Abstract
Objectives
Gambling has become an increasingly common activity among women since the widespread growth of the gambling industry. Currently, our knowledge of the relationship between problem gambling among women and mental and physical correlates is limited. Therefore, important relationships between problem gambling and health and functioning, mental disorders, physical health conditions, and help-seeking behaviours among women were examined using a nationally representative Canadian sample.
Methods
Data were from the nationally representative Canadian Community Health Survey Cycle 1.2 (CCHS 1.2; n=10,056 women aged 15 years and older; data collected in 2002). The statistical analysis included binary logistic regression, multinomial logistic regression, and linear regression models.
Results
Past 12-month problem gambling was associated with a significantly higher probability of current lower general health, suicidal ideation and attempts, decreased psychological well-being, increased distress, depression, mania, panic attacks, social phobia, agoraphobia, alcohol dependence, any mental disorder, comorbidity of mental disorders, chronic bronchitis, fibromyalgia, migraine headaches, help-seeking from a professional, attending a self-help group, and calling a telephone help line (odds ratios ranged from 1.5 to 8.2).
Conclusions
Problem gambling was associated with a broad range of negative health correlates among women. Problem gambling is an important public health concern. These findings can be used to inform healthy public policies on gambling.
Key words: Gambling, health, mental disorders, suicide, women, public health
Résumé
Objectif
Le jeu de hasard est de plus en plus répandu chez les femmes depuis la croissance généralisée de l’industrie du jeu. On connaît encore mal le lien entre les problèmes de jeu chez les femmes et les corrélats mentaux et physiques. C’est pourquoi nous avons examiné, à l’aide d’un échantillon canadien représentatif de tout le pays, les liens importants entre les problèmes de jeu des femmes, leur santé et leur fonctionnement, leurs troubles mentaux, leurs troubles physiques et leur propension à chercher de l’aide.
Méthode
Nos données proviennent du cycle 1.2 de l’Enquête sur la santé dans les collectivités canadiennes (ESCC 1.2; N=10 056 femmes de 15 ans et plus; données recueillies en 2002). Notre analyse statistique a fait appel à des modèles de régression logistique binaire, de régression logistique multinomiale et de régression linéaire.
Résultats
Les problèmes de jeu au cours des 12 mois antérieurs étaient associés à une probabilité sensiblement plus élevée de présenter les facteurs suivants: moins bonne santé en général, idées suicidaires ou tentatives de suicide, bien-être psychologique diminué, détresse accrue, dépression, manie, crises de panique, phobie sociale, agoraphobie, dépendance à l’alcool, trouble mental, comorbidité de troubles mentaux, bronchite chronique, fibromyalgie, migraines, recherche d’aide auprès d’un professionnel, fréquentation d’un groupe d’entraide et appel à un service d’assistance téléphonique (les rapports de cotes variaient entre 1,5 et 8,2).
Conclusion
Les problèmes de jeu étaient associés à un vaste éventail de corrélats de santé négatifs chez les femmes. Ils représentent un important problème de santé publique. Les constatations de l’étude peuvent servir à étayer des politiques publiques favorisant la santé sur le jeu de hasard.
Mots clés: jeu de hasard, santé, troubles mentaux, suicide, femmes, santé publique
Footnotes
Acknowledgements: Social Sciences and Humanities Research Council of Canada (SSHRC), Canada Graduate Scholarship; Manitoba Health Research Council (MHRC) PhD studentship (Afifi); Canada Research Chair (Cox); Canadian Institutes of Health Research (CIHR/PHAC) Applied Public Health Chair (Martens); and CIHR New Investigator Award (#152348, Sareen).
Disclaimer: Statistics Canada collected and provided the data for academic purposes, but the analyses are the sole responsibility of the author. The opinions expressed do not represent the views of Statistics Canada.
Conflict of Interest: None to declare.
