabolite. It is an aromatic aldehyde that carries a single formyl group. Benzaldehyde can be derived from natural source and is colorless liquid that turns to brown on exposure to air. Benzaldehyde has a characteristic odor and aromatic taste, similar to bitter almond, and is also produced during the ripening of apricots and cherries [36,39,50,52].
16.155	1,6-Octadien-3-ol, 3,7-dimethyl-	1.87 × 106	2.42 × 106	1.83 × 106	1.05 × 106	1.18 × 106	Known as linalool, it is a monoterpene abundantly present in the essence of rosewood. It is also found free or combined in the natural essential oils of coriander, basil, lavender or bergamot. It has an antimicrobial effect and is present in the total pull of VOCs of many flowers and fruits as apricots and cherries [39,48,52].
18.264	L-α-Terpineol	2.01 × 107	1.07 × 106	7.82 × 106	1.20 × 106	1.63 × 106	α-Terpineol is a monoterpene alcohol that has been isolated from a variety of sources such as cajuput oil, pine oil, and petitgrain oil. It has a characteristic lilac odor, with a sweet taste reminiscent of peach on dilution. It is found in the composition of various essential oils [39,42,51,52].
26.307	Benzoic acid	5.70 × 105	5.87 × 105	3.24 × 105	2.09 × 105	2.30 × 106	It is a simple aromatic carboxylic acid that occurs naturally in many plants and serves as an intermediate in the biosynthesis of many secondary metabolites. It is found during the ripening of apricots [50] and in post-harvest strawberries up to 29 mg/kg [47].

CPS, CVL, C100, CL, CS: sample code.

The characteristic odor of fruits and of the production process is not influenced by the recipe and the raw materials used to obtain it. This also highlights the naturalness of the analyzed product, which does not compromise the real characteristics of fruits.

3.2. E-Nose Performance

Chemical sensors used in this work have the peculiarity to change their resistance once they are exposed to pure gases or mixtures, such as VOCs. In Figure 3, the trends of four sensors from the array are shown for apricot measures and for all the recipes. In particular, all the graphs have time indication in seconds on the x-axis and on normalized resistance the y-axis; this is the reason why all signals start from a value equal to 1. Once sensing materials react with VOCs, resistance decreases. This reduction changes from sensor to sensor: indeed, each sensor reaches a different minimum resistance and the shape of the signals are diverse, too. Furthermore, focusing on a single sensor, it can be observed that sensors respond differently to the five recipes. Taking the RGTO-SnO₂Au sensor as an example, the samples APS, AVL and AL are more similar in respect to A100 and AS. Otherwise, TGS2611 sensor signals show that A100 samples are more different from the other four types. This is the main reason why sensors arrays are used since metal oxide (MOX) sensors are non-specific sensors and respond to a broad range of molecules. In that way, it is possible to distinguish among the recipes taking into account information coming from different sources.

Figure 3.

Signals obtained from four sensors: RGTO SnO₂ (upper left side), RGTO SnO₂Au (upper right side), MQ3 (low left side), and TGS2611 (low right side). Five measures are shown as an example of the typical sensor responses to apricot.

When VOC exposition ends, filtrated ambient air is fluxed to restore the sensor baseline. The baseline is recovered when resistance value returns close to the value 1, as shown in the normalized graphs of Figure 3. At the end of VOC analysis, the needle of the autosampler that aspires headspace sample comes out of the vial and this can produce an abrupt change of pressure in the flow that arrives in the sensor chamber. This can cause a sudden change in the response, as it can be observed for A100 measures in RGTO-SnO₂Au and TGS2611 sensors. However, after the overshoot, signals tend to converge to the value of 1.

From signal observation, it has been decided that ΔR/R0 could be a feature suitable for our purposes. Three matrices have been built with these values—one for each fruit. LDA was applied to each dataset to determine how different classes (i.e., recipes) cluster. In Figure 4, the LDA graph with the first two linear discriminants (LDs) is shown, for a total explained variance (EV) equal to 94.45%. That means that almost all the information carried by features has been useful to discriminate between the classes. The graph shows that the A100 and AS samples are very different in respect to the others. On the contrary, the AL, APS and AVL clusters are closer but they do not overlap. This can be explained looking at the compounds obtained from the GC–MS analysis. Lists of all VOCs can be found in Appendix A (Table A1, Table A2, Table A3, Table A4, Table A5, Table A6, Table A7, Table A8, Table A9, Table A10, Table A11, Table A12, Table A13, Table A14 and Table A15). The quantities of common VOCs compared to the total of compounds considering each recipe varies from 64.65% to 76.33%. This difference does not explain the reason why the five groups cluster in the way shown in Figure 4. All recipes have furfural, α-terpineol, 1,6-octadien-3-ol, 3,7-dimethyl- and benzaldehyde among the first six most abundant compounds; these are also compounds that are present in all the recipes as shown in Table 4. The AS aromatic profile differs from the other because it has ammonium acetate (instead of acetic acid like the other recipes) and acetone among the compounds with the highest quantities, and a bigger area of the peak of benzoic acid (11.11% of relative abundance, while it is between 0.33% and 0.75% for the other four recipes). Regarding A100, it has 2H-pyran, 2-ethenyltetrahydro-2,6,6-trimethyl- (2.5%, in the other recipes is between 0.91% and 1.19%) naphthalene, and 1,2,3,4-tetrahydro-1,1,6-trimethyl- (2.2%, while it is between 0.37% and 0.48% for the others; it is absent in AL samples) within the top ten most present compounds. Calculation of LDA performances led to obtain an accuracy of 93.48%.

Figure 4.

First two LD (linear discriminant) components for discrimination between the recipes of apricot jam (explained variance (EV) = 94.45%); LDA: linear discriminant analysis; A100, AL, APS, AS, AVL: sample code.

Figure 5 shows the same typology of graph for cherry samples (EV = 99.18%). Unlike what is shown in Figure 4, C100 and CVL clusters overlap; in this case, the array seems to not be able to recognize that those samples come from different recipes. The CL and CS groups are very close on the graph. For cherry samples, the relative abundance of common compounds is 4.12% for CPS, 43.79% and 53.32% for C100 and CVL respectively, and 80% and 85.28% for CL and CS, respectively. These values reflect how the different recipes cluster in the LDA graph, and the relative abundance of common compounds can explain this result in this case. Furthermore, CPS is the only recipe that contains D-limonene—the abundance of which is 43 times higher than the second most abundant compound of the recipe in terms of the area of the peak and has lower quantities of furfural (0.59%) and benzaldehyde (1.07%). Indeed, the C100 and CVL recipes have an amount of furfural equal to 16.2% and 28% and of benzaldehyde equal to 5.47% and 11.7% respectively. However, for the CL and CS samples, benzaldehyde (58.65% and 59.5%) is much more present than furfural (18.24% and 8.42%). In this case, LDA achieves a classification rate equal to 83.78%. This result is lower than the previous due to the overlap of C100 and CVL clusters and to the fact that CL and CS are not 100% linearly separable.

Figure 5.

First two LD components for discrimination between the recipes of cherry jam (EV = 99.18%).

Finally, in Figure 6, the LDAs for strawberry specimens are presented in the same way as for the previous fruits (EV = 95.82%). S100 and SVL are the closest groups—a result that can be compared to the one obtained with cherry. On the contrary, there is better distinction between SS and SL in respect to CS and CL. In addition to the apricot samples, strawberry specimens show similar values of the abundance of common VOCs; these percentages range from 54.12% to 75.01%. However, there are some differences if the most abundant compounds for each recipe are compared. The distance of the SS cluster from the others can be explained by the presence of acetone (relative abundance of 10.38%, which is absent in the remaining recipes), ethyl acetate (4.58%; it is present only in SL for a quantity equal to 2.48%) and benzoic acid (3.83%, in comparison to 0.35%–0.80% in the other samples) among the most abundant compounds. S100 and SVL have almost the same most abundant compounds (furfural, benzaldehyde, α-terpineol, 1,6-octadien-3-ol, 3,7-dimethyl-, ammonium acetate and pentanal), except for the presence of cyclobutane, 1,2-bis(1-methylethenyl)-, trans- (10.87% of relative abundance) and dimethyl sulfide (6,20%) in S100 and nerolidyl acetate (12.46%) in SVL. The same common VOCs can be found in SPS and SL (sample code); in this case, sensors recognition of the recipe could be addressed to 2-Heptenal, (Z)- (SPS: 3,6%; SL: not present), Acetophenone (SPS: 3,39%; SL: 1.49%), Butanoic acid, 2-methyl- (SPS: 1,52%; SL: 2.67%) and Ethanone, 1-(2-furanyl)- (SPS: 1.53%; SL: 2.48%). Nevertheless, LDA accuracy is higher among the three recipes and it is equal to 97.06%.

Figure 6.

