Table 2.

Overview of oleogels used in food: short description, structuring strategy, and a brief conclusion.

Analyzed Oleogels	Structuring Strategy	Brief Conclusion	Reference
Breakfast Spreads
Soybean oil, almond oil, canola oil, corn oil, flaxseed oil, grapeseed oil, peanut oil, pumpkin seed oil, safflower oil, sesame oil, sunflower oil, walnut oil, individually gelled with 3%, 5%, or 7% sunflower wax	Direct dispersing, followed by cooling for 60 min in ice bath, then storage in refrigeration conditions (4–5 °C)	100% fat replacement of commercial margarines	Hwang et al. [49]
Soybean oil gelled with 2–6% sunflower wax, rice bran wax, candelilla wax	The oleogel was mixed with lecithin, and monoglycerides; the water phase (salt, citric acid, calcium disodium, potassium sorbate, skim milk) was added in the prepared oleogel phase by stirring at 3000 rpm, 7 min	100% replacement of hydrogenated soybean oil with a 2–6% sunflower wax soybean oil oleogel	Hwang et al. [50]
Sunflower oil gelled with 2% shellac	The direct dispersing method followed by cooling below its crystallization temperature	100% replacement of hydrogenated oils with 2% shellac oleogel forming an emulsion up to 60% water-in-oil	Patel et al. [51]
Virgin olive oil gelled with 3.75%, 4.5% beeswax, and Tween 20 or Tween 80, forming a water-in-oil emulsion	Simultaneous formation of oleogel and emulsification, followed by cooling down to room temperature overnight	100% replacement of hydrogenated oils with a water-in-oil emulsion of 3.75% or 4.5% beeswax virgin olive oil oleogel	Öğütcü et al. [53]
Virgin olive oil gelled with 3%, 7%, 10% carnauba wax or 3%, 7%, or 10% monoglycerides	The direct dispersing method followed by cooling down at ambient temperature	Margarine, with 7% monoglycerides containing virgin oil oleogel was similar to a commercial breakfast spread	Öğütcü and Yılmaz [52]
High oleic sunflower oil was gelled with 6%, 10%, or 14% Myverol monoglycerides)	Dispersing of organogelator in the oil, followed by heating and constant stirring for 30 min and cooling down at room temperature	The hardness value for the oleogels was similar to margarine, the rheological behavior indicated similarity; whereas the adhesiveness and cohesiveness values were different	Palla et al. [60]
Confectionery
Rapeseed oil gelled with 2% shellac wax	The direct dispersing method, oleogel used as an ingredient to chocolate paste formation	Oleogel displayed oil binder action; 27% of palm oil was replaced with oleogel in chocolate pastes	Patel et al. [51]
Pomegranate seed oil gelled with 5% saturated monoglycerides, beeswax, and propolis wax	The direct dispersing method followed by cooling down at room temperature	50% replacement of palm oil with oleogel in chocolate spreads	Fayaz et al. [58]
Corn oil structured by 10% monoglyceric stearate, 10% β-sitosterol/lecithin (8:2), or 10% ethyl cellulose	The direct dispersing method followed by stirring (400 rpm) and heating until completely dissolved, storage at 4 °C	Monoglyceric stearate corn oil oleogel replacing 100% cocoa butter in dark chocolate	Li and Liu [61]
Analyzed Oleogels	Structuring Strategy	Brief Conclusion	Reference
Confectionery
Sunflower oil gelled with 10% or 25% mixture of 1:1 γ-oryzanol and β-sitosterol	The direct dispersing method followed by storage at ambient temperature	2.5% or 14% of sunflower oil oleogels were included in praline system in different layers; the oil migration was 50% reduced	Wendt et al. [62]
Soybean oil gelled with 1%, 3%, or 6% monoglycerides, and also with 6%, 8%, or 10% of a mixture (1:1) of sorbitan tri-stearate and lecithin	The direct dispersing method under stirring conditions, followed by crystallization at ambient temperature for monoglycerides oleogels and 5 °C under static conditions for 24 h, for the sorbitan tri-stearate and lecithin oleogels	3% and 6% monoglycerides soybean oleogels and 8% and 10% sorbitan tri-stearate and lecithin oleogels displayed similar properties to those of confectionery filling fats in praline model system	Si et al. [63]
Rice bran oil gelled with 1.5%, 2%, 2.5%, 3%, or 3.5% beeswax for 17%, 33% and 50% palm oil replacement in hazelnut fillings	The direct dispersing method followed by subsequently cooling to 5 °C, at 1.0 °C/min cooling rate	Efficient replacement of 17% of palm oil with oleogel in hazelnut filling; oil binding properties noticed	Doan et al. [64]
