Vascular Epiphytic Medicinal Plants as Sources of Therapeutic Agents: Their Ethnopharmacological Uses, Chemical Composition, and Biological Activities

Abstract

This is an extensive review on epiphytic plants that have been used traditionally as medicines. It provides information on 185 epiphytes and their traditional medicinal uses, regions where Indigenous people use the plants, parts of the plants used as medicines and their preparation, and their reported phytochemical properties and pharmacological properties aligned with their traditional uses. These epiphytic medicinal plants are able to produce a range of secondary metabolites, including alkaloids, and a total of 842 phytochemicals have been identified to date. As many as 71 epiphytic medicinal plants were studied for their biological activities, showing promising pharmacological activities, including as anti-inflammatory, antimicrobial, and anticancer agents. There are several species that were not investigated for their activities and are worthy of exploration. These epipythes have the potential to furnish drug lead compounds, especially for treating cancers, and thus warrant indepth investigations.

1. Introduction

Epiphytes are plants that grow on other plants and are often known as air plants. They are mostly found in moist tropical areas on canopy tree-tops, where they exploit the nutrients available from leaf and other organic debris. These plants exist within the plantae and fungi kingdom. The term epiphyte itself was first introduced in 1815 by Charles-François Brisseau de Mirbel in “Eléments de physiologie végétale et de botanique” [1]. Epiphytes can be categorized into vascular and non-vascular epiphytic plants; the latter includes the marchantiophyta (liverworts), anthocerotophyta (hornworts), and bryophyta (mosses). The common epiphytes are mosses, ferns, liverworts, lichens, and the orchids. Epiphytes fall under two major categories: As holo- and hemi-epiphytes. While orchids are a good example of holo-epiphytes, the strangler fig is a hemi-epiphyte. Although geological studies have proposed the existence of epiphytes since the pleistone epoch, an epiphyte was first depicted in “the Badianus Manuscript” by Martinus de la Cruz in 1552, which showed the Vanilla fragrans, a hemi-epiphytic orchid, being used by the tribal communities in latin America for fragrance and aroma, usually hung around their neck [1].

Epiphytes have been a source of food and medicine for thousands of years. Since they grow in a unique ecological environment, they produce interesting secondary metabolites that often show exciting biological activities. There are notable reviews on non-vascular epiphytes, bryophyta, regarding their phytochemical and pharmacological activities [2,3,4,5]. There are also extensive reviews on epiphytic lichens covering secondary metabolites and their pharmacological activities [6,7,8,9]. The only available review on vascular epiphytes related to medicinal uses was focused on Orchidaceae [10]. Therefore, to the best of our knowledge, there is no extensive database of vascular epiphytes regarding their medicinal contribution.

There are 27,614 recorded species of vascular epiphytes belonging to 73 families and 913 genera [11]. Vascular epiphyte species are commonly found in pteridophyta, gymnosperms, and angiosperms plant groups, which are mostly found in the moist tropical areas on canopy tree tops, where they exploits the nutrients available from leaf and other organic debris [12,13]. In this study, information on vascular epiphytic medicinal plant species was collected using search engines (Web of Science, Scifinder Scholar, prosea, prota, Google scholar), medicinal plant books (Plant Resources of South-East Asia: Medicinal and Poisonous Plants [14,15,16], Plant Resources of South-East Asia: Cryptogams: Ferns and Fern Allies [17], Mangrove Guide for South-East Asia [18], Medicinal Plants of the Asia-Pacific [19], Medicinal Plants of the Guiana [20], Indian Medicinal Plants [21,22], Medicinal Plants of Bhutan [23], Medicinal and aromatic plants of Indian Ocean islands: Madagascar, Comoros, Seychelles and Mascarenes [24]), and the Indonesian Medicinal Plants Database [25]. Scientific names of the epiphytic medicinal plant species were compared against the Plantlist database for accepted names to avoid redundancy [26]. The time-frame threshold for data coverage was from the earliest available data until early 2020. Nevertheless, empirical knowledge regarding traditional medicinal plants was passed through generations using verbal or written communication, with verbal communication highly practiced by remote tribes [27,28]. It is possible that some oral traditional medical knowledge may not be reported and therefore not captured in this review. In this current study, we collected and reviewed 185 epiphytic medicinal plants reported in the literature, covering ethnomedicinal uses of epiphytes, their phytochemical studies and the pharmacological activities. The data collection approach used is presented in Figure 1.

Figure 1.

Schematic data collection approach.

2. Ethnopharmacological Information of Vascular Epiphytic Medicinal Plants

2.1. Vascular Epiphytic Medicinal Plant Species Distribution within Plant Families

In this component of the study, we collated and analysed 185 of the medicinally used epiphytic plants species using ethnopharmacological information. This data (Table 1) includes the name of species, plant family, areas where the epiphytes are used in traditional medicines, part(s) of the plant being used in medication, how the medicine was prepared, and indications. Of the 185 medicinally used epiphytes, 53 species were ferns (mostly polipodiaceae), with 132 species belonging to the non-fern category. The Orchidaceae family contains the Dendrobium genus that contains the highest number of medicinal epiphytes, including 64 orchid species and 20 Dendrobium species. The Orchidaceae epiphytes were the majority of non-fern epiphytes. Cassytha filiformis L, Bulbophyllum odoratissimum (Sm.) Lindl. ex Wall., Cymbidium goeringii Rchb.f.) Rchb.f., Acrostichum aureum Limme, and Ficus natalensis Hochst. were the five most popular vascular epiphytic medicinal pants used (Figure 2).

Table 1.

Ethnopharmacological database of epiphytic medicinal plants.