First two LD components for discrimination between the recipes of strawberry jam (EV = 95.82%).

4. Conclusions

This study aimed to characterize the aromatic fingerprint of fruit jams, taking into account three flavors and five recipes for a total of 15 different samples. The sets of VOCs provided by the GC–MS analysis showed that each specimen has a unique aroma, although there are common compounds among the recipes for each fruit. As derived from literature, those VOCs come from the common base that is the fruit itself. Hence, it is possible to assert that the thermal processes necessary for jam production do not alter the content of the used fruit. It is interesting to notice that all the samples have a small set of VOCs that has always been detected in this study: furfural; benzaldehyde; 1,6-Octadien-3-ol, 3,7-dimethyl-; L-α-Terpineol; benzoic acid.

Furthermore, the innovative and real-time method developed for this study using the S3 device has excellent characteristics to be used in the production of this type of food product. In fact, once trained, S3 manages to highlight the real product differences and to provide a data item in a few minutes. Hence, the system provides an important information to promote and increase the guarantee of high standards of natural products. The impact of the work in this subject will be remarkable due to the lack of a reported bibliography. This work will pave the way to new studies that will deal with complex matrices as fruit jams and marmalades.

Appendix A

Table A1.

APS sample VOCs.

Retention Time	Name	Mean
1.655	l-Alanine ethylamide, (S)-	1.72 × 105
2.363	Acetone	8.67 × 104
2.980	1,3-Propanediol, diacetate	1.25 × 106
4.136	Pentanal	4.27 × 106
6.103	Hexanal	2.53 × 105
6.707	2H-Pyran, 2-ethenyltetrahydro-2,6,6-trimethyl-	1.21 × 106
9.000	Cyclohexene, 1-methyl-5-(1-methylethenyl)-, (R)-	2.22 × 105
9.150	Eucalyptol	1.76 × 105
9.455	4-Ethylbenzoic acid, 1-(cyclopentyl)ethyl ester	1.68 × 105
10.310	5-Decen-1-ol, (E)-	4.43 × 105
10.502	1-Pentanol	4.96 × 105
11.248	(+)-4-Carene	2.92 × 105
11.319	Acetoin	1.97 × 105
11.717	1-Butanol, 2-methyl-, acetate	3.27 × 105
11.786	Hexane, 3-ethyl-	6.91 × 104
11.964	Cyclohexanone, 2,2,6-trimethyl-	5.02 × 105
12.200	2-Buten-1-ol, 3-methyl-	4.76 × 105
12.305	2,5-Octanedione	3.58 × 105
12.523	5-Hepten-2-one, 6-methyl-	1.37 × 106
13.261	Cyclopropane, trimethyl(2-methyl-1-propenylidene)-	5.67 × 104
13.682	Nonanal	1.62 × 105
13.748	1H-Pyrazole, 4,5-dihydro-5,5-dimethyl-4-isopropylidene-	4.91 × 105
13.885	Propanenitrile, 3-(1-methylethoxy)-	1.02 × 105
14.000	Ethane, 1,2-bis[(4-amino-3-furazanyl)oxy]-	1.34 × 105
14.148	Benzene, 1-cyclopropylmethyl-4-(1-methylethyl)-	1.08 × 105
14.194	Benzene, 1-cyclohexyl-3-methyl-	4.04 × 104
14.255	2-Octenal, (E)-	1.75 × 105
14.465	α-Methyl-α-[4-methyl-3-pentenyl]oxiranemethanol	1.55 × 106
14.527	Ethyl 2-(5-methyl-5-vinyltetrahydrofuran-2-yl)propan-2-yl carbonate	5.00 × 105
14.689	Acetic acid	6.19 × 106
14.931	Furfural	3.52 × 107
15.244	1-Hexanol, 2-ethyl-	2.50 × 105
15.573	Ethanone, 1-(2-furanyl)-	1.72 × 106
15.881	Benzaldehyde	3.08 × 106
16.143	1,6-Octadien-3-ol, 3,7-dimethyl-	3.03 × 107
16.286	Naphthalene, 1,2,3,4-tetrahydro-1,1,6-trimethyl-	6.42 × 105
16.605	2-Furancarboxaldehyde, 5-methyl-	8.24 × 105
16.838	Bicyclo[6.1.0]nonane, 9,9-dichloro-	1.24 × 105
16.974	3-Cyclohexen-1-ol, 4-methyl-1-(1-methylethyl)-, (R)-	6.27 × 105
17.049	5,7-Octadien-2-ol, 2,6-dimethyl-	5.47 × 105
17.272	1-Cyclohexene-1-carboxaldehyde, 2,6,6-trimethyl-	1.44 × 106
17.441	2(5H)-Furanone, 4,5,5-trimethyl-3-(3-methyl-2-methylenebutyl)-	2.03 × 106
17.502	1-methyl-4-(prop-1-en-2-yl)-7-oxabicyclo[4.1.0]heptan-2one	4.42 × 105
17.770	2-Furanmethanol	5.34 × 105
17.896	Butanoic acid, 2-methyl-	1.80 × 106
18.247	L-α-Terpineol	1.76 × 107
18.383	Hexanoic acid, anhydride	8.31 × 105
18.789	2,6-Octadiene, 1-(1-ethoxyethoxy)-3,7-dimethyl-	2.59 × 105
18.968	1, 1, 5-Trimethyl-1, 2-dihydronaphthalene	1.14 × 106
19.276	Dodecanedioic acid, bis(tert-butyldimethylsilyl) ester	5.03 × 104
20.067	Cyclopentaneundecanoic acid	2.80 × 106
20.226	5,9-Undecadien-2-one, 6,10-dimethyl-, (Z)-	8.05 × 105
20.366	7-Octen-3-ol, 2,3,6-trimethyl-	5.37 × 104
20.504	Benzyl alcohol	3.60 × 105
20.703	4-Acetyl-1-methylcyclohexene	2.59 × 105
20.911	Phenylethyl Alcohol	3.78 × 105
21.252	trans-β-Ionone	9.88 × 105
21.433	Bromoacetic acid, dodecyl ester	3.20 × 105
21.790	4-Hexen-1-ol, 6-(2,6,6-trimethyl-1-cyclohexenyl)-4-methyl-, (E)-	1.93 × 105
21.956	Carbamic acid, phenyl ester	1.90 × 105
22.244	Nerolidyl acetate	1.32 × 106
22.300	1,6,10-Dodecatrien-3-ol, 3,7,11-trimethyl-, [S-(Z)]-	1.34 × 105
22.461	Octanoic acid	2.22 × 105
23.517	2(3H)-Furanone, 5-hexyldihydro-	7.04 × 105
25.625	2(4H)-Benzofuranone, 5,6,7,7a-tetrahydro-4,4,7a-trimethyl-	4.59 × 105
25.780	gamma.-Dodecalactone	5.03 × 104
26.326	Benzoic acid	4.44 × 105
26.615	Tridecanoic acid	6.65 × 104
26.890	5-Hydroxymethylfurfural	1.52 × 105
26.973	2-tert-Butyl-4-hexylphenol	4.69 × 104
27.331	1,2-Benzenedicarboxylic acid, bis(2-methylpropyl) ester	2.48 × 105
27.729	di(Butoxyethyl)adipate	2.41 × 105
28.857	Phosphine, 1,3-propanediylbis[bis(1-methylethyl)-	6.88 × 104

Table A2.

AVL sample VOCs.

