Table 3.

Summary of pooled effect estimates of safety outcomes and heterogeneity among studies.

Outcomes	Pooled effect estimates from RCTs	Heterogeneity among RCTs (n: number of studies)	Pooled effect estimates from observational studies	Heterogeneity among OBS (n: number of studies)	P-interaction (RCT vs, OBS)
Atelectasis	RR: 0.63; 95% CI: 0.21, 1.91;	I2 = 12.12%; P-hetero = 0.29; n = 2	RR: 0.30; 95% CI: 0.01, 7.94;	NA (1 study); P-hetero = NA; n = 1	P = 0.67
Decubitus ulcer	RR: 0.67; 95% CI: 0.40, 1.11;	I2 = 0%; P-hetero = 0.66; n = 2	RR: 3.00; 95% CI: 0.64, 14.1;	NA (1 study); P-hetero = NA; n = 1	P = 0.07
Gastrointestinal bleeding	RR: 1.21; 95% CI: 0.28, 5.26;	I2 = 59.6%; P-hetero = 0.84; n = 3	RR: 2.18; 95% CI: 0.99, 4.81;	I2 = 17.0%; P-hetero = 0.31; n = 5	P = 0.49
Hyperglycemia	RR: 13.7; 95% CI: 1.93, 97.4*;	NA (1 study); P-hetero = NA; n = 1	RR: 2.9; 95% CI: 1.55, 5.41*;	NA (1 study); P-hetero = NA; n = 1	P = 0.14
Mortality	RR: 0.77; 95% CI: 0.33, 1.76;	NA (1 study); P-hetero = NA; n = 1	RR: 0.80; 95% CI: 0.53, 1.20;	I2 = 0%; P-hetero = 0.75; n = 4	P = 0.93
Pneumonia	RR: 1.16; 95% CI: 0.59, 2.29;	I2 = 51.7%; P-hetero = 0.13; n = 3	RR: 2.00; 95% CI: 1.33, 3.00*;	I2 = 22.5%; P-hetero = 0.27;n = 6	P = 0.18
Sepsis	RR: 1.82; 95% CI: 0.70, 4.69;	I2 = 0%; P-hetero = 0.74; n = 3	RR: 1.54; 95% CI: 0.79, 3.02;	I2 = 0%; P-hetero = 0.95; n = 3	P = 0.79
Surgical site infection	-	n = 0	RR: 0.64; 95% CI: 0.32, 1.25;	I2 = 0%; P-hetero = 0.55; n = 5	-
Urinary tract infection	RR: 1.11; 95% CI: 0.66, 1.87;	I2 = 0%; P-hetero = 0.77; n = 4	RR: 0.98; 95% CI: 0.69, 1.41;	I2 = 58.1%; P-hetero = 0.04; n = 6	P = 0.70
Venous thromboembolism	RR: 0.51; 95% CI: 0.01, 21.2;	NA (1 study); P-hetero = NA; n = 1	RR: 2.30; 95% CI: 0.25, 21.5;	I2 = 76.5%; P-hetero = 0.01; n = 3	P = 0.50

Abbreviations: NA = Not applicable; OBS: Observational studies; P-hetero = P-heterogeneity; RCT = Randomized controlled trial;

*Values in bold are statistically significant.