Pastry
Canola oil gelled with 3% and 6% candelilla wax	The direct dispersing method followed by cooling down to room temperature	30% replacement of shortening in cookies with 3% and 6% candelilla wax oleogel and 60% replacement with 6% candelilla wax oleogel	Mert and Demirkesen [65]
Olive oil, flaxseed oil and soybean oil, gelled individually with 2–10% of different waxes: sunflower wax, rice brain wax, beeswax, and candelilla wax	The direct dispersing method and cooling down at ambient temperature	Cookies containing oleogels instead of margarines can be formulated without altering the dough and the cookies properties	Hwang et al. [66]
Canola oil gelled with 3% or 6% candelilla wax	The direct dispersing method under agitation for 10 min, followed by cooling down to room temperature overnight	Shortening replacement in cookies. The saturated fatty acids of cookies were reduced with 8–10% due to oleogel use	Jang et al. [67]
Hazelnut oil gelled with 5% sunflower wax or 5% beeswax	The direct dispersing method followed by cooling down to ambient temperature overnight	Commercial bakery shortening was 100% replaced	Yilmaz and Öğütcü [68]
Soybean oil gelled by 3% zein forming an emulsion in glycerol with β-carotene fortification (0–0.045%)	Zein and β-carotene were dissolved in heated glycerol and the mixture was homogenized (10,000 rpm for 3 min), preheated soybean oil being also added at a specific volume fraction, followed by cooling down to room temperature	Bakery margarine was 100% replaced in sponge cake by zein glycerol oleogel emulsion fortified with β-carotene, resulting similar textural properties between the novel cake and the reference	Chen et al. [69]
Canola oil was gelled with 1% hydroxypropyl methylcellulose or 1% methylcellulose	Foam templating approach and freeze drying	50% and 75% replacement level of shortening in sandwich cookie cream were similar to creams containing 40% fat content	Tanti et al. [70]
Analyzed Oleogels	Structuring Strategy	Brief Conclusion	Reference
Pastry
The ethyl cellulose oleogels were not formed prior to cookie formation	The ethyl cellulose was added as ingredient dispersed in the oil during baking and, upon cooling, gelled the fat phase, which could slow oil leakage from the cookie	Low-fat, low-saturated cookies were prepared with fat alternative—Coasun shortening and 3% or 5% ethyl cellulose, which hindered oil leakage in the product	Stortz et al. [71]
Oleogels with or without 18% water were produced from high oleic sunflower oil, cotton seed oil and 5% carnauba wax	5% carnauba wax was added to different fat blends to form oleogels or emulsified oleogels, followed by the addition of specific cake ingredients	Cake formed with oleogel containing 50% cotton seed oil and 50% high oleic sunflower was the most acceptable, being rich in unsaturated fatty acid and low in saturated fatty acid	Pehlivanoglu et al. [72]
Canola oil was gelled with 10% carnauba wax	Direct dispersing and continuously agitation with a laboratory stirrer, cooling down at room temperature	25–50% of shortening replacement in cakes	Kim et al. [73]
Sunflower oil gelled with 10% rice bran wax, or 10% beeswax, or 10% candelilla wax	Direct dispersing method with agitation, followed by cooling down at room temperature	Beeswax oleogel can replace 100% shortening in cakes; cakes low in saturated fat and high in unsaturated fat without losses of quality parameters were obtained	Oh et al. [74]
Sunflower seed oil gelled with 10% beeswax blended with 20%, 40%, 70% or 85% shortening	Direct dispersing method	45%, 30%, and 15% replacement of shortening in gluten-free cakes	Demirkesen and Mert [75]
Palm stearin and soybean oil mixture gelled with 1%, 2%, 3%, 4%, or 6% ethyl cellulose (EC7, EC20, EC50, EC100) and addition of 1% emulsifier	The fat phase was heated, and ethyl cellulose and emulsifier were dispersed, then rapidly cooled in an isopropanol-water ice bath (–40 °C) under constant stirring (200 r/min for 2.5 min), until gel formation	100% replacement of bakery shortening with 4% EC100 oleogel from palm stearin (30% degrees of saturation) + soybean oil mixture in stable soft textured bread	Ye et al. [76]
Sunflower oil gelled with 4% hydroxypropyl methylcellulose blended with 25%, 50%, 75%, and 100% shortening	Foam-template approach	50% replacement of shortening in muffins	Oh and Lee [77]