Retention Time	Name	Mean
2.390	2-Hexanone, 4-hydroxy-5-methyl-3-propyl-	2.07 × 105
6.146	Hexanal	1.99 × 106
6.703	2H-Pyran, 2-ethenyltetrahydro-2,6,6-trimethyl-	9.72 × 105
10.333	9-Dodecen-1-ol, acetate, (Z)-	3.72 × 105
11.344	Acetoin	3.12 × 105
11.990	Cyclohexanone, 2,2,6-trimethyl-	4.54 × 105
12.214	2-Heptenal, (Z)-	4.12 × 105
12.544	5-Hepten-2-one, 6-methyl-	1.69 × 106
13.644	Nonanal	3.00 × 105
13.769	1H-Pyrazole, 4,5-dihydro-5,5-dimethyl-4-isopropylidene-	9.69 × 105
14.037	1,3-Hexadiene, 3-ethyl-2-methyl-	3.06 × 105
14.279	2-Octenal, (E)-	3.51 × 105
14.485	α-Methyl-α-[4-methyl-3-pentenyl]oxiranemethanol	2.01 × 106
14.711	Acetic acid	5.22 × 106
14.951	Furfural	1.46 × 107
15.264	1-Hexanol, 2-ethyl-	2.11 × 105
15.378	2,4-Heptadienal, (E,E)-	1.14 × 105
15.903	Benzaldehyde	2.64 × 106
16.160	1,6-Octadien-3-ol, 3,7-dimethyl-	2.66 × 107
16.365	Naphthalene, 1,2,3,4-tetrahydro-1,1,6-trimethyl-	3.91 × 105
16.630	2-Furancarboxaldehyde, 5-methyl-	2.51 × 105
16.766	3-Buten-2-ol, 4-(2,6,6-trimethyl-1-cyclohexen-1-yl)-	1.80 × 105
16.994	3-Cyclohexen-1-ol, 4-methyl-1-(1-methylethyl)-, (R)-	1.13 × 106
17.292	1-Cyclohexene-1-carboxaldehyde, 2,6,6-trimethyl-	1.82 × 106
17.461	1-methyl-4-(prop-1-en-2-yl)-7-oxabicyclo[4.1.0]heptan-2one	1.11 × 106
17.913	Butanoic acid, 2-methyl-	9.28 × 105
18.266	L-α-Terpineol	1.97 × 107
19.006	1, 1, 5-Trimethyl-1, 2-dihydronaphthalene	7.98 × 105
19.754	Bicyclo[3.1.0]hexane-6-methanol, 2-hydroxy-1,4,4-trimethyl-	1.25 × 105
20.088	Cyclopentaneundecanoic acid	2.59 × 106
20.245	5,9-Undecadien-2-one, 6,10-dimethyl-, (Z)-	1.11 × 106
20.523	Benzyl alcohol	4.97 × 105
20.719	4-Acetyl-1-methylcyclohexene	3.23 × 105
20.933	Phenylethyl Alcohol	2.65 × 105
21.276	trans-β-Ionone	1.26 × 106
21.990	4-(2,4,4-Trimethyl-cyclohexa-1,5-dienyl)-but-3-en-2-one	1.69 × 105
22.262	1,6,10-Dodecatrien-3-ol, 3,7,11-trimethyl-, [S-(Z)]-	1.92 × 105
22.482	Octanoic acid	1.83 × 105
23.537	2(3H)-Furanone, 5-hexyldihydro-	4.82 × 105
25.648	2(4H)-Benzofuranone, 5,6,7,7a-tetrahydro-4,4,7a-trimethyl-	6.93 × 105
26.342	Benzoic acid	7.11 × 105
26.630	Tridecanoic acid	1.04 × 105

Table A3.

A100 sample VOCs.

Retention Time	Name	Mean
4.129	Pentanal	4.47 × 106
6.164	Hexanal	8.99 × 105
6.723	2H-Pyran, 2-ethenyltetrahydro-2,6,6-trimethyl-	5.27 × 106
9.027	Cyclobutane, 1,2-bis(1-methylethenyl)-, trans-	3.34 × 106
9.452	Z-7-Decen-1-yl acetate	1.68 × 106
10.333	Bicyclo[3.1.0]hexane-6-methanol, 2-hydroxy-1,4,4-trimethyl-	2.46 × 106
11.274	(+)-4-Carene	1.05 × 106
11.729	2-Propanone, 1-hydroxy-	5.09 × 105
11.995	Cyclohexanone, 2,2,6-trimethyl-	8.28 × 105
12.325	2,5-Octanedione	5.20 × 105
12.554	5-Hepten-2-one, 6-methyl-	2.13 × 106
13.284	1,5,5-Trimethyl-6-methylene-cyclohexene	3.09 × 105
13.654	Nonanal	5.36 × 105
13.775	Isophorone	7.89 × 105
14.169	(1,4-Dimethylpent-2-enyl)benzene	1.53 × 106
14.494	Ethyl 2-(5-methyl-5-vinyltetrahydrofuran-2-yl)propan-2-yl carbonate	5.08 × 106
14.712	Acetic acid	4.14 × 106
14.958	Furfural	5.87 × 107
15.273	1-Hexanol, 2-ethyl-	1.43 × 106
15.602	Ethanone, 1-(2-furanyl)-	2.85 × 106
15.853	Benzaldehyde	5.58 × 106
16.169	1,6-Octadien-3-ol, 3,7-dimethyl-	3.27 × 107
16.326	Naphthalene, 1,2,3,4-tetrahydro-1,1,6-trimethyl-	4.60 × 106
16.644	2-Furancarboxaldehyde, 5-methyl-	1.56 × 106
16.732	Megastigma-4,6(E),8(Z)-triene	5.55 × 105
16.999	3-Cyclohexen-1-ol, 4-methyl-1-(1-methylethyl)-, (R)-	1.35 × 106
17.075	7-Octen-2-ol, 2-methyl-6-methylene-	1.31 × 106
17.303	1-Cyclohexene-1-carboxaldehyde, 2,6,6-trimethyl-	5.52 × 106
17.474	3-Buten-2-one, 3-methyl-4-(1,3,3-trimethyl-7-oxabicyclo[4.1.0]heptan-1-yl)-	2.22 × 106
17.791	2-Furanmethanol	6.00 × 105
17.968	Benzene, 1,2,3,4-tetramethyl-4-(1-methylethenyl)-	1.47 × 106
18.014	L-α-Terpineol	3.94 × 107
18.791	Dodecanedioic acid, bis(tert-butyldimethylsilyl) ester	2.13 × 105
18.999	1, 1, 5-Trimethyl-1, 2-dihydronaphthalene	3.89 × 106
20.095	Geraniol	2.88 × 106
20.257	5,9-Undecadien-2-one, 6,10-dimethyl-, (Z)-	7.75 × 105
20.526	2-Caren-10-al	7.88 × 105
20.731	4-Acetyl-1-methylcyclohexene	7.88 × 105
20.942	Phenylethyl Alcohol	5.97 × 105
21.285	trans-β-Ionone	1.44 × 106
21.808	Calarene epoxide	6.02 × 105
23.545	2(3H)-Furanone, 5-hexyldihydro-	7.06 × 105
26.346	Benzoic acid	9.42 × 105

Table A4.

AL sample VOCs.

Retention Time	Name	Mean
2.389	Acetone	5.95 × 105
2.978	Ethyl Acetate	2.50 × 106
4.160	Pentanal	8.99 × 105
6.176	Hexanal	8.03 × 105
6.775	2H-Pyran, 2-ethenyltetrahydro-2,6,6-trimethyl-	7.54 × 105
9.439	1-Butanol, 3-methyl-	4.50 × 105
10.384	3-Tridecene	3.94 × 105
11.780	5,9-Dodecadien-2-one, 6,10-dimethyl-, (E,E))-	2.58 × 105
12.052	Cyclohexanone, 2,2,6-trimethyl-	4.63 × 105
12.267	2-Heptenal, (Z)-	3.15 × 105
12.377	2,5-Hexanedione	2.04 × 105
12.599	5-Hepten-2-one, 6-methyl-	1.25 × 106
13.816	Isophorone	6.51 × 105
14.092	1,3-Hexadiene, 3-ethyl-2-methyl-	1.77 × 105
14.324	2-Octenal, (E)-	9.62 × 104
14.529	Ethyl 2-(5-methyl-5-vinyltetrahydrofuran-2-yl)propan-2-yl carbonate	1.35 × 106
14.773	Acetic acid	3.04 × 106
14.999	Furfural	2.40 × 107
15.644	Ethanone, 1-(2-furanyl)-	1.31 × 106
15.947	Benzaldehyde	3.03 × 106
16.201	1,6-Octadien-3-ol, 3,7-dimethyl-	3.80 × 106
16.346	Nonanoic acid, hexyl ester	9.07 × 105
16.685	2-Furancarboxaldehyde, 5-methyl-	5.97 × 105
17.051	3-Cyclohexen-1-ol, 4-methyl-1-(1-methylethyl)-, (R)-	6.28 × 105
17.334	1-Cyclohexene-1-carboxaldehyde, 2,6,6-trimethyl-	1.44 × 106
17.513	2-Dodecenoic acid	3.84 × 105
17.837	2-Furanmethanol	3.15 × 105
17.972	Methyl 4-hydroxybutanoate	7.85 × 105
18.311	L-α-Terpineol	4.16 × 106
18.495	Heptanoic acid, 2-(acetyloxy)-, methyl ester	3.10 × 105
19.036	Oxime-, methoxy-phenyl-_	8.00 × 105
20.140	Heptanoic acid	1.15 × 106
20.285	5,9-Undecadien-2-one, 6,10-dimethyl-, (Z)-	5.00 × 105
20.568	Benzyl alcohol	3.02 × 105
20.766	4-Acetyl-1-methylcyclohexene	1.18 × 105
20.970	Butylated Hydroxytoluene	3.31 × 105
21.315	trans-β-Ionone	8.17 × 105
21.499	1-Dodecanol	2.48 × 105
21.815	Orcinol	9.89 × 104
22.305	1,6,10-Dodecatrien-3-ol, 3,7,11-trimethyl-, [S-(Z)]-	1.76 × 105
22.533	Octanoic acid	2.29 × 105
23.644	Tridecanoic acid	3.83 × 105
24.685	n-Decanoic acid	1.09 × 105
25.712	2(4H)-Benzofuranone, 5,6,7,7a-tetrahydro-4,4,7a-trimethyl-	3.01 × 105
26.432	Benzoic acid	2.70 × 105
26.555	5H-1-Pyrindine	5.57 × 105
26.691	Dodecanoic acid	1.15 × 105
26.980	5-Hydroxymethylfurfural	2.12 × 105
27.813	Decanoic acid, decyl ester	3.59 × 105

Table A5.