References
- 1.Marshall K, Wynne H. Against the odds: A profile of at-risk and problem gamblers. Can Soc Trends. 2004;11-008:25–29. [Google Scholar]
- 2.Ferris J, Wynne H. Submitted for the Canadian Centre on Substance Abuse. 2001. The Canadian Problem Gambling Index: Final report. [Google Scholar]
- 3.Mark ME, Lesieur HR. A feminist critique of problem gambling research. Br J Addiction. 1992;87(4):549–65. doi: 10.1111/j.1360-0443.1992.tb01957.x. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
- 4.Crisp BR, Thomas SA, Jackson AC, Smith S, Borrell J, Ho WY, et al. Not the same: A comparison of female and male clients seeking treatment from problem gambling counseling services. J Gambling Stud. 2004;20(3):283–99. doi: 10.1023/B:JOGS.0000040280.64348.d1. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
- 5.Grant JE, Kim SW. Gender differences in pathological gamblers seeking medication treatment. Comp Psychiatry. 2002;43(1):56–62. doi: 10.1053/comp.2002.29857. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
- 6.Doiron JP, Nicki RM. Epidemiology of problem gambling in Prince Edward Island: A Canadian microcosm? Can J Psychiatry. 2001;46(5):413–17. doi: 10.1177/070674370104600505. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
- 7.Bland RC, Newman SC, Orn H, Stebelsky G. Epidemiology of pathological gambling in Edmonton. Can J Psychiatry. 1993;38:108–12. doi: 10.1177/070674379303800207. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
- 8.McCormick RA, Russo AM, Ramirez LF, Taber JI. Affective disorders among pathological gamblers seeking treatment. Am J Psychiatry. 1984;141:215–18. doi: 10.1176/ajp.141.2.215. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
- 9.Potenza M, Steinberg MA, Wu R. Characteristics of gambling helpline callers with self-reported gambling and alcohol use problems. J Gambling Stud. 2005;21:233–54. doi: 10.1007/s10899-005-3098-4. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
- 10.Beaudion CM, Cox BJ. Characteristics of problem gambling in a Canadian context: A preliminary study using a DSM-IV-based questionnaire. Can J Psychiatry. 1999;44:483–87. doi: 10.1177/070674379904400509. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
- 11.Boughton R, Falenchuk O. Vulnerability and comorbidity factors of female problem gambling. J Gambling Stud. 2007;23:323–34. doi: 10.1007/s10899-007-9056-6. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
- 12.Newman SC, Thompson AH. The association between pathological gambling and attempted suicide: Findings from a national survey in Canada. Can J Psychiatry. 2007;52:605–12. doi: 10.1177/070674370705200909. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
- 13.Petry NM, Stinson FS, Grant BF. Comorbidity of DSM-IV pathological gambling and other psychiatric disorders: Results from the National Epidemio-logic Survey on Alcohol and Related Conditions. J Clin Psychiatry. 2005;66(5):564–74. doi: 10.4088/JCP.v66n0504. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
- 14.McIntyre RS, McElroy SL, Konarski JZ, Soczynska JK, Wilkins K, Kennedy SH. Problem gambling in bipolar disorder: Results from the Canadian Community Health Survey. J Affect Disorders. 2007;102:27–34. doi: 10.1016/j.jad.2006.12.005. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
- 15.el-Guebaly N, Patten SB, Currie S, Williams JVA, Beck CA, Maxwell CJ, et al. Epidemiology associations between gambling behavior, substance use and mood and anxiety disorders. J Gambling Stud. 2006;22:275–87. doi: 10.1007/s10899-006-9016-6. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
- 16.Ladouceur R, Boisvert J-M, Pepin M, Loranger M, Sylvain C. Social cost of pathological gambling. J Gambling Stud. 1994;10:399–409. doi: 10.1007/BF02104905. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
- 17.Morasco BJ, Pietrzak RH, Blanco C, Grant BF, Hasin D, Petry NM. Health problems and medical utilization associated with gambling disorders: Results from the National Epidemiologic Survey on Alcohol and Related Conditions. Psychosomatic Medicine. 2006;68:976–84. doi: 10.1097/01.psy.0000238466.76172.cd. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
- 18.Gravel R, Beland Y. The Canadian Community Health Survey: Mental health and well-being. Can J Psychiatry. 2005;50:573–79. doi: 10.1177/070674370505001002. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
- 19.Masse R, Poulin C, Dassa C, Lambert J, Belair S, Battaglini MA. Elaboration and validation of a tool to measure psychological well-being: WBMMS. Can J Public Health. 1989;89(5):352–57. doi: 10.1007/BF03404490. [DOI] [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
- 20.Furukawa TA, Kessler RC, Slade T, Andrews G. The performance of the K6 and K10 screening scales for psychological distress in the Australian National Survey of Mental Health and Well-Being. Psychol Med. 2003;33(2):357–62. doi: 10.1017/S0033291702006700. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
- 21.American Psychiatric Association. Diagnostic & Statistical Manual for Mental Disorders (DSM) 4th edition. Washington, DC: American Psychiatric Press, Inc.; 1994. [Google Scholar]
- 22.Wittchen H-U. Reliability and validity studies of the WHO-composite international diagnostic interview (CIDI): A critical review. J Psychiatr Res. 1994;28:57–84. doi: 10.1016/0022-3956(94)90036-1. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
- 23.Shah BV, Barnswell BG, Bieler GS. SUDAAN user’s manual: Software for analysis of correlated data. Research Triangle Park, NC: Research Triangle Institute; 1995. [Google Scholar]
- 24.Erickson L, Molina CA, Ladd GT, Pietrzak RH, Petry NM. Problem and pathological gambling are associated with poor mental and physical health in older adults. Int J Geriatric Psychiatry. 2005;20:754–59. doi: 10.1002/gps.1357. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
- 25.Pietrzak RH, Molina CA, Ladd GT, Kerins GJ, Petry NM. Health and psychosocial correlates of disordered gambling in older adults. Am J Geriatr Psychiatry. 2005;13(6):510–19. doi: 10.1097/00019442-200506000-00010. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
- 26.Walters GD. Behavior genetic research on gambling and problem gambling: A preliminary meta-analysis of available data. J Gambling Stud. 2001;17:255–71. doi: 10.1023/A:1013652328999. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
- 27.Tavares H, Zilberman ML, Beites FJ, Gentil V. Gender differences in gambling progression. J Gambling Stud. 2001;17(2):151–59. doi: 10.1023/A:1016620513381. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]