High oleic sunflower oil gelled with 4%, 7%, or 10% monoglycerides	Direct dispersion of monoglycerides in the heated oil under magnetic agitation, followed by cool down to room temperature	Replacement of commercial margarine in muffins by optimized oleogels and 50% reduction of oil migration as compared to control	Giacomozzi et al. [78]
Sunflower wax, shellac wax, and beeswax were added to the halva composition at different levels (1%, 3%, or 5%)	Tahini and sugar syrup mix was prepared at isothermal conditions and the waxes were dispersed in the mixture	100% replacement of hydrogenated palm stearin which is used as additive in the production of halva	Öğütcü et al. [79]
Analyzed Oleogels	Structuring Strategy	Brief Conclusion	Reference
Pastry
Camellia-oil based oleogels were structured with tea polyphenol-palmitate particles and 1.5%, 2.5%, 3.5%, or 4.5% citrus pectin	The indirect method of oleogel formation starting from the formation of an emulsion	Butter was replaced in cakes with tea polyphenol-palmitate and citrus pectin camellia-oil oleogels; the 1.5% and 2.5% citrus pectin oleogels were sensory acceptable	Luo et al. [28]
Meat Products
Sunflower oil gelled with 20% mixture of monoglycerides and phytosterols (ratios of 1:1, and 3:1)	Direct dispersion of the oleogelators in the oil, followed by cooling down at ambient temperature	50% replacement of pork back fat in frankfurter with sunflower oil gelled with monoglycerides: phytosterols (3:1)	Kouzounis et al. [80]
Sunflower oil gelled with 10%, or 20% γ-oryzanol and β-sitosterol	γ-oryzanol and β-sitosterol were added in oil at ambient temperature. The solution temperature was raised and maintained at 90–120 °C for 30 min, under constant stirring conditions, followed by cooling	Oleogel successfully replaced 50% of fats from pork back fat in frankfurter formulation	Panagiotopoulou et al. [81]
Linseed oleogel gelled with 8% beeswax	Direct dispersion of the beeswax in the oil, followed by cooling down to room temperature	25% and 50% of pork back fat replaced by oleogel in frankfurters without affecting the texture	Franco et al. [82]
Canola oil gelled with hydroxypropyl methylcellulose	Foam structuring approach	50% replacement of beef tallow in meat patties had overall acceptability	Oh et al. [83]
Sesame oil gelled with 5%, 7.5%, or 10% beeswax	Direct dispersion of the beeswax in the oil followed by cooling down at 4 °C	Up to 50% replacement of fats beef flank and shank with 10% beeswax oleogel in burgers	Moghtadaei et al. [84]
High oleic sunflower oil gelled by pork skin	Pork skin (cooked 40 min at 80 °C, and then comminuted in a blender), water and high oleic sunflower oil were mixed in the ratio of 1.5: 1.5: 1	Replacement of 50% pork back fat in bologna sausages	da Silva et al. [85]
Linseed oil was gelled by a mixture of γ-oryzanol and β-sitosterol or beeswax (8%)	Direct dispersion of the oleogelators in the heated oil, followed by cooling down	Fermented sausages were prepared with two oleogels at two levels of replacement (20% and 40%) of pork back fat, quality changes (sensory, pH, color) being noticed; however, encouraging results were obtained, fatty acid profile being improved	Franco et al. [86]
Olive oil gelled with soy protein concentrate and mineral water andreplacing 15%, 25%, 35%, 45%, and 55% of the pork meat	Olive oil, soy protein concentrate, and mineral water in a 10:1:8 mixture were emulsified	25% of the pork meat replaced with oleogel in salchichon sausages resulted in a novel product, comparable with the reference	Utrilla et al. [87]
Analyzed Oleogels	Structuring Strategy	Brief Conclusion	Reference
Meat Products
Canola oil was gelled with 8%, 10%, 12%, and 14% ethyl cellulose with no other addition or with 1.5% and 3% sorbitan monostearate	The organogelators and the oil were heated and reached the target temperature of 140 °C, ~50 min, followed by a 10-min holding period in the oven	Using an organogel prepared with 8% ethyl cellulose and 1.5% or 3.0% sorbitan monostearate resulted in a hardness value similar to that of beef fat by both sensory and texture profile analysis of frankfurters	Barbut et al. [88]