AS sample VOCs.

Retention Time	Name	Mean
2.394	Acetone	4.03 × 106
3.110	Ethyl Acetate	3.14 × 106
4.127	Pentanal	2.52 × 106
6.126	Hexanal	2.12 × 106
6.684	2H-Pyran, 2-ethenyltetrahydro-2,6,6-trimethyl-	1.56 × 106
9.437	3-Dodecyne	7.22 × 105
10.308	3-Tridecene	8.45 × 105
11.327	Acetoin	2.37 × 105
11.708	1-Butanol, 2-methyl-, acetate	5.35 × 105
11.976	Cyclohexanone, 2,2,6-trimethyl-	9.01 × 105
12.200	2-Heptenal, (Z)-	7.19 × 105
12.524	5-Hepten-2-one, 6-methyl-	1.84 × 106
13.633	Nonanal	2.16 × 105
13.755	1H-Pyrazole, 4,5-dihydro-5,5-dimethyl-4-isopropylidene-	1.11 × 106
14.023	1,3-Hexadiene, 3-ethyl-2-methyl-	3.06 × 105
14.142	(1,4-Dimethylpent-2-enyl)benzene	2.37 × 105
14.267	2-Octenal, (E)-	3.15 × 105
14.349	3-Furaldehyde	4.23 × 105
14.469	α-Methyl-α-[4-methyl-3-pentenyl]oxiranemethanol	3.01 × 106
14.671	Ammonium acetate	9.60 × 106
14.932	Furfural	4.37 × 107
15.365	2,4-Heptadienal, (E,E)-	1.60 × 105
15.578	Ethanone, 1-(2-furanyl)-	2.67 × 106
15.876	Benzaldehyde	7.65 × 106
16.143	1,6-Octadien-3-ol, 3,7-dimethyl-	4.83 × 106
16.303	Naphthalene, 1,2,3,4-tetrahydro-1,1,6-trimethyl-	9.30 × 105
16.615	2-Furancarboxaldehyde, 5-methyl-	1.42 × 106
16.840	Furo[3,4-b]furan-2,6(3H,4H)-dione, 4-ethyldihydro-3-methylene-, [3aR-(3aα,4β,6aα)]-	2.39 × 105
16.976	3-Cyclohexen-1-ol, 4-methyl-1-(1-methylethyl)-, (R)-	8.61 × 105
17.276	3-Cyclohexene-1-carboxaldehyde, 1,3,4-trimethyl-	1.85 × 106
17.444	3-Buten-2-one, 3-methyl-4-(1,3,3-trimethyl-7-oxabicyclo[4.1.0]heptan-1-yl)-	7.53 × 105
17.760	2-Furanmethanol	2.59 × 105
17.884	Butanoic acid, 2-methyl-	2.79 × 106
18.151	Bicyclo[3.2.2]non-8-en-6-ol, (1R,5-cis,6-cis)-	7.08 × 105
18.249	L-α-Terpineol	1.08 × 107
18.839	Propanedioic acid, propyl-	5.68 × 105
19.029	Naphthalene, 1,2-dihydro-2,5,8-trimethyl-	5.14 × 105
19.275	Dodecanedioic acid, bis(tert-butyldimethylsilyl) ester	1.76 × 105
19.950	4-Methylphenyl acetone	1.61 × 105
20.067	Heptanoic acid	8.70 × 105
20.228	5,9-Undecadien-2-one, 6,10-dimethyl-, (E)-	5.53 × 105
20.500	Benzyl alcohol	6.87 × 105
20.708	4-Acetyl-1-methylcyclohexene	2.21 × 105
20.926	3,5-Octadiene, 4,5-diethyl-, (E,Z)-	2.10 × 105
21.257	trans-β-Ionone	1.12 × 106
21.466	Cyclopentanol, 1,2-dimethyl-3-(1-methylethenyl)-, [1R-(1α,2β,3α)]-	3.23 × 105
21.746	2,5-Furandicarboxaldehyde	2.24 × 105
21.954	Carbamic acid, N-(3-ethylphenyl)-, phenyl ester	2.96 × 105
22.076	3-Furancarboxylic acid, methyl ester	3.27 × 105
22.247	1,6,10-Dodecatrien-3-ol, 3,7,11-trimethyl-	3.16 × 105
22.455	Octanoic acid	2.15 × 105
23.583	2(3H)-Furanone, 5-hexyldihydro-	3.83 × 105
24.988	Phenol, 2,4-bis(1,1-dimethylethyl)-	2.94 × 105
25.624	2(4H)-Benzofuranone, 5,6,7,7a-tetrahydro-4,4,7a-trimethyl-	4.65 × 105
26.270	Benzoic acid	1.53 × 107
26.889	5-Hydroxymethylfurfural	6.05 × 105
27.803	4a,8a-Butano[1,4]dioxino[2,3-b]-1,4-dioxin, tetrahydro-	1.45 × 105

Table A6.

SPS sample VOCs.

Retention Time	Name	Mean
1.835	D-Alanine	2.19 × 105
2.118	Dimethyl sulfide	2.55 × 105
4.207	Pentanal	9.61 × 106
5.183	Butanoic acid, ethyl ester	9.08 × 105
5.811	1-Penten-3-one, 2-methyl-	1.53 × 106
5.853	Benzothiophene-3-carboxylic acid, 4,5,6,7-tetrahydro-6-tert-butyl-2-cyclopropanoylamino-, ethyl ester	7.09 × 104
6.121	Hexanal	2.94 × 106
7.200	3-Penten-2-one, (E)-	5.80 × 105
7.664	3-Carene	1.31 × 105
10.180	Hexanoic acid, ethyl ester	1.81 × 105
10.560	1-Pentanol	5.81 × 105
11.401	Acetoin	5.90 × 105
11.449	Octanal	6.62 × 105
11.791	1-Octen-3-one	1.82 × 106
12.261	2-Heptenal, (Z)-	4.58 × 106
12.365	5-Hepten-2-one, 6-methyl-	2.30 × 106
12.685	1-Hexanol	1.76 × 105
13.682	Nonanal	4.64 × 105
13.888	2-Decen-1-ol, (E)-	1.08 × 106
14.020	1,3-Hexadiene, 3-ethyl-2-methyl-	1.20 × 105
14.322	2-Octenal, (E)-	1.47 × 106
14.522	Ethyl 2-(5-methyl-5-vinyltetrahydrofuran-2-yl)propan-2-yl carbonate	6.66 × 105
14.756	Ammonium acetate	6.16 × 106
14.992	Furfural	2.27 × 107
15.303	1-Hexanol, 2-ethyl-	1.46 × 105
15.635	Ethanone, 1-(2-furanyl)-	1.94 × 106
15.929	Benzaldehyde	4.65 × 106
16.197	1,6-Octadien-3-ol, 3,7-dimethyl-	1.50 × 107
16.327	1-Octanol	7.71 × 105
16.929	3(2H)-Furanone, 4-methoxy-2,5-dimethyl-	2.56 × 106
17.095	2,4-Di-tert-butyl-6-(tert-butylamino)phenol	4.56 × 104
17.109	trans-2-Undecen-1-ol	9.08 × 104
17.367	Butanoic acid	3.58 × 105
17.500	Butanoic acid, 4-hydroxy-	7.04 × 105
17.564	2-Decenal, (E)-	4.68 × 105
17.770	Acetophenone	4.31 × 106
17.892	Butanoic acid, 2-methyl-	1.94 × 106
18.130	β-d-Mannofuranoside, phenyl	1.00 × 105
18.138	Octadecanoic acid, 4-methyl-	6.77 × 104
18.305	L-α-Terpineol	4.53 × 106
18.389	6,6,7-Trimethyl-octane-2,5-dione	1.95 × 105
18.415	Hexanoic acid, anhydride	5.08 × 105
18.442	n-Caproic acid vinyl ester	2.52 × 105
18.736	2,6-Octadienal, 3,7-dimethyl-, (E)-	6.19 × 105
18.981	n-Octylsuccinic anhydride	8.99 × 105
19.035	Oxime-, methoxy-phenyl-_	6.87 × 105
19.228	Pseduosarsasapogenin-5,20-dien methyl ether	1.81 × 105
19.276	5α-Cholestan-2-one, oxime	1.86 × 105
19.487	Bicyclo[2.2.1]heptan-2-one, 1-(bromomethyl)-7,7-dimethyl-, (1S)-	3.88 × 106
20.106	Heptanoic acid	2.58 × 106
20.283	5,9-Undecadien-2-one, 6,10-dimethyl-, (Z)-	7.55 × 105
20.559	Benzyl alcohol	3.59 × 105
20.971	Phenylethyl Alcohol	5.90 × 105
21.277	2,3-Dehydro-4-oxo-β-ionol	2.17 × 105
21.322	Stevioside	1.33 × 105
21.486	1-Dodecanol	3.28 × 105
21.627	4,4,8-Trimethyl-non-7-en-2-one	1.60 × 105
21.775	6-Methyl-2-pyrazinylmethanol	4.24 × 104
21.930	Cyclopropanemethanol, α,2-dimethyl-2-(4-methyl-3-pentenyl)-, [1α(R*),2α]-	4.83 × 104
21.955	Phenol	5.52 × 104
21.984	Phosphonic acid, (p-hydroxyphenyl)-	4.25 × 104
22.301	Nerolidyl acetate	1.04 × 107
22.522	Octanoic acid	3.00 × 105
23.194	2-Pentadecanone, 6,10,14-trimethyl-	2.62 × 104
23.378	2-Furanmethanol, tetrahydro-α,α,5-trimethyl-5-(4-methyl-3-cyclohexen-1-yl)-, [2S-[2α,5β(R*)]]-	9.90 × 105
23.578	2(3H)-Furanone, 5-hexyldihydro-	2.78 × 106
23.925	2H-Pyran, 3,6-dihydro-4-methyl-2-(2-methyl-1-propenyl)-	1.68 × 105
24.136	Epiglobulol	3.83 × 105
24.393	Heptadecanal	2.55 × 104
25.829	gamma.-Dodecalactone	4.77 × 105
26.403	Benzoic acid	4.52 × 105
26.663	Dodecanoic acid	1.88 × 105
26.955	5-Hydroxymethylfurfural	1.16 × 105
27.411	1,2-Benzenedicarboxylic acid, bis(2-methylpropyl) ester	1.58 × 105
27.726	Decanoic acid, decyl ester	1.44 × 105
27.778	4a,8a-Butano[1,4]dioxino[2,3-b]-1,4-dioxin, tetrahydro-	7.34 × 104
27.810	di(Butoxyethyl)adipate	9.58 × 104
29.208	2-Propanol, 1-chloro-, phosphate (3:1)	5.56 × 104