No	Epiphyte Species	Location	Part of Plants	Preparation and Route of Administration	Indication (traditional)	Pharmacological Testing (modern)
Fern species
	Adiantaceae
1	Adiantum caudatum L.	India, Indonesia, Malaysia	LF	Decoction	Cough, heal wound, cold, tumors of spleen, liver and other viscera, skin diseases, bronchitis, and inflammatory diseases [40,49,50]	Antimicrobial (MeOH extract, gram +, -, fungi) [40]
	Aspleanceae
2	Asplenium nidus L.	Tahiti, Malaysia, Philippines, Vanuatu, Indonesia	LF, WP	Ointment, decoction, eaten	Headache, hair loss (pounded leaves mixed with coconut oil), ease labor, fever (decoction), contraceptive, depurative, sedative agents. edible food (young leaves), ornament, anti-inflammation, promote blood circulation [51,52,53]	Antioxidative (MeOH extract, DPPH), tyrosinase inhibiting (MeOH extract, microtitre), antibacterial (MeOH extract) [44]
3	Asplenium macrophyllum Sw.	India	LF	Decoction	As laxative, emetic, diuretic, anthelmintic agent, to treat ophthalmia, jaundice, spleen diseases [52,54]
4	Asplenium polydon G. Foster var bipinnatum (Sledge)	India	LF	Decoction, paste	Promote labor, tumor [55]
5	Asplenium serratum L.	Columbia, Peru	na	Not mentioned	Liver problem, stomachache, ovary inflammation [52,56]
	Blechnaceae
6	Stenochlaena palustris (Burm. F.) Bedd.	Indonesia, India	LF, RZ	Eaten, decoction, poultice	Young reddish leaves are used as food, leaves are used to treat fever, skin diseases, throat, and gastric ulcer, as antibacterial, rhizome and leaves are used to treat burns and ulcers, as cooling agent [18,57]
	Davalliaceae
7	Davallia denticulata (Burm. f.) Mett. ex Kuhn	Malaysia, Indonesia	RT	Decoction	Gout, pain, as tonic [49,58]
8	Araiostegia divaricata (Blume) M. Kato	China, Taiwan	WP	Not mentioned	Joint pain [59]	Anti-psoriasis [60], antioxidant (water extract, DPPH) [61]
9	Davallia parvula Wall. Ex Hook. & Grev.		na	Not mentioned	Not mentioned [18,62]
10	Davallia solida (G. Forst.) Sw.	Tahiti, Fiji, other Polynesian	WP	Decoction (external and internal)	Dysmennorrhea, luochorea, uterine hemorrhage, sore throat, asthma, constipation, fracture, fish sting, promote health pregnancy, as a bath for newborn, anti-microbial [53,63,64,65]	Antioxidant (extract, ABTS) [61], antioxidant (DPPH, all isolates) [66], anti-neurotoxicity (extract, (Neuro-2a cells, ATCC CCL-131) [67], C-terminal cytosolic domain of P-pg [68], anti-skin aging [69]
11	Leucostegia immersa Wall. ex C. Presl	Nepal	RZ	Decoction, paste	Boils (paste), constipation (decoction), as antibacterial (paste) [70]
	Gesneriaceae
12	Aeschynanthus radicans Jack	Malaysia	LF	Decoction	Headache [19]
13	Cyrtandra sp	Indonesia	LF	Poultice	Skin ailments [71]
	Hymenophyllaceae
14	Hymenophyllum polyanthos Sw.	Suriname	WP	Burnt (smoke inhaling), decoction	Dizziness (insanity), pain, cramps [72]
15	Hymenophyllum javanicum Spreng.	India	WP	Smoke together with garlic and onions	Headache [55]
	Lycopodiaceae
16	Huperzia carinata (Desv. ex Poir.) Trevis	South-East Asia	WP	Ointment	Stimulate hair growth [73]	Anti-acetylcholinesterase (74, 75, 76, colorimetric Ellman method) [74]
17	Huperzia phlegmaria (L.) Rothm	South-East Asia, India	WP	Ointment	Stimulate hair growth, skin diseases [75,76]	Cytotoxic activities against HuCCA-1, A-549, HepG2, and MOLT-3 cancer cell lines (81, 79, 77) [77]
18	Huperzia megastachya (Baker) Tardieu	Madagascar	LF	Decoction (infusion)	Tonic [78]
19	Huperzia obtusifolia (Sw.) Rothm.	Madagascar	LF	Decoction (infusion)	Tonic [78]
	Nephrolepidaceae
20	Nephrolepis acutifolia (Desv.) Christ	Malaysia	WP	Boiled, eaten	Food [79]
21	Nephrolepis biserrata (Sw.) Schott	Malaysia, Indonesia, Ivory Coast, New Guinea	LF, RZ, WP	Decoction, cooked	Leaves are used to treat boils, blister, abscesses, sores, and cough. Rhizomes are used as edible food [80,81]	Antibacterial (extract) [82]
	Oleandraceae
22	Nephrolepis cordifolia (L.) C. Presl	India	RZ	Decoction (fresh leaves)	Cough, rheumatism, chest congestion, nose blockage, loss appetites, infection (antibacterial), pinnae is used to treat cough, wounds, jaundice, anti-fungal, styptic, anti-tussive [57]	Antibacterial, anti-fungal (extract fractions aerial part) [83]
23	Oleandra musifolia (Blume) C. Presl	Philippines, India	ST	Decoction	Anthelmintic, emmenagogue, antidote (snake bite) [70,84]
	Opioglossaceae
24	Botrychum lanuginosum Wall.ex Hook & Grev.	India	WP	Decoction, paste	Antibacterial, anti-dysentery agents [57]
25	Ophioglossum pendulum L.	Indonesia, Philippines	LF	Ointment, decoction.	Hair treatment (crushed leaves), cough (decocotion), rid the first feces (spores), ornament [85]	Cell activator, skin whitening agent and antioxidant (patent, mixed with other Ophioglossum species) [86], anti-diarrhea (stipe MeOH extract, rabit jejenum) [86]
	Polypodiaceae
26	Pyrrosia piloselloides (L.) M.G. Price	Indonesia, Malaysia, China, Philippines, Pacific islands	LF	Decoction (internal), chewed, poultice (external)	Smallpox, rashes, gonorrhea, dysentery, tuberculosis, urinary tract infection, headache, cough, gum inflammation, tooth sockets, eczema, coagulate blood [87,88,89,90]	Antibacterial, anti-fungal (extracts) [91]