Beef fat, rendered beef fat, canola, soy and flaxseed oils were gelled with 10% ethyl cellulose with viscosity of 10 cP and 5% sorbitan monostearate	The organogelators and the oil were heated and reached the target temperature of 140 °C, ~50 min, followed by a 10-min holding period in the oven	When beef fat was introduced as lipid phase of the organogel, the hardness of meat batters was higher; a significant difference between the fast cooking rate products prepared with regular vs. organogel beef fat. Meat batters containing organogels prepared from canola oil showed the opposite effect, being softer	Barbut et al. [89]
Linseed oil gelled with 8% mixture of γ-oryzanol and β-sitosterol	Direct dispersion of the oleogelators in the heated oil, followed by cooling down	25% and 75% replacement of subcutaneous pork fat in meat patties.No differences between the patties produced with oleogel and the control, in terms of textural parameters (hardness, cohesiveness, and chewiness)	Martins et al. [90]
A mixture of olive oil, linseed oil, and fish oils gelled with 11% ethyl cellulose and 3.67% sorbitan monostearate or 11% beeswax	Ethyl cellulose oleogel was prepared by dispersion of the mixture, sonication, and cooling. Beeswax oleogel was prepared by heating the oil and 11% beeswax under constant stirring	15% pork back fat reduction in pâtés with beeswax oleogel; sensory test revealed that there were no significant changes of any of the parameters evaluated	Gómez-Estaca et al. [91]
A mixture of olive oil, linseed oil, and fish oils gelled with 11% ethyl cellulose and 3.67% sorbitan monostearate or 11% beeswax	Beeswax oleogel was prepared by heating the oil and 11% beeswax. Ethyl cellulose oleogel was also prepared by dispersion. Both strategies included the incorporation of curcumin (0.2%) during oleogel preparation, sonication, and cooling	Pork burgers formulated with beeswax oleogel presented adequate technological properties and good overall sensory acceptability. Curcumin effectively reduced the lipid oxidation process derived from chilled storage or cooking but conducted to reduced sensory acceptance	Gómez-Estaca et al. [92]
Dairy
High oleic soybean oils gelled with 10% rice bran wax	The oleogel was formed in the development of the cream cheese product	The results showed minimal degradation of vegetable oleogel cream cheese due to the thermal treatment and storage	Park et al. [93]
Analyzed Oleogels	Structuring Strategy	Brief Conclusion	Reference
Dairy
Rice bran wax or sunflower wax gelled soybean oil in 0.5% or 1% concentration in cheese	Direct dispersion of waxes in oil under stirring conditions followed by immediately transfer to a refrigerator at 4 °C	The oleogel utilization resulted in 20–22% reduction of the saturated fat content compared to the commercial cheese product formulation	Huang et al. [94]
High oleic sunflower oil was gelled with 10% rice bran wax, candelilla wax, or carnauba wax	Direct dispersion of waxes in the heated oil followed by cooling down	Rice bran wax was preferred as oleogelator in ice-cream application; when used, greater rates of meltdown and less fat destabilization were obtained	Zulim Botega et al. [95]
High oleic sunflower oil gelled with 10% rice bran wax	The oleogel ingredients were added to the mixture of ice-cream, which was pasteurized, homogenized, cooled, aged, frozen, and hardened	Oleogel was suitable for ice-cream formulation, but the structure formed by the oleogel system resulted in the product collapse	Zulim Botega et al. [96]
Sunflower oil was gelled with 8% or 12% mixture of phytosterols and γ-oryzanol	The oleogel ingredients were added to milk during heating, before adding the solid ingredients. The total fat content was either 4% or 8%	Ice-creams produced with oleogel containing 12% gelators showed similar or even better quality compared to the milk cream containing reference	Moriano et al. [97]
Additional Applications
Soybean oil gelled with 5% or 10% carnauba wax	Oleogels used as alternative to deep-fat frying medium containing high saturated fat, for dried and precooked noodles	The samples fried in the oleogels absorbed ~16% less oil, with any negative effects on the noodle texture. Saturated fatty acids content of the oleogel-fried noodles were significantly lower (19%), compared to the palm oil-fried noodles (54%)	Lim et al. [98]
Canola oil gelled with 2% of 12-hydroxi stearic acid	12-hydroxi stearic acid was dispersed into oil and the mixture was heated. Gel was formed upon cooling	Release of β-carotene during digestion, revealing potential use for delivery of nutraceutical or biological active compounds and their controlled release	Stortz et al. [71]