Table A7.

SVL sample VOCs.

Retention Time	Name	Mean
2.060	Dimethyl sulfide	8.70 × 105
4.132	Pentanal	5.78 × 106
5.156	Butanoic acid, ethyl ester	1.98 × 106
6.135	Hexanal	7.04 × 105
7.195	Cyclopropanecarboxylic acid, 2-pentyl ester	5.51 × 105
9.353	1-Butanol, 3-methyl-	3.11 × 105
10.156	Hexanoic acid, ethyl ester	6.29 × 105
10.516	1-Pentanol	4.40 × 105
11.356	Acetoin	9.62 × 105
11.750	1-Octen-3-one	4.22 × 105
12.218	2-Heptenal, (Z)-	8.23 × 105
12.325	2,5-Hexanedione	4.04 × 105
12.553	5-Hepten-2-one, 6-methyl-	6.21 × 105
13.644	Nonanal	3.32 × 105
13.851	2-Hexen-1-ol, (Z)-	7.47 × 105
14.281	2-Octenal, (E)-	3.27 × 105
14.485	Ethyl 2-(5-methyl-5-vinyltetrahydrofuran-2-yl)propan-2-yl carbonate	8.44 × 105
14.708	Ammonium acetate	6.77 × 106
14.952	Furfural	1.07 × 107
15.264	2-Propyl-1-pentanol	1.37 × 105
15.591	Ethanone, 1-(2-furanyl)-	1.08 × 106
15.893	Benzaldehyde	3.64 × 106
16.159	1,6-Octadien-3-ol, 3,7-dimethyl-	9.20 × 106
16.290	1-Octanol	5.37 × 105
16.559	Propanoic acid, 2-methyl-	3.53 × 105
16.887	3(2H)-Furanone, 4-methoxy-2,5-dimethyl-	2.39 × 106
17.239	Butanoic acid, octyl ester	1.73 × 105
17.340	Heptanoic acid	4.50 × 105
17.475	Butanoic acid, 4-hydroxy-	2.84 × 105
17.727	Acetophenone	6.67 × 105
17.914	Butanoic acid, 2-methyl-	2.87 × 106
18.265	L-α-Terpineol	4.02 × 106
18.446	Sulfurous acid, isohexyl hexyl ester	4.11 × 105
18.486	Hexane, 3-bromo-	3.00 × 105
18.694	Isocaryophillene	7.36 × 105
18.996	Dimethylmalonic acid, monochloride, 2-octyl ester	9.54 × 105
19.245	5β,6β-Epoxy-7α-bromocholestan-3β-ol	3.92 × 105
19.450	Bicyclo[2.2.1]heptan-2-one, 1-(bromomethyl)-7,7-dimethyl-, (1S)-	4.92 × 106
20.088	Heptanoic acid	2.85 × 106
20.254	2-Piperidinone, N-[4-bromo-n-butyl]-	5.61 × 105
20.523	Benzyl alcohol	6.02 × 105
20.932	Phenylethyl Alcohol	2.00 × 105
21.312	Heptanoic acid	6.97 × 104
22.118	Humulane-1,6-dien-3-ol	9.67 × 104
22.262	Nerolidyl acetate	1.11 × 107
22.479	Octanoic acid	2.40 × 105
22.852	Cyclohexanone, 3-vinyl-3-methyl-	6.77 × 104
23.325	2-Furanmethanol, tetrahydro-α,α,5-trimethyl-5-(4-methyl-3-cyclohexen-1-yl)-, [2S-[2α,5β(R*)]]-	3.96 × 105
23.534	2(3H)-Furanone, 5-hexyldihydro-	3.14 × 106
23.925	8-Nonene-2,4-diol, 8-methyl-, (R*,S*)-	2.18 × 105
24.179	Epiglobulol	4.32 × 105
25.788	.gamma.-Dodecalactone	3.77 × 105
26.351	Benzoic acid	7.12 × 105
27.416	1,2-Benzenedicarboxylic acid, bis(2-methylpropyl) ester	7.46 × 104

Table A8.

S100 sample VOCs.

Retention Time	Name	Mean
2.091	Dimethyl sulfide	9.65 × 106
4.130	Pentanal	6.03 × 106
5.149	Butanoic acid, ethyl ester	1.90 × 106
5.740	1-Penten-3-one, 2-methyl-	8.67 × 105
6.109	Hexanal	1.73 × 106
7.168	3-Buten-2-one, 3-methyl-	7.64 × 105
8.992	Cyclobutane, 1,2-bis(1-methylethenyl)-, trans-	1.69 × 107
10.334	gamma.-Terpinene	1.60 × 106
10.500	1-Pentanol	2.75 × 105
10.982	o-Cymene	6.16 × 105
11.343	Acetoin	6.90 × 105
11.455	Octanal	2.79 × 105
11.500	Nonanal	4.33 × 105
11.742	1-Octen-3-one	8.99 × 105
12.210	2-Heptenal, (Z)-	2.60 × 106
12.529	5-Hepten-2-one, 6-methyl-	1.22 × 106
13.807	2-Octene, 2-methyl-6-methylene-	7.11 × 105
14.274	2-Octenal, (E)-	8.26 × 105
14.479	Ethyl 2-(5-methyl-5-vinyltetrahydrofuran-2-yl)propan-2-yl carbonate	1.72 × 106
14.704	Ammonium acetate	7.92 × 106
14.942	Furfural	1.88 × 107
15.259	1-Hexanol, 2-ethyl-	2.08 × 106
15.585	Ethanone, 1-(2-furanyl)-	1.67 × 106
15.890	Benzaldehyde	1.55 × 107
16.153	1,6-Octadien-3-ol, 3,7-dimethyl-	9.33 × 106
16.285	1-Octanol	7.25 × 105
16.420	2H-1,4-Benzodiazepin-2-one, 7-chloro-1,3-dihydro-5-phenyl-1-(trimethylsilyl)-	5.76 × 105
16.708	Bicyclo[2.2.1]heptan-2-ol, 1,3,3-trimethyl-	1.06 × 106
16.883	3(2H)-Furanone, 4-methoxy-2,5-dimethyl-	2.25 × 106
16.980	3-Cyclohexen-1-ol, 4-methyl-1-(1-methylethyl)-, (R)-	8.76 × 105
17.146	2-Decen-1-ol, (E)-	2.09 × 105
17.355	Cyclohexanol, 1-methyl-4-(1-methylethenyl)-	1.17 × 106
17.454	Butanoic acid, 4-hydroxy-	6.96 × 105
17.727	Acetophenone	1.52 × 106
17.906	Butanoic acid, 2-methyl-	3.27 × 106
18.260	L-α-Terpineol	1.15 × 107
18.686	Isocaryophillene	9.64 × 105
18.989	1, 1, 5-Trimethyl-1, 2-dihydronaphthalene	9.34 × 105
19.237	5α-Cholestan-2-one, oxime	3.48 × 105
19.442	Bicyclo[2.2.1]heptan-2-one, 1-(bromomethyl)-7,7-dimethyl-, (1S)-	4.56 × 106
20.084	Heptanoic acid	3.32 × 106
20.243	5,9-Undecadien-2-one, 6,10-dimethyl-, (Z)-	6.78 × 105
20.516	Benzyl alcohol	2.44 × 106
20.928	Phenylethyl Alcohol	4.36 × 105
21.308	Stevioside	1.47 × 105
22.071	α-Cadinol	5.56 × 106
22.261	Nerolidyl acetate	1.33 × 106
22.478	Octanoic acid	2.87 × 105
23.328	2-Furanmethanol, tetrahydro-α,α,5-trimethyl-5-(4-methyl-3-cyclohexen-1-yl)-, [2S-[2α,5β(R*)]]-	5.57 × 105
23.528	2(3H)-Furanone, 5-hexyldihydro-	3.30 × 106
23.930	2-Methyl-7-oxabicyclo[2.2.1]heptane	3.06 × 105
24.140	Propanoic acid, 2-(3-acetoxy-4,4,14-trimethylandrost-8-en-17-yl)-	3.31 × 105
25.779	2(3H)-Furanone, 5-heptyldihydro-	4.20 × 105
26.346	Benzoic acid	7.84 × 105

Table A9.

SL sample VOCs.

Retention Time	Name	Mean
2.905	Ethyl Acetate	1.46 × 106
5.460	Butanoic acid, 2-methyl-, ethyl ester	3.57 × 105
10.195	Hexanoic acid, ethyl ester	4.05 × 105
11.416	Acetoin	7.36 × 105
11.774	2-Cyclopenten-1-one, 3-(acetyloxy)-	1.40 × 105
14.430	Octanoic acid, ethyl ester	7.50 × 104
14.527	Ethyl 2-(5-methyl-5-vinyltetrahydrofuran-2-yl)propan-2-yl carbonate	7.97 × 105
14.670	1-Octen-3-ol	1.64 × 105
14.771	Ammonium acetate	4.18 × 106
14.999	Furfural	1.23 × 107
15.315	1-Hexanol, 2-ethyl-	5.59 × 105
15.634	Ethanone, 1-(2-furanyl)-	1.48 × 106
15.936	Benzaldehyde	1.24 × 107
16.199	1,6-Octadien-3-ol, 3,7-dimethyl-	2.35 × 106
16.341	1-Octanol	7.98 × 105
16.686	2-Furancarboxaldehyde, 5-methyl-	3.77 × 105
16.933	3(2H)-Furanone, 4-methoxy-2,5-dimethyl-	9.20 × 105
17.115	9-Methyl-10,12-hexadecadien-1-ol acetate	2.87 × 105
17.245	Methoxyacetic acid, 2-pentyl ester	2.67 × 105
17.394	Heptanoic acid	4.50 × 105
17.511	Decanoic acid, ethyl ester	3.77 × 105
17.774	Acetophenone	8.89 × 105
17.967	Butanoic acid, 2-methyl-	1.59 × 106
18.165	Octadecane-1,2-diol, bis(trimethylsilyl) ether	4.53 × 105
18.309	L-α-Terpineol	1.47 × 106
18.495	1,5-Heptadien-4-ol, 3,3,6-trimethyl-	3.54 × 105
18.729	Bicyclo[5.2.0]nonane, 2-methylene-4,8,8-trimethyl-4-vinyl-	2.31 × 105
19.035	Oxime-, methoxy-phenyl-_	7.19 × 105
19.263	5α-Cholestan-2-one, oxime	2.35 × 105
19.484	Bicyclo[2.2.1]heptan-2-one, 1-(bromomethyl)-7,7-dimethyl-, (1S)-	2.41 × 106
20.141	Heptanoic acid	1.24 × 106
20.573	Benzyl alcohol	2.85 × 105
20.975	Phenylethyl Alcohol	2.22 × 105
21.084	2,6-Bis(1,1-dimethylethyl)-4-(1-oxopropyl)phenol	7.42 × 104
21.353	Heptanoic acid	2.65 × 105
21.486	Formic acid, decyl ester	2.65 × 105
22.300	Nerolidyl acetate	4.41 × 106
22.531	Octanoic acid	4.04 × 105
23.376	2-Furanmethanol, tetrahydro-α,α,5-trimethyl-5-(4-methyl-3-cyclohexen-1-yl)-, [2S-[2α,5β(R*)]]-	5.82 × 105
23.579	2(3H)-Furanone, 5-hexyldihydro-	7.91 × 105
23.790	Acetohydrazide, 2-(4-morpholyl)-N2-[(4-methylcyclohex-3-enyl)methylene]-	2.98 × 105
24.538	1-(3,3-Dimethyl-but-1-ynyl)-2,2,3,3-tetramethylcyclopropanecarboxylic acid	9.59 × 104
24.682	n-Decanoic acid	1.67 × 105
25.830	2(3H)-Furanone, 5-heptyldihydro-	2.25 × 105
26.429	Benzoic acid	3.39 × 105
26.552	5H-1-Pyrindine	5.89 × 105
26.983	5-Hydroxymethylfurfural	2.03 × 105

Table A10.

SS sample VOCs.

Retention Time	Name	Mean
1.763	N-Methylallylamine	1.15 × 107
2.395	Acetone	1.28 × 107
2.865	Ethyl Acetate	5.66 × 106
3.335	Ethanol	4.63 × 106
4.055	2,3-Butanedione	1.56 × 106
10.108	Hexanoic acid, ethyl ester	3.14 × 105
10.671	Acetoin	1.40 × 106
11.754	Heptane, 2,3-dimethyl-	2.52 × 105
12.183	1-Heptanol, 2-propyl-	1.28 × 105
13.503	CH3C(O)OCH(CH3)C(O)CH3	2.00 × 105
14.295	2-Octenal, (E)-	5.69 × 105
14.505	Ethyl 2-(5-methyl-5-vinyltetrahydrofuran-2-yl)propan-2-yl carbonate	1.23 × 106
14.649	Ammonium acetate	6.22 × 106
14.823	Furfural	1.35 × 107
15.616	Ethanone, 1-(2-furanyl)-	9.83 × 105
15.795	Benzaldehyde	2.34 × 107
16.123	1,6-Octadien-3-ol, 3,7-dimethyl-	3.87 × 106
16.245	2,3,4-Trifluorobenzoic acid, 4-tetradecyl ester	1.01 × 106
16.848	3(2H)-Furanone, 4-methoxy-2,5-dimethyl-	6.99 × 105
17.343	n-Decanoic acid	4.52 × 105
17.498	Butanoic acid, 4-hydroxy-	2.58 × 105
17.769	Acetophenone	1.21 × 106
17.926	Butanoic acid, 2-methyl-	1.78 × 106
18.264	L-α-Terpineol	2.98 × 106
18.695	Bicyclo[5.2.0]nonane, 2-methylene-4,8,8-trimethyl-4-vinyl-	3.43 × 105
18.968	Oxime-, methoxy-phenyl-_	2.32 × 106
19.457	Bicyclo[2.2.1]heptan-2-one, 1-(bromomethyl)-7,7-dimethyl-, (1S)-	2.02 × 106
20.119	Cyclopentylcarboxylic acid	1.72 × 106
20.529	Benzyl alcohol	5.73 × 105
20.962	Phenylethyl Alcohol	4.96 × 105
21.337	Heptanoic acid	2.65 × 105
21.464	1-Dodecanol	4.72 × 105
21.785	5-Methyl-2-pyrazinylmethanol	2.17 × 105
22.014	Phosphonic acid, (p-hydroxyphenyl)-	2.39 × 105
22.105	2-Butanone, 4-(2,6,6-trimethyl-2-cyclohexen-1-yl)-	5.26 × 105
22.279	Nerolidyl acetate	7.69 × 106
22.506	Octanoic acid	3.98 × 105
23.234	Tetradecanal	1.39 × 106
23.558	2(3H)-Furanone, 5-hexyldihydro-	1.06 × 106
23.769	Formic acid, 2,3-dimethylphenyl ester	2.92 × 105
24.175	Viridiflorol	8.36 × 105
24.627	Decanoic acid, silver(1+) salt	3.79 × 105
25.025	Phenol, 2,6-bis(1,1-dimethylethyl)-	1.99 × 105
26.374	Benzoic acid	4.74 × 106
26.954	5-Hydroxymethylfurfural	4.34 × 105
27.777	Decanoic acid, cyclohexyl ester	3.41 × 105

Table A11.

CPS sample VOCs.

Retention Time	Name	Mean
1.745	Hydroperoxide, pentyl	1.06 × 107
8.171	β-Myrcene	1.75 × 107
8.266	D-Limonene	8.70 × 108
10.300	Benzenemethanimine	1.26 × 106
10.985	Benzene, 1-methyl-3-(1-methylethyl)-	9.98 × 105
11.270	(+)-4-Carene	2.73 × 106
13.630	Nonanal	1.18 × 106
14.387	Octanoic acid, ethyl ester	2.28 × 106
14.700	Acetic acid	2.76 × 106
14.943	Furfural	5.77 × 106
15.258	2-Propyl-1-pentanol	1.46 × 106
15.324	α-Copaene	1.17 × 106
15.881	Benzaldehyde	1.04 × 107
16.155	1,6-Octadien-3-ol, 3,7-dimethyl-	1.87 × 106
16.297	1-Octanol	1.74 × 106
16.835	Cyclohexane, 1-ethenyl-1-methyl-2,4-bis(1-methylethenyl)-, [1S-(1α,2β,4β)]-	2.08 × 105
16.967	Bicyclo[7.2.0]undec-4-ene, 4,11,11-trimethyl-8-methylene-	4.18 × 106
17.366	Cyclohexanol, 1-methyl-4-(1-methylethenyl)-	3.91 × 106
18.048	p-Menth-8-en-1-ol, stereoisomer	7.96 × 105
18.264	L-α-Terpineol	2.01 × 107
18.679	1.4-Methano-1H-indene, octahydro-4-methyl-8-methylene-7-(1-methylethyl)-, [1S-(1α,3aβ,4α,7α,7aβ)]-	7.58 × 105
19.101	Naphthalene, 1,2,3,5,6,8a-hexahydro-4,7-dimethyl-1-(1-methylethyl)-, (1S-cis)-	1.09 × 106
20.075	5-Hexenoic acid, 5-methyl-	2.54 × 105
20.242	5,9-Undecadien-2-one, 6,10-dimethyl-, (Z)-	1.86 × 105
20.513	Benzyl alcohol	3.75 × 106
20.924	Phenylethyl Alcohol	1.81 × 105
26.307	Benzoic acid	5.70 × 105

Table A12.

CVL sample VOCs.

Retention Time	Name	Mean
2.394	1H-Tetrazole-1,5-diamine	1.62 × 106
2.530	Acetic acid, 2-[(acetyl)(2,2-dicyanoethenyl)amino]-, ethyl ester	5.84 × 104
3.401	Ethanol	5.19 × 105
9.374	1-Butanol, 3-methyl-	2.60 × 105
11.348	Acetoin	4.80 × 105
13.279	4-Dodecyne	1.55 × 105
13.650	Nonanal	3.49 × 105
13.855	2-Hexen-1-ol, (E)-	3.83 × 105
14.485	Ethyl 2-(5-methyl-5-vinyltetrahydrofuran-2-yl)propan-2-yl carbonate	2.43 × 105
14.718	Ammonium acetate	2.03 × 106
14.949	Furfural	9.86 × 106
15.265	1-Hexanol, 2-ethyl-	1.65 × 105
15.590	Ethanone, 1-(2-furanyl)-	1.03 × 106
15.890	Benzaldehyde	4.14 × 106
16.159	1,6-Octadien-3-ol, 3,7-dimethyl-	2.42 × 106
16.290	1-Octanol	3.22 × 105
16.632	2-Furancarboxaldehyde, 5-methyl-	3.47 × 105
16.855	1-Propene, 3-chloro-2-(chloromethyl)-	1.00 × 105
16.979	3-Cyclohexen-1-ol, 4-methyl-1-(1-methylethyl)-, (R)-	2.04 × 105
17.249	2H-Pyran-2-one, tetrahydro-	4.80 × 105
17.454	Butyrolactone	6.61 × 105
17.913	Butanoic acid, 2-methyl-	3.15 × 105
18.162	1,7-Dimethyl-4-oxa-tricyclo[5.2.1.0(2,6)]decane-3,5,8-trione	2.57 × 105
18.268	L-α-Terpineol	1.07 × 106
18.484	Methyl 7,9-tridecadienyl ether	1.62 × 105
18.989	1, 1, 5-Trimethyl-1, 2-dihydronaphthalene	6.88 × 105
20.090	Heptanoic acid	8.43 × 105
20.262	(1R,2R,3R,5S)-(−)-Isopinocampheol	3.04 × 105
20.519	Benzyl alcohol	3.19 × 106
20.716	4-Acetyl-1-methylcyclohexene	1.44 × 105
20.928	Phenylethyl Alcohol	2.74 × 105
21.292	Acetic acid, 6,6-dimethyl-2-methylene-7-(3-oxobutylidene)oxepan-3-ylmethyl ester	1.43 × 105
22.258	Nerolidyl acetate	2.45 × 105
23.365	Octadecanal	2.70 × 105
23.535	2(3H)-Furanone, 5-hexyldihydro-	3.88 × 105
23.715	Phenol, 2-methoxy-3-(2-propenyl)-	7.59 × 104
25.785	Ethanol, 2-[2-[(tetrahydro-2H-pyran-2-yl)oxy]ethoxy]-	2.81 × 104
25.850	8-Methyl-hexahydro-pyrano[3,2-b]pyran-2-one	7.16 × 104
26.347	Benzoic acid	5.87 × 105
26.645	2-Propenoic acid, 3-(2-hydroxyphenyl)-, (E)-	3.05 × 105
29.615	2-[2-[2-[2-[2-[2-[2-[2-[2-(2-Methoxyethoxy)ethoxy]ethoxy]ethoxy]ethoxy]ethoxy]ethoxy]ethoxy]ethoxy]ethanol	3.46 × 104

Table A13.

C100 sample VOCs.

Retention Time	Name	Mean
2.375	2-Heptanone, 7,7-dichloro-	7.84 × 105
3.379	Ethanol	2.22 × 105
4.730	11H-Naphtho[1,2-b]thieno[3,4-d]pyran-11-one, 1-amino-3-methyl-	1.47 × 106
8.998	Cyclobutane, 1,2-bis(1-methylethenyl)-, trans-	9.23 × 106
10.336	.gamma.-Terpinene	8.00 × 105
10.986	Benzene, 1,2,4,5-tetramethyl-	1.98 × 105
11.346	Acetoin	5.52 × 105
12.583	2,6-Lutidine 3,5-dichloro-4-dodecylthio-	6.28 × 104
13.268	7-Oxabicyclo[4.1.0]heptane, 1-methyl-4-(1-methylethenyl)-	8.64 × 104
13.525	Acetic acid, 2-ethylhexyl ester	8.29 × 103
13.642	Nonanal	2.11 × 105
13.848	2-Hexen-1-ol, (E)-	3.27 × 105
14.475	Ethyl 2-(5-methyl-5-vinyltetrahydrofuran-2-yl)propan-2-yl carbonate	5.11 × 105
14.712	Ammonium acetate	2.00 × 106
14.945	Furfural	7.46 × 106
15.261	1-Hexanol, 2-ethyl-	1.37 × 106
15.585	Ethanone, 1-(2-furanyl)-	8.11 × 105
15.897	Benzaldehyde	2.52 × 106
16.155	1,6-Octadien-3-ol, 3,7-dimethyl-	1.83 × 106
16.289	1-Octanol	1.94 × 105
16.650	3-Cyclohexen-1-ol, 1-methyl-4-(1-methylethyl)-	1.53 × 105
16.713	Bicyclo[2.2.1]heptan-2-ol, 1,3,3-trimethyl-	5.69 × 105
16.982	3-Cyclohexen-1-ol, 4-methyl-1-(1-methylethyl)-, (R)-	8.19 × 105
17.259	2(3H)-Furanone, dihydro-4-methyl-	2.91 × 105
17.360	p-Menth-8-en-1-ol, stereoisomer	7.02 × 104
17.421	Cyclohexanol, 1-methyl-4-(1-methylethenyl)-	1.00 × 106
17.775	2-Furanmethanol	2.19 × 105
17.910	Butanoic acid, 2-methyl-	5.10 × 105
18.262	L-α-Terpineol	7.82 × 106
18.679	1H-Benzocycloheptene, 2,4a,5,6,7,8,9,9a-octahydro-3,5,5-trimethyl-9-methylene-	3.33 × 105
18.817	Carvone	1.42 × 105
19.010	Naphthalene, 1,2-dihydro-1,5,8-trimethyl-	4.19 × 105
19.152	Naphthalene, 1,2,3,5,6,8a-hexahydro-4,7-dimethyl-1-(1-methylethyl)-, (1S-cis)-	1.20 × 105
20.086	Heptanoic acid	8.43 × 105
20.250	5,9-Undecadien-2-one, 6,10-dimethyl-, (E)-	2.22 × 105
20.720	Nona-3,5-dien-2-one	1.01 × 105
20.931	Phenylethyl Alcohol	4.73 × 105
21.295	Acetic acid, 6,6-dimethyl-2-methylene-7-(3-oxobutylidene)oxepan-3-ylmethyl ester	8.99 × 104
22.255	1,6,10-Dodecatrien-3-ol, 3,7,11-trimethyl-, [S-(Z)]-	2.74 × 105
23.532	2(3H)-Furanone, 5-hexyldihydro-	3.99 × 105
23.711	Phenol, 2-methoxy-3-(2-propenyl)-	1.45 × 105
25.853	.gamma.-Dodecalactone	5.64 × 104
26.354	Benzoic acid	3.24 × 105

Table A14.