27	Drynaria rigidula (Sw.) Bedd.	Indonesia, Philippines, Treasury Island	LF, RZ	Decoction, chewing	Gonorrhea, dysentery (rhizome, decoction), and seasickness (chewed) [21]	n-Hexane, dichloromethane and ethyl acetate fractions from both rhizome and leaves of Drynaria rigidula were screened for activity against Plasmodium falciparum, Mycobacterium tuberculosis, vero cells and herpes simplex virus which all extracts showed insignificant activities [92]
28	Drynaria sparsisora (Desv.) T. Moore	Indonesia, Philippines, Thailand	LF, RZ	External, decoction	Rhizome: headache, fever, diarrhea, gonorrhea, swollen limbs, fever. Leaves: anti-vomiting, snake bite, eye infection [21,71,93]
29	Drynaria roosii Nakaike	China	WP	Decoction	Deficient kidney, invigorate blood, heal wound, stop bleeding [21]	Compound 230 was isolated and the biotesting showed the highest stimulation toward UMR 106 cells (osteoblast) by 42.6% at a concentration of 1 µM [94]
30	Drynaria propinqua (Wall. ex Mett.) Bedd	Bhutan, India and Nepal	ST	Pills	Antidote and detoxifier especially when suffering from meat poisoning and other human-made poisons (sbyar-dug) [95]
31	Drynaria quercifolia (L.) J.Sm.	Malaysia, Philippines, Indonesia, India	LF, RZ	Decoction, poultice	Swelling, fever (poultice leaves), haemoptysis, typhoid fever, ulcers, dyspepsia, artharlgia, diarrhea (decocted rhizome), inflammation, anthelmitic, cough, fever, phthisis, poultice of rhizome mixed with Lannea coromandelica (Houtt.) Merr.) to treat headache, hepatoprotective agent [21,22,96]	Compound 200 from the ethyl acetate fraction to be responsible for good antimicrobial activity [97]
32	Lepisorus contortus (Christ) Ching	Bhutan, India, China	LF	Powder	Heals bone fracture, burns, wounds and kidney disorders [98]
33	Loxogramme involuta (D. Don) C. Presl	Indonesia	LF, WP	Smoked	Smoked with tobacco [18]
34	Loxogramme scolopendria (Bory) Presley	Indonesia	LF	Smoked	Cigarette paper [99]
35	Microsorum fortunei (T. Moore) Ching	Indonesia	WP	Decoction	Diuretic, promote blood circulation [49,51]
36	Microsorum punctatum (L.) Copel.	India	LF	Juice	Diuretic, purgative, wounds [70]
37	Phlebodium aureum (L.) J.Sm	Mexico	RZ	Decoction	Cough, fever, sudorific agents [57]
38	Phymatosorus scolopendria (Burm. f.) Pic. Serm.	South-East Asia, Madagascar	RZ	Fragrance (external), poultice, decoction	Fragrance, gecko bites, accelerate childbirthRespiratory disorder [18,47]	Bronchodilator (341, in-vivo) [47]
39	Platycerium coronarium (Mull.) Desv.	Indonesia	LF	Poultice (salt added)	Thyroid edema, scabies [18,100]
40	Platycerium bifurcatum (Cav.) C. Chr.	Indonesia	LF	Poultice (salt added)	Thyroid edema, scabies, fever, swelling [100,101]
41	Pleopeltis macrocarpa (Bory ex Willd.) Kaulf.	South-Africa, Mexico, Guatemala	LF, RZ	Decoction	Sore throat, itches, cough, febrifuge [70,102]
42	Pyrrosia heterophylla (L.) M.G. Price	India	WP	Poultice	Swelling, sprain, pain (cooling agent) [103]
43	Pyrrosia lanceolata (L.) Farw.	Malaysia, South-Africa, Mexico	LF, WP	Juice, poultice, decoction	Dysentery, headache, colds, sore throats, itch guard [55,87]
44	Pyrrosia lingua (Thunb.) Farw.	Japan, China, Indonesia, Pacific Islands	LF, WP	Decoction	Diuretic, anti-inflammation, analgesic, cough, stomachache, urinary disorder (diuretic agent) [87,104,105,106]	Antioxidant [107], inhibition effects on virus-induced CPE when SARS-CoV strain BJ001 [108]
45	Pyrrosia longifolia (Burm. f.) C.V. Morton	Indonesia, Pacific Islands	LF	Poultice (cold water)	Ease pains in labor [18,87]
46	Pyrrosia petiolosa (Christ) Ching	China	WP	Decoction	Urinary tract infections, as diuretic [109]
47	Pyrrosia sheareri (Baker) Ching	China	LF	Decoction	Bacillary dysentery, rheumatism [87,110]	Antioxidant [110]
	Psilotaceae
48	Psilotum nudum (L.) P. Beauv.	India	LF, SP	Fresh, decoction	Diarrhea (infants), antibacterial, purgative [55]
	Pteridaceae
49	Acrostichum aureum L.	South-East Asia, Bangladesh, Fiji, China, Panama	LF, RZ	Eaten, decoction	Wounds, peptic ulcers and boils, worm infections, asthma, constipation, elephantiasis, febrifuge, chest pain, emollients [18,35]	Anti-implantation (EtOH extract, albino rats) [111], Anti-tumour (hella cells, MTT assay) [112], Antioxidant (DPPH), tyrosine inhibition (96-well microtitre), antibacterial activity [44,113], anti-cancer ((gastric: AGS; colon: HT-29 and breast: MDA-MB-435S) using the MTT assay) [114]
50	Acrostichum speciosum Willd.	South-East Asia			Thatch [18]
51	Taenitis blechnoides (Willd.) Sw.	Malaysia	LF	Decoction	Postnatal protection [115]
	Selaginellaceae
52	Selaginella tamariscina (P.Beauv.) Spring	Nepal	WP, SP	Fresh (spore), decoction	Vermilion powder, prolapsed rectum, cough, bleeding piles, amenorrhea, antibacterial [57,116]	Anti-acne [117], thymus growth-stimulatory activity in adult mice (reversal of involution of thymus) and remarkable anti-lipid peroxidation activity [118]
	Vittariaceae
53	Vittaria elongata Sw.	South-East Asia, Andaman	LF	Decoction	Rheumatism [57]	Cytotoxicity against two human cancer cell lines, lung carcinoma (NCI-H460) and central nervous system carcinoma (SF-268), antioxidant (DPPH) [119]
	Non-Fern
	Araceae
54	Philodendron fragrantissimum (Hook.) G.Don	Guyana, Suriname, Brazil	LF, RT	Decoction, external (leaves)	Inflammation, aphrodisiac, demulcent, diuretic [72]
	Aralliaceae
56	Schefflera caudata (Vidal) Merr. & Rolfe	Philippines	WP	Decoction	Tonic for women after birth [120]
57	Schefflera elliptica (Blume) Harms.	South-East Asia, China, India	BK, LF, RT	Decoction, chewed, external	Bechic, vulnerary, toothache, aromatic bath, dropsy [120].	Antibacterial [121]
58	Schefflera elliptifoliola Merr.	Philippines	LF	Decoction	Tonic for woman after birth [120]
59	Schefflera oxyphylla (Miq.) R.Vig.	Thailand, Malaysia, Indonesia	RT	Decoction	Sedative for frightened child, externally to treat fevers [120]
60	Schefflera simulans Craib	Thailand, Malaysia	LF, RT	Decoction	Stomach problem, protective medicine after birth [120]
	Asclepiadaceae
61	Asclopidae sp.	Indonesia	LF, RT	Decoction	Promote blood circulation [71]
62	Dischidia acuminata Costantin	Vietnam	WP	Decoction	Blenorrhoea, promote urination [19]
63	Dischidia bengalensis Colebr.	Thailand	LT, RT	Latex (external), decoction (tonic)	Anthemintic (ringworm), tonic [122]
64	Dischidia imbricata (Blume) Steud.	Indonesia	LF	Poultice	Gonorrhea, burns and wounds [25,123]
65	Dischidia major (Vahl) Merr.	India, Thailand, Philippines, Malaysia, Brunei	LF, RT, WP	Decoction, chrused (external), chewed with areca catechu	Peptic ulcer, liver dysfunction (decocted leaves mixed with Hoya kerii Craib leaves and Vanilla aphylla Blume stem), fever (root), goiter (crushed leaves mixed with salt), cough (root mixed betel quid), wound and injuries, stomache [19,124,125]
66	Dischidia nummularia R.Br.	Thailand, Indonesia	LF, LT, WP	Decoction, latex (external)	Wound, gonorrhea, sprue in children, cirrhosis [126]
67	Dischidia platyphylla Schltr	Philippines	LF	Decoction	Putrefaction [19]
68	Dischidia purpurea Merr.	Philippines	LF	Crushed leaves mixed with coconut oil applied as external poultice	Eczema, herpes [19,127]
69	Toxocarpus sp.	Indonesia	LF	Decoction	Headache, fever, nervous system problem [71]
	Balsaminaceae
70	Impatiens niamniamensis Gilg (semi epiphytic)	Congo	LF	Poultice	Wounds, sores, pain [128]	Anti-hyperglicemic (Rat) [129]
71	Convolvulaceace (parasite)
72	Cassytha filiformis L	India, Taiwan, China, Vietnam, Malaysia, Philippines, Indonesia, Fiji, Africa, Central America.	WP, NT	Decoction	Cough, dysentery, diarrhea, intestinal problems, headache, malaria fever, nephritis, edema, hepatitis, sinusitis, gonorrhea, syphilis, skin ulcer, eczema, prevent haemoptysis. Parasite skin and scalp. Induce lactation (after still birth), promote hair growth, diuretic, vermifuge, laxative agent, saliva blood removal (childbirth) [19,130,131,132]	An α1-adrenoceptor antagonist (Rat thoracic aorta) [133], antiplatelet and vasorelaxing actions (Rabit platelet, aortic contraction) [134], anti-trypanosomal, citotoxicity [135], antioxidant [136]
73	Cuscuta australis R.Br.	Indonesia, Vietnam, China	WP, SD	Decoction, poultice	Whole plant: emollient, sedative, sudorific and tonic agents, urinary complaint. The seeds: sedative agent, diabetes, cornea opacity, acne, dandruff [137].	Cytotoxicity, antioxidant activity, and inhibitory effects on tyrosinase activity and melanin biosynthesis were estd. by using melanoma Clone M-3 [138]
74	Cuscuta reflexa Roxb.	India	WP	Decoction, poultice	Mixed with the twigs of Vitex negundo L. applied as fomentation on the abdomen of kwarsiokor children, fever, itchy [139,140]	Anti-viral [141,142], anti-HIV [143], analgesic, relaxant (ether extract) [144], antisteroidogenic activity (MeOH extract) [141], antibacterial activity [145], hair growth activity in androgen-induced alopecia [146], anti-inflammatory (murine macrophage cell line RAW264.7), anti-cancer (Hep3B cells by MTT assay) [147], antioxidant (etOAc extract, DPPH), anti-obesity (EtOAc extract) [148]
	Clusiaceae
75	Clusia grandiflora Splitg. (hemi epiphyte)	Guyana, Suriname	RT	Decoction	Aphrodisiac [72]	Antibacterial [149]
76	Clusia fockeana Miq. (hemi epiphyte)	Guyana, Suriname	ST(Exudate)	Poultice	Snake bites, ulcers [72]
	Gesneriaceae
77	Columnea nicaraguensis Oerst.	Panama	ST, LF, WP	Decoction, maceration	Fever [150]
78	Columnea sanguinolenta (Klotzsch ex Oerst.) Hanst.	Panama	ST, LF	Decoction	Dysmenorrhea [150]
79	Columnea tulae Urb. var. tomentulosa (C.V. Morton) B.D. Morley	Panama	ST	Decoction	Fever [150]
80	Drymonia serrulata (Jacq.) Mart.	Amazon	na	Not mentioned	Eczema [151]	Analgesic, anti-inflammatory [152]
81	Drymonia coriacea (Oerst. ex Hanst.) Wiehler	Amazon	na	Not mentioned	Toothache [151]
	Loganiaceae
82	Fagraea auriculata Jack. (semi epiphyte)	Indonesia	ST		Stem for stick [25]	Anti-inflammatory [153]
	Loranthaceae (parasite)
83	Amyema bifurcata (Benth.) Tiegh.	Australia	ST, LF	Decoction	Colds, fever, sores [154]
84	Amyema quandang (Lindl.) Tiegh.	Australia	LF	Decoction	Fever [155]
85	Amyema maidenii (Blakely) Barlow	Australia	FT	Decoction	Inflammation in the genital regions [156]
86	Dendrophthoe falcata (L.f.) Ettingsh	India	WP	Decoction	Pulmonary tuberculosis, asthma, menstrual disorders, swellings, wounds, ulcers, strangury, renal and vesical calculi, aphrodisiac, astringent, narcotic, diuretic [157].	Wound healing activity was studied, antimicrobial activity and antioxidant activity [158]
87	Dendrophthoe frutescens L.	Indonesia	LF, WP	Drink (decoction)	Anti-inflammation, antibacterial [51]
88	Dendrophthoe incarnata (Jack) Miq.	Malaysia	LF	Poultice	Mixed with Curcuma longa L and rice to make poultice to treat ringworm [159]
89	Dendrophthoe pentandra (L.) Miq.	Indonesia, Malaysia, Thailand, Vietnam	LF, WP	Poultice, decoction	Sores, ulcers, other skins infections, protective medicine after childbirth, cough, hypertension, cancer, diabetes, tonsil problem [18,25,159,160]	Antioxidant (MeOH extract, DPPH), Tyrosinase activity [160]
90	Taxillus umbellifer (Schult. f.) Danser	Indonesia, Malaysia, Vietnam	RT, LF	Decoction drink, poultice	Fever, headache, wounds [159]
91	Erianthemum dregei (Eckl. & Zeyh.) Tiegh.	Southern & Eastern Africa	BK	Mixed with milk	Powdered mixed with milk to treat stomach problems in children [161]
92	Loranthus globosus Roxb	Malaysia, Indo-China	LF, ST, FT	Poultice (leaves), juice	Headache, expel afterbirth, cough [162]	Antimicrobial, cytotoxicity (brine shrimp) [163], toxicity (Evan’s rat) [164]
93	Loranthus spec div.	Indonesia	WP	Poultice, decoction	Ariola, varicella, diarrhea, ankylostomiasis, morbilli (gabag), cancer [25]
94	Macrosolen robinsonii (Gamble) Danser	Vietnam	LF	Decoction	Enlarged abdomen (diuretic tea) [165]
95	Macrosolen cochinchinensis (Lour.) Tiegh.	Malaysia, Indo-China	ST, LF	Decoction, juice, poultice	Expel after birth, headache, cough [165]
96	Scurrula atropurpurea (Blume) Danser	Indonesia, Philippines	LF, ST, WP	Decoction	Mouthwash (gargled), cancer (breast, throat cancer), cowpox, chickenpox, diarrhea, hookworm, measles, hepatitis, and cancer [166,167,168]	Cancer cell invasion inhibitory effects [169,170]
97	Scurrula ferruginea (Jack) Danser	Malaysia	LF, WP	Decoction, poultice	Decocted whole plant (mixed with Millettia sericea (Vent.) Wight & Arnott) is used as bathing to relieve malaria, decocted leaves as protective medicine after childbirth, pounded leaves to treat wounds, snake bites [166]	Antiviral (HSV-1 and poliovirus) and cytotoxic activities on murine and human cancer lines (3LL, L1210, K562, U251, DU145, MCF-7) [171]
98	Scurrula parasitica L.	China, Vietnam	WP	Decoction	Swelling, back pains, numbness, soreness of limbs, hypertension, galactagogue, quieting uterus (no contraction), reducing lumbago, bone strengthening. [166]	Anti-cancer (flavonoids extract, Leukimia cell line HL-60) [172], NF-κB inhibition [173], recovery of cisplatin-induced nephrotoxicity [174], Antioxidant (extracts, DPPH) [175] anti-cancer (Polysacharide fraction, S180, K562 and HL-60 cell lines, MTT assay) [176], anti-obesity activity using porcine pancreatic lipase assay (EtOH extract, PPL; triacylglycerol lipase, EC 3.1.1.3)[177], neuroprotective activity (168, H2O2-induced oxidative damage in NG108-15 cells)[178], antibacterial (EtOH extract, MRSA) [179]
99	Viscum aethiopicum [sic]	Southern & Eastern Africa	LF	Decoction (tea)	Diarrhea [161]
100	Viscum capense L.f.	Southern & Eastern Africa	ST, FT	Decoction, external	Wart, asthma, irregular menstruation, hemorrhage [161]	Antimicrobial activity (stems extract), Anticonvulsant activity (MeOH extract, albino mice) [180]
101	Viscum pauciflorum L.f.	Southern & Eastern Africa	WP	Decoction	Astringent [161]
102	Viscum rotundifolium L.f.	Southern & Eastern Africa	WP	External	Wart [161]	Immunoassay (stem, aqueous extracts, T cell activity in ruminants) [181]
	Melastomataceae
103	Medinilla radicans Blume		LF, RT	Leaves eaten to treat dysentery, adventitious roots applied as poultice to wound, young leaves to skin disorders	Dysentery, wound and skin disorders [123]
104	Pachycentria constricta (Bl) Blume	Indonesia	TB	Tubers are boiled and eaten	Hemorrhoids [18,71]
	Moraceae
105	Ficus annulata Blume	Indonesia	LF, RT	Leaves decoction to treat fever, the root to treat Hansen diseases	Fever and Hansen diseases [168]
106	Ficus deltoidea Jack	Indonesia, Malaysia, Thailand	LF, RT, FT	Drink (decoction), oitment	Leucorrhea, headache, fever, diabetes, high blood pressure, skin infection, aphrodisiac agent, ornament [71,182,183,184]	Toxicity (aqueous extract, rats) [185], anti-nociceptive [186], antioxidant (leaves aqueous extracs, redn. power of iron (III), superoxide anion (O2-) scavenging, xanthine oxidase (XOD), nitric oxide (NO·) and lipid peroxidn) [187], anti-melanogenic effect (extract, B16F1 melanoma cells, MTT assay) [188], anti-cancer [189], hypoglycemic activity (extract, rodents) [45,188] antimicrobial activity (extract) [190], Anti-inflammatory [191]
107	Ficus lacor Buch.-Ham.	India	BK, LT, BD, SD	Decoction, poultice	Decocted stem bark to treat gastric and ulcer, latex to treat boils (external), typhoid and fever (internal), decocted bud to treat ulcer, leucorrhoea, Seed as tonic for stomach disorder [157,192,193,194]	The medicated liquor has effects of relaxing muscles and tendons, activating collateral flow, promoting blood circulation, dispelling blood stasis, expelling wind, removing dampness, and relieving pain [195]
108	Ficus natalensis Hochst. (semi epiphytic, secondary terrestrial)	Uganda, Tanzania, Senegal, West Africa, South Africa,	LF, LT, RT, BK	Decoction, poultice	Root was used to treat lumbago, headache, arthritis, cataract and cough, Leaves were used to treat snakes bite, malaria, dysentery, ulcers, wounds and used as septic ears [196]	Antibacterial, antimalarial, and/or antileishmania activities were obsd. in some crude extracts., and five of these exts. showed a significant cytotoxicity against human tumor cells [41]
109	Ficus parietalis Blume	Vietnam, Thailand, Malaysia, Indonesia	RT	Decoction	Stomach-ache [184]
110	Ficus pumila L.	Vietnam	FT, LF, LT	Drink (decoction)	Diarrahea, hemaroid, rheumatic, anemia, haematura, dysentery, dropsy, galactoge, tonic for impotence, lumbago, anthelmintic agent, externally used to treat carbuncles [184]	Against T-cell leukemia [197], antimicrobial [198]
111	Poikilospermum suaveolens (Blume) Merr.	Indonesia, Thailand	BK	Decoction	Water from the stem for drink, aide the secretion of waste products from the vagina, pain, numbness, stomach ulcer [25,199,200]	Anti-viral (MeOH extract) [201]
	Orchidaceae
112	Acampe carinata (Griff.) Panigrahi	Himalaya, Nepal	WP	Decoction	Rheumatism, sciatica, neuralgia, beneficial in secondary syphilis and uterine diseases [202]
113	Acriopsis liliifolia (J.Koenig) Seidenf.	Malaysia	LF, RT	Decoction of the roots and leaves	Fever [203]
114	Anoectochilus formosanus Hayata	Taiwan	WP	Decoction	Fever, anti-inflammatory agent, diabetes, liver disorder, chest and abdominal pain [204]	Anti-inflammatory (water extract, rat paw), hepatoprotective (water extract, rat, SGOT-OPT) [205], anti-hyperliposis (414, rat induced) [206], ameliorative effect (water extract, ovariectomised rat) [207], antioxidant (water extract, DPPH) [208], anti-hyperglycemic (water extract, diabetic rats induced by streptozotocin) [209], anti-cancer (extracts, breast cancer MCF-7 cell) [210], liver regeneration (extract, rat) [211,212], Hepatoprotective (414, CCl4 induced rat) anti-inflammatory (414, lps stimulate mice) [213,214], anti-cancer (polysaccharide water extract, protate cancer cell lin PC3) [215]
115	Anoectochilus roxburghii (Wall.) Lindl.	Taiwan, China, Japan	WP	Decoction	Fever, snake bite, lung and liver diseases, hypertension, child malnutrition [216]	Hypoglycemic effect (414, streptozotocin (STZ) diabetic rats) [217], hypoglycemic and antioxidant effects (water extract, alloxan-induced diabetic mice, DPPH) [218]
116	Ansellia africana Lindl.	Southern & Eastern Africa	PD, ST, ST, RT	Decoction	Pedi is used to treat cough, the stem is used as aphrodisiac, used as emetic agent [161]
117	Bulbophyllum kwangtungense Schltr.	China, Japan	TB	Tonic	To treat pulmonary tuberculosis, promote body liquid production, reduce fever, hemostatic agent [219]	Anti-tumor activities (456, 457, 458, against HeLa and K562 human tumor cell line) [220]
118	Bulbophyllum odoratissimum (Sm.) Lindl. ex Wall.	China, Burma, Vietnam, Thailand, Laos, Nepal, Bhutan, India	WP	Decoction	To treat pulmonary tuberculosis, chronic inflammation and fracture [221]	Anti-tumor (bibenzyl, inhibiting NO microphage) [221,222], anti-cancer (225, 470, 471, 475, 476, 478, 479, 482, 484, human leukaemia cell lines K562 and HL-60, human lung adenocarcinoma A549, human hepatoma BEL-7402 and human stomach cancer SGC-790) [223], anti-cancer (human leukemia cell lines K562 and HL-60, human lung adenocarcinoma A549, human hepatoma BEL-7402 and human stomach cancer cell lines SGC-7901) Anti-cancer (473 and 474, human leukemia cell lines K562 and HL-60, human lung adenocarcinoma A549, human hepatoma BEL-7402 and human stomach cancer SGC-7901) [224]
119	Bulbophyllum vaginatum (Lindl.) Rchb.f.	Malaysia	WP	Juice	Juice of the plant is instilled in the ear to cure earache [130]
120	Catasetum barbatum (Lindl.) Lindl.	Japan, Guiana, Paraguayan	WP	Decoction	Febrifuge, anti-inflammatory [46]	Anti-inflammatory (505, rat) [225]
121	Coelogyne sp	Indonesia	RT	Decoction	Headache, fever [71]
122	Cymbidium aloifolium (L.) Sw.	Thailand, Vietnam	LF	Decoction (internal), juice from heated or crushed leaves.	Otitis media, colds, irregular periods, arthritis, sores, burns, tonic [226]	Antinociceptive, anti-inflammatory (EtOH extract, mice) [227]
123	Cymbidium canaliculatum R.Br	Australia	PdB	Chewed, poultice	Dysentery, boils, sores, wounds, itschy skin, fractured arms over the break [154,228]
124	Cymbidium ensifolium (L.) Sw	Taiwan, Vietnam	LF, RT, FL, WP, RT	Decoction	Diuretic agent (leaves), pectoral agent (root), eye problem (flower), cough, lung, gastrointestinal problems and sedative [226]
125	Cymbidium goeringii (Rchb.f.) Rchb.f.	Japan, China, Korea, Thailand, Vietnam, India	WP	Decoction	Hypertension, diuretic agent [229]	Anti-inflammatory (478, RAW 264.7 cells) [230], anti-hypertensive (515, rat), diuretic activity (515, rats) [229]
126	Cymbidium madidum Lindl.	Australia	PdB	Chewed	Dysentery [154]
127	Dendrobium affine (Decne.) Steud.	Australia	PdB	Poultice, external	Chrushed pseudobulbs (sticky) is applied to itchy skins, boils, infected skin lesion, minor burns [154]
128	Dendrobium aloifolium (Blume) Rchb.f.	South East Asia	LF	Poultice	Headache [18]
129	Dendrobium amoenum Wall. ex Lindl.	China	LF	Dried and ground	Skin diseases [231]	Antioxidant (519, NBT), antibacterial (519, diffusion) [231]
130	Dendrobium chryseum Rolfe	Australia	LF	Decoction	Diabetes [232]	Antioxidant (526, 530, 532, DPPH) [233]
131	Dendrobium candidum Wall. ex Lindl.	China	LF	Decoction	Diabetes [234]	Inhibitory effect of atropine on salivary secretion (extracts, rabbit) [235], anti-hyperglicemic (extract, streptozotocin-induced diabetic (STZ-DM) rats) [234], antioxidant (polysaccharide, 10-phenanthroline-Fe2+-H2O2 systems and ammonium peroxydisulfate/N,N,N’,N’-tetra-methylethanediamine systems) [236] antioxidant (555, 556, DPPH) [237], antioxidant (558, 559, 560, DPPH) [238], anti-tumor (soluble polysacharride, human neuroblastoma (SH2SY5Y) induced by SPD was observed and analyzed by Hoechst stain method) [239]
132	Dendrobium canaliculatum var. foelschei (F.Muell.) Rupp & T.E.Hunt	Australia	PdB	Poultice, external	Chrushed pseudobulbs (sticky) is applied to infected skin and cuts [154]
133	Dendrobium crumenatum Sw.	Malaysia, Indonesia	LF, PdTB	Leaves pounded, bulbs heated to produce juice and applied as external uses	Acne (leaves), infected ears (pseudo-tubers) [240,241]	Antimicrobial [242]
134	Dendrobium chrysanthum Wall. ex Lindl.	China	LF	Dried and ground	Skin diseases, immune regulator, anti-pyretic, improve eyesight [243,244]	Anti-inflammation (590, macrophages were harvested from 2-month-old male C57BL/6J mice) [244]
135	Dendrobium densiflorum Lindl.	China	LF	Tonic	Promote body fluid production [245]
136	Dendrobium faciferum J.J.Sm	Indonesia	ST	Dried	For twist work (craft) [246]
137	Dendrobium fimbriatum Hook.	Japan, China	LF	Decoction, paste	Promote body fluid production, set fractured bone (paste) [247]	Antioxidant (water-soluble crude polysaccharide (DFHP), DPPH) [248]
138	Dendrobium loddigesii Rolfe	China	LF	Decoction	Promote body fluid production, reduce fever, nourish the stomach., anti-cancer agent [249]	Inhibitors of Na+, K+-ATPase of rat kidney (607, 608) [250], antiplatelet aggregation activity (479, 523, 606, rabit platelet) [251], antioxidant (DPPH), anti NO production (activated macrophages-like cell line, RAW264.7) [252]
139	Dendrobium moniliforme (L.) Sw.	China, Taiwan	ST	Decocted dried stem	Anti-pyretic, analgesic, aphrodisiac, stomachic, tonic agents [253]	Anti-inflammatory (552, RAW 264.7 cells) [254], hypoglicemic (polisaccharide, mice) [255], antioxidant (polisacharide) [256]
140	Dendrobium moschatum (Buch.-Ham) S.w	Nepal	LF	Juice	Cure earache [257]
141	Dendrobium nobile Lindl.	China, Indonesia	WP	Tonic	Fever, reduce mouth dryness, aphrodisiac, promote body fluid production, nourish stomach, anorexia, lumbago, impotence [240,258,259,260,261]	Immunomodulatory activity (656, 660, 661, 662, 663, lymphocyte proliferation test MTT test) [262,263], antioxidant (478, 523, 524, 528, 584, 641, 672, 673, 674, DPPH) anti-NO (478, 523, 524, 528, 584, 641, 672, 673, 674, murine macrophage-like cell line RAW 264.7) [264], antioxidant (water-soluble polysaccharide (DNP), DPPH) [265], antimicrobial (Extracts), antitumour (extracts, Dalton’s lymphoma ascites (DLA) cells w), induction of in vitro lipid peroxidation (extracts, TBARS) [266], NO inhibition (475, 523, 542, 632, 633, 634, 665–671, murine macrophage RAW 264.7 cells) [267], anti-tumor (polisachacaride extracts, sarcoma 180 in vivo and HL-60)[268]
142	Dendrobium pachyphyllum (Kuntze) Bakh.f.	Indonesia	WP	Decoction	Hydropsy [246]
143	Dendrobium purpureum Roxb.	Indonesia, Malaysia	LF	Crushed and heated to make poultice	Nail fungal infection [240]
144	Dendrobium salaccense (Blume) Lindl.	Indonesia	LF	Fragrance	Fragrance [246]
145	Dendrobium teretifolium R.Br.	South-Pacific Island	LF	Decoction	Severe headache, other pains [269,270]
146	Dendrobium catenatum Lindl.	China	LF	Decoction	Anxiety and panic [271]
147	Dendrobium utile J.J.Sm.	Indonesia	ST	Dried	Twist work [246]
148	Dichaea muricata (Sw.) Lindl.	Central, South American	LF	Decoction (wash)	Eye infection [260]
149	Eulophia speciosa (R.Br.) Bolus	Indonesia	RT	Decoction	Analgesic [246]
150	Epidendrum strobiliferum Rchb.f.	China, Korea	ST	Infusion, decoction	Analgesic [272]	Analgesic (676, 677 exhibited notable analgesic action at 3 mg/kg, causing 86 and 83% inhibition of abdominal constriction, respectively [272], antinociceptive effect (MeOH extract, methanolic ext. (ME) [273]
151	Epidendrum rigidum Jacq.	Mexico, North Sudamerica, Antilles	ST	Infusion, decoction	Replenish body fluid [274]	Phytotoxin (chloroform-methanol extract) [274]
152	Mycaranthes pannea (Lindl.) S.C.Chen & J.J.Wood	Vietnam, Malaysia	WP	External, medicinal bath	Medicinal bath to treat ague and malaria fever, fractures, bruises, skin complaints, dislocated joint to relieve severe pain, swelling, dislocation and fracture [123,275,276]
153	Eriopsis biloba Lindl.	America	ST	Poultice	Sore gums and mouth membranes [260]
154	Grammatophyllum scriptum (L.) Blume	Indonesia, Thailand	BL, SD, ST	Poultice	Pseudo bulb mixed with curcuma and salt applied to sores and abdomen to expel worms, to treat dropsy and aphthae, seeds mixed with food to treat dysentery, aphthae, crushed plant mixed with rice liquor to treat snake bite, scorpions’ and centipedes’ stings [246,277]
155	Jumellea fragrans (Thouars) Schltr.	Madagascar	LF, ST	Decoction	Anti-spasmodic, anti-asthmatic agents, mixed leaves of Ziziphus mauritana, Mussaenda arcuate to treat eczema (deecotion), mixed with Eugenia uniflora to treat diarrhea [24]
156	Liparis condylobulbon Rchb.f.	Indonesia	PdB, LF	Chewing, external	Intestinal complaints and constipation. (eastern Sulawesi, ambon), tormina, abscess [246,278]
157	Liparis nervosa (Thunb.) Lindl.	China, Thailand, Malaysia	WP	Decoction, external	Stop internal/external bleeding, treat snake bites [278]
158	Neottia ovata (L.) Bluff & Fingerh.	Spain	TB	Tincture	Stomach diseases [279]	Anti-viral (extract, SARS-CoV Frankfurt 1 strain [280]
159	Masdevallia uniflora Ruiz & Pav.	Mexico, south America	WP	Decoction	Facilitate urination (pregnant women), reduce bladder inflammation [260]
160	Camaridium densum (Lindl.) M.A.Blanco	Mexico	WP	Decoction	Analgesic, relaxant agents [281]	Spasmolytic activity (667, 690, 693, 694, 695, Wistar rat) [37], antinociceptive activity (extract, mice) [281]
161	Nidema boothii (Lindl.) Schltr.	Malaysia	WP	Decoction	Relaxant agent [282]	Spasmolytic effects (471, 478, 488, 508, 671, 696, 697, 699, 700, 702, guinea ileum pig model) [282]
162	Oberonia lycopodioides (J.Koenig) Ormerod	Malaysia	LF	Poultice	Boils [123,283]
163	Oberonia mucronata (D.Don) Ormerod & Seidenf.	China, Vietnam	WP	Decoction	Rheumatism, promote blood circulation, inflammation of the bladder/ureter, bruises and fractures, detoxicant, diuretic agent [284]
164	Erycina pusilla (L.) N.H.Williams & M.W.Chase	Mali	WP	Decoction	Lacerations [260]
165	Otochilus lancilabius Seidenf.	Bhutan, Nepal, India, China (Tibet), Laos and Vietnam	WP	Pills	Antiemetic, febrifuge for stomach inflammation (bad-tshad), and allays hyperdipsia and dehydration [23]
166	Phragmipedium pearcei (Rchb.f.) Rauh & Senghas	South America	WP	Decoction	Stomachache [260]
167	Pholidota articulata Lindl.	Himalaya, Nepal	WP		Whole plant: bone fractures [202]
168	Pholidota chinensis Lindl.	China, India	PdB	Tincture	Scrofula, toothache, stomachache, chronic bronchitis, duodenal ulcer [285]	Antioxidant (475, 539, 667, 670, 671, 711, 712, 717, 722, 723, 726, (DPPH), anti-inflammatory (475, 539, 667, 670, 671, 711, 712, 717, 722, 723, 726, inhibitory activity on NO production from activatedmacrophage-like cell line, RAW 264.7)[286], antioxidant (715, 741, 742, 746, 747, 749, 750, DPPH), anti-inflammatory (as above, inhibitory activity on NO production from activated macrophages-like cell line, RAW 264.7) [285]
169	Renanthera moluccana Blume	Indonesia	WP	Ornament	Ornament [246]
170	Rhynchostylis retusa (L.) Blume	Himalaya, Nepal, India	LF		Rheumatic, hepaoprotective agent [96,202]
171	Scaphyglottis livida (Lindl.) Schltr.	Mexico	WP	Decoction	Analgesic, anti-inflammatory agents [281,287]	Spasmolytic (471, 475, 714, 754, 755, rat ileum rings) [288], antinociceptive (extracts, male mice ICR) [281], acute toxicity (extract, male mice ICR) [287]
172	Vanda tessellata (Roxb.) Hook. ex G.Don	India, Sri Lanka, Burma	LF, RT, FL	Leaves pounded to make juice, paste, extract (alcoholic) of the root and flower	Fever (as paste), otitis (dropped juice), the root to treat bronchitis, rheumatic, dyspepsia, sciatica, inflammation, otitis, nervous problem, fever and as aphrodisiac, laxative, tonic (for liver) agent [140,289,290,291]	Cholinergic activity (glycoside fraction), anti-arthritic (extract, albino rat) [292], anti-inflammatory (extract), antidiabetic (extract, rat) [291,293]
173	Papilionanthe teres (Roxb.) Schltr.	Indonesia	WP	Ornament	Ornamental [294]	Anti-aging (758, 759, HaCaT cytochrome C oxidase) [295]
174	Vanilla griffithii Rchb.f.	Indonesia	WP	Eaten	Edible [294]
175	Vanilla planifolia Jacks. ex Andrews	Indonesia, Mexico	FT, STh	Decoction	Fever, rheumatism, hysteria, increase energy and muscular system [25,259,294]	Antimicrobial activity (extract) [296]
	Piperaceae
176	Peperomia galioides Kunth	Peru	WP	Poultice (external), drink (internal)	Chrused plant is used to treat wounds, cuts, plant juice is used to treat gastric ulcers [297]	Antibacterial (oil) [298,299]
177	Piper retrofractum Vahl	Indonesia	FT, RT	Drink (decoction)	Anticonvulsion, antivomiting, diarrhea, dysentery, constipation, headache [300]	Anti-convulsan (776, mice) [301], cytotoxicity (extract, 779) [302], anti-platelet aggregation (extract) [303], anti-vector (extract, mosquito larvae) [304,305], antioxidant (228, 283, 334, 574, 771, 772, 782, 783, DPPH) [306], antileishmanial activity (extracts, leishmania donovani) [307], anti-obesity (776, 777, C57BL/6J mice) [308]
	Rubiaceae
178	Hydnophytum formicarum Jack	Indonesia, Philippines, Thailand	TB	Poultice, decoction, powder	Poultice to treat swelling, headache, decoction to treat liver, intestinal complaints, powder as anthelmintic, heart tonic, antidiabetic agent and to treat skin, bone, knee, ankle, lung diseases [278]	Anti-tumor (extracts, against human tumor cell lines, HeLa and A549) [309], xanthine oxidase inhibitory (MeOH extract, assayed spectrophotometrically under aerobic conditions [310], antimicrobial, cytotoxicity (226, 786, 787, against HuCCA-1 and KB cell lines) [311], trigger cytochrome C release in treated MCF-7 cell (786, ELISA) [312], anti-cancer (786, the human breast carcinoma cell line MCF-7) [313]
179	Myrmecodia tuberosa Jack	Indonesia	PT	Drink (decocted)	Swelling, headache [18,71,314]	Immunomodulatory effect (EtOH fractions) [315]
180	Myrmecodia pendens Merr. & L.M.Perry	Papua	PT	Decoction	Rheumatism, headache, renal problems, tumor [316]
	Sterculiaceae
181	Scaphium macropