Abstract
Objective
To examine the relationship between work and health among visible minority taxi drivers.
Methods
In-depth semi-structured interviews with taxi drivers (10) and industry informants (5), document analysis, and participant observation. Data analysis followed the principles of grounded theory.
Results
The data suggest that factors such as racism/discrimination, the nature of their social position (e.g., immigrant status, language barriers, lack of access to economic resources, lack of ‘Canadian’ work experience), and the social and organizational characteristics of work (e.g., employment contracts and the nature of work) constituted threats to taxi drivers’ health and influenced their health-related behaviours. They experienced economic exploitation, economic uncertainty, occupational violence, fatigue, and high levels of competition, and they engaged in risky behaviours on the job. Taxi drivers also employed various health-protective behaviours in an effort to manage the threats to health.
Discussion
These findings are consistent with extant studies of taxi drivers. However, further research is needed to more clearly discern the influence of ethnicity in work-health relationships. The study has implications for population health and is suggestive of areas for further research; e.g., other service-oriented occupations where workers have limited control and little is known about their health or health-related behaviours.
Résumé
Objectif
Cette étude examine les liens entre le travail et la santé des chauffeurs de taxi qui appartiennent à une minorité visible.
Méthode
Entretiens approfondis semi-structurés avec des chauffeurs de taxi (10) et des informateurs de l’industrie (5), analyse de documents et observation des participants. L’analyse des données a suivi les principes de la théorie à base empirique.
Interprétation
Interprétation: Les données suggèrent que des facteurs comme le racisme et la discrimination, la position sociale (p. ex., le statut d’immigrant, les barrières linguistiques, le manque de ressources économiques, le manque d’expérience de travail au Canada) et les caractéristiques sociales et structurales du travail (p. ex., les contrats de travail et leur nature) créent une menace pour la santé des chauffeurs et influençent leur comportement à l’égard de leur santé. Les chauffeurs, qui doivent composer avec l’exploitation et l’incertitude économique, la violence au travail, la fatigue et une concurrence très vive, prennent beaucoup de risques au travail. Par contre, ils adoptent diverses méthodes afin de gérer les risques pour leur santé au travail.
Interprétation
Ces résultats correspondent à ceux d’autres études sur les chauffeurs de taxi, mais des recherches approfondies seront nécessaires pour bien comprendre l’influence des diverses ethnies sur les liens entre la santé et le travail. La présente étude contient des leçons importantes pour la santé publique et présente plusieurs pistes de recherche. Par exemple, on pourrait étudier d’autres domaines du secteur des services où les employés ont peu de contrôle, et où les connaissances sur la santé et les comportements connexes sont peu nombreuses.
References
- 1.Statistics Canada, 1996 Census Nation Tables.
- 2.Bowman P. Work life. In: Jackson JS, editor. Life in Black America. Newbury Park, CA: Sage; 1991. [Google Scholar]
- 3.Johnson J H EM. Job strain, work place social support and cardiovascular disease: A cross-sectional study of a random sample of the Swedish working population. Am J Public Health. 1988;78:1336–42. doi: 10.2105/AJPH.78.10.1336. [DOI] [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
- 4.Eakin JM, MacEachen E. Health and the social relations of work: A study of the health-related experiences of employees in small workplaces. Sociol Health Illn. 1998;20(6):896–914. doi: 10.1111/1467-9566.00134. [DOI] [Google Scholar]
- 5.Marmot MG, Bosma H, Hemingway H, Brunner E, Stansfeld S. Contribution of job control and other risk factors to social variations in coronary heart disease incidence. Lancet. 1997;350:235–39. doi: 10.1016/S0140-6736(97)04244-X. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
- 6.Krieger N, Sidney S. Racial discrimination and blood pressure: The CARDIA study of young blacks and white adults. Am J Public Health. 1996;86(10):1370–77. doi: 10.2105/AJPH.86.10.1370. [DOI] [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
- 7.Krieger N, Sidney S. Racial discrimination and skin color in the CARDIA study: Implications for public health research. Am J Public Health. 1996;88(9):1308–13. doi: 10.2105/AJPH.88.9.1308. [DOI] [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
- 8.Krieger N. Racial and gender discrimination: Risk factors for high blood pressure? Soc Sci Med. 1990;30(12):1273–81. doi: 10.1016/0277-9536(90)90307-E. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
- 9.Krieger N, Bassett M. The health of black folk. In: Harding S, editor. The Racial Economy of Science. Bloomington: Indiana University Press; 1993. [Google Scholar]
- 10.Epstein H. The New York Review. 1998. Life & death on the social ladder; pp. 26–30. [Google Scholar]
- 11.Krieger N, editor. Racial Discrimination and Health: An Epidemiologist’s Perspective. New York: National Institutes of Health; 1997. pp. A32–35. [Google Scholar]
- 12.Lillie-Blanton M, Laveist T. Race/ethnicity, the social environment, and health. Soc Sci Med. 1996;43(1):83–91. doi: 10.1016/0277-9536(95)00337-1. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
- 13.Notes from Taxi Taxforce Workshop, July 6, 1998.
- 14.Liss GM, Craig CA. Homicide in the workplace in Ontario: Occupations at risk and limitations of existing data sources. Can J Public Health. 1990;81(1):10–15. [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
- 15.Stenning PC. Fare Game, Fare Cop: Victimization of, and Policing by, Taxi Drivers in Three Canadian Cities. Ottawa: Research, Statistics and Evaluation Directorate, Department of Justice Canada; 1996. [Google Scholar]
- 16.Patton MQ. How to Use Qualitative Methods in Evaluation. London: Sage Publications; 1987. [Google Scholar]
- 17.Strauss A, Corbin J. Basics of Qualitative Research: Grounded Theory Procedures and Techniques. Newbury Park, CA: Sage; 1990. [Google Scholar]
- 18.Seale C. The Quality of Qualitative Research. London: Sage; 2000. [Google Scholar]
- 19.Mays N, Pope C. Qualitative research: Rigour and qualitative research. Br Med J. 1995;311(6997):109–12. doi: 10.1136/bmj.311.6997.109. [DOI] [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
- 20.Joppe M. Obstacles and Opportunities of Introducing an Enhanced Training Program. Report to Board of Trade of Metropolitan Toronto Tourism Committee. Toronto: The Board of Trade of Metropolitan Toronto; 1997. [Google Scholar]
- 21.Taxi driver safety in Alberta. Report and Recommendations of Interdepartmental Committee of the Alberta Government. Alberta Industrial Accident Prevention Association, 1985.
- 22.Mayhew C. Occupational violence: A case study of the taxi industry. In: Mayhew C, Peterson C, editors. Occupational Health and Safety in Australia: Industry, Public Sector and Small Business. Sydney: Allen & Unwin; 1999. pp. 127–39. [Google Scholar]
- 23.Thomas D, Shimski D. Taxicab leasing and related matters: Report of the by-law subcommittee. Toronto: Municipality of Metropolitan Toronto; 1996. [Google Scholar]
- 24.Quinlan M. Report of Inquiry into Safety in the Long Haul Trucking Industry. Sydney: University of New South Wales/Motor Accidents Authority of New South Wales; 2001. [Google Scholar]
- 25.Lee G, Wrench J. Accident-prone immigrants: An assumption challenged. Sociol. 1980;14(4):551–66. doi: 10.1177/003803858001400403. [DOI] [Google Scholar]
- 26.Lee G, Wrench J. Piecework and industrial accidents: Two contemporary case studies. Sociol. 1982;16(4):512–25. doi: 10.1177/0038038582016004017. [DOI] [Google Scholar]
- 27.Bosma H, Marmot MG, Hemingway H, Nicholson A, Brunner EJ, Stansfeld S. Low job control and risk of coronary heart disease in the Whitehall II (prospective cohort) study. Br Med J. 1997;314:558–65. doi: 10.1136/bmj.314.7080.558. [DOI] [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
- 28.Kunst A, Groenhof F, Mackenbach J. Occupational class and cause specific mortality in middle aged men in 11 European countries: Comparison of population based studies. Br Med J. 1998;316:1636–42. doi: 10.1136/bmj.316.7145.1636. [DOI] [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
- 29.Paterson RJ, Neufeld RWJ. Clear danger: Situational determinants of the appraisal of threat. Psychol Bulletin. 1987;101:404–16. doi: 10.1037/0033-2909.101.3.404. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
- 30.Lynch JW, Smith GD, Kaplan GA, House JS. Income inequality and mortality: Importance to health of individual income, psychosocial environment or material conditions. Br Med J. 2000;320:1204–20. doi: 10.1136/bmj.320.7243.1200. [DOI] [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
- 31.Johansson G, Johnson JV, Hall EM. Smoking and sedentary behavior as related to work organization. Soc Sci Med. 1991;32(7):837–46. doi: 10.1016/0277-9536(91)90310-9. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
- 32.Hemingway H, Marmot M. Psychosocial factors in the aetiology and prognosis of coronary heart disease: A systematic review of prospective cohort studies. Br Med J. 1999;318:1460–67. doi: 10.1136/bmj.318.7196.1460. [DOI] [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
- 33.Shields M. Perspectives. 2000. Long working hours and health. [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
- 34.Robert SA, House JS. Socioeconomic inequalities in health: Integrating individual-, community-, and societal-level theory and research. In: Albrecht GL, Fitzpatrick R, Scrimshaw SC, editors. Handbook of Social Studies in Health and Medicine. London: Sage; 2000. pp. 115–35. [Google Scholar]
- 35.Raphael D. Inequality is bad for our hearts: Why low income and social exclusion are major causes of heart disease in Canada. Toronto: North York Health Network; 2001. [Google Scholar]
- 36.Mayhew C, Quinlan M. The relationship between precarious employment and patterns of occupational violence. In: Isaksson K, Hogstedt C, Eriksson C, Theorell T, editors. Health Effects of the New Labour Market. New York: Kluwer Academic/Plenum Publishers; 2000. pp. 183–205. [Google Scholar]