CL sample VOCs.

Retention Time	Name	Mean
2.511	Ethyl Acetate	1.78 × 106
12.525	5-Hepten-2-one, 6-methyl-	1.16 × 105
13.279	7-Oxabicyclo[4.1.0]heptane, 1-methyl-4-(1-methylethenyl)-	8.60 × 104
13.667	Nonanal	1.08 × 105
13.790	1H-Pyrazole, 4,5-dihydro-5,5-dimethyl-4-isopropylidene-	3.13 × 105
14.505	α-Methyl-α-[4-methyl-3-pentenyl]oxiranemethanol	8.22 × 104
14.625	Sulfurous acid, hexyl octyl ester	1.15 × 105
14.779	Ammonium acetate	1.03 × 106
14.990	Furfural	1.51 × 107
15.305	Acetic acid, dichloro-, heptyl ester	7.47 × 105
15.636	Ethanone, 1-(2-furanyl)-	1.83 × 106
15.931	Benzaldehyde	4.84 × 107
16.195	1,6-Octadien-3-ol, 3,7-dimethyl-	1.05 × 106
16.345	2,3,4-Trifluorobenzoic acid, 4-tetradecyl ester	3.43 × 105
16.672	2-Furancarboxaldehyde, 5-methyl-	4.21 × 105
17.273	Ethanol, 2-(2-ethoxyethoxy)-	1.68 × 105
17.327	1-Cyclohexene-1-carboxaldehyde, 2,6,6-trimethyl-	2.80 × 105
17.498	Butanoic acid, 4-hydroxy-	4.08 × 105
17.968	Butanoic acid, 2-methyl-	1.77 × 105
18.305	L-α-Terpineol	1.20 × 106
18.521	Dodecanal	2.45 × 105
18.785	1H-Imidazole, 4,5-dimethyl-	9.47 × 104
18.903	Naphthalene, decahydro-1,4a-dimethyl-7-(1-methylethyl)-, [1S-(1α,4aα,7α,8aβ)]-	6.00 × 105
19.026	1, 1, 5-Trimethyl-1, 2-dihydronaphthalene	1.42 × 106
19.277	N-Acetyl-2-ethylbutan-1-amine	1.38 × 104
20.132	Heptanoic acid	5.47 × 105
20.284	6,8-Nonadien-2-one, 8-methyl-5-(1-methylethyl)-, (E)-	2.48 × 105
20.561	Benzyl alcohol	1.01 × 106
20.755	4-Acetyl-1-methylcyclohexene	1.70 × 105
20.965	Phenol, 2,6-bis(1,1-dimethylethyl)-4-methyl-, methylcarbamate	2.86 × 105
21.085	2,6-Bis(1,1-dimethylethyl)-4-(1-oxopropyl)phenol	1.73 × 105
21.316	2-Butanone, 4-(2,6,6-trimethyl-2-cyclohexen-1-ylidene)-	2.91 × 105
21.477	1-Dodecanol	2.12 × 105
21.809	6-Methyl-2-pyrazinylmethanol	2.53 × 105
22.010	Acetic acid, phenyl ester	1.72 × 105
22.526	Octanoic acid	2.46 × 105
23.244	1H-Indene-4-acetic acid, 6-(1,1-dimethylethyl)-2,3-dihydro-1,1-dimethyl-	1.31 × 105
23.641	Pentadecanoic acid	2.94 × 105
23.757	Eugenol	4.60 × 105
24.541	1-(3,3-Dimethyl-but-1-ynyl)-2,2,3,3-tetramethylcyclopropanecarboxylic acid	2.44 × 105
25.776	Formic acid, 2,4,6-tri-t-butyl-phenyl ester	3.35 × 105
26.430	Benzoic acid	2.09 × 105
26.545	5H-1-Pyrindine	5.30 × 105
26.972	5-Hydroxymethylfurfural	3.01 × 105
28.302	1H-Inden-5-ol, 2,3-dihydro-1,1,3,3-tetramethyl-4,6-bis(1-methylethyl)-	1.20 × 105
28.885	Terephthalic acid, hexyl tridec-2-yn-1-yl ester	2.33 × 105

Table A15.

CS sample VOCs.

Retention Time	Name	Mean
2.408	Acetone	4.15 × 106
11.348	Acetoin	1.36 × 105
13.265	3-Dodecyne	2.30 × 105
13.635	Nonanal	1.90 × 105
13.751	1H-Pyrazole, 4,5-dihydro-5,5-dimethyl-4-isopropylidene-	3.94 × 105
14.021	1,3-Hexadiene, 3-ethyl-2-methyl-	1.75 × 105
14.473	Ethyl 2-(5-methyl-5-vinyltetrahydrofuran-2-yl)propan-2-yl carbonate	2.16 × 105
14.686	Ammonium acetate	4.18 × 106
14.929	Furfural	1.26 × 107
15.367	2,4-Heptadienal, (E,E)-	3.62 × 105
15.579	Ethanone, 1-(2-furanyl)-	1.52 × 106
15.874	Benzaldehyde	8.93 × 107
16.143	1,6-Octadien-3-ol, 3,7-dimethyl-	1.18 × 106
16.611	2-Furancarboxaldehyde, 5-methyl-	4.04 × 105
16.850	4-Cyclopentene-1,3-dione	5.89 × 104
16.990	3-Cyclohexen-1-ol, 4-methyl-1-(1-methylethyl)-, (R)-	1.11 × 105
17.279	1-Cyclohexene-1-carboxaldehyde, 2,6,6-trimethyl-	3.54 × 105
17.432	Butanoic acid, 4-hydroxy-	4.79 × 105
17.888	Butanoic acid, 2-methyl-	7.36 × 105
18.152	3-Cyclohexene-1-acetaldehyde, α,4-dimethyl-	3.44 × 105
18.251	L-α-Terpineol	1.63 × 106
18.975	1, 1, 5-Trimethyl-1, 2-dihydronaphthalene	9.02 × 105
19.875	2-Buten-1-one, 1-(2,6,6-trimethyl-1,3-cyclohexadien-1-yl)-, (E)-	8.59 × 104
20.069	Heptanoic acid	4.08 × 105
20.230	α-Ionone	2.65 × 105
20.502	Benzyl alcohol	2.75 × 106
20.705	3-Buten-2-ol, 4-(2,6,6-trimethyl-2-cyclohexen-1-yl)-, (3E)-	2.31 × 105
20.916	Phenylethyl Alcohol	1.52 × 105
21.259	trans-β-Ionone	3.18 × 105
21.740	2,5-Furandicarboxaldehyde	1.40 × 105
21.955	Phenol	1.57 × 105
22.080	3-Furancarboxylic acid, methyl ester	2.73 × 105
23.699	Eugenol	2.11 × 105
24.410	Heptadecanal	2.78 × 105
24.993	Phenol, 3,5-bis(1,1-dimethylethyl)-	1.94 × 105
25.405	l-(+)-Ascorbic acid 2,6-dihexadecanoate	1.36 × 106
26.258	Benzoic acid	2.30 × 107
26.890	5-Hydroxymethylfurfural	5.10 × 105

Author Contributions

Conceptualization, E.N.-C., M.A. and V.S.; methodology, E.N.C., M.A. and V.S.; software, E.N.-C., M.A., and V.S.; validation, E.C., G.S. and P.P.; formal analysis, E.N.-C., M.A., V.S. and P.P.; investigation, E.N.-C., M.A., V.S. and P.P.; resources, I.Z., A.T., P.P., E.C. and G.S.; data curation, M.A., E.N.-C. and V.S.; writing—original draft preparation, E.N.-C., M.A. and V.S.; writing—review and editing, E.C., V.S., G.S. and I.Z.; visualization, E.N.-C., M.A., V.S., I.Z., A.T., P.P., E.C. and G.S.; supervision, E.C., A.T. and G.S.

Funding

This research received no external funding.

Conflicts of Interest

The authors declare no conflict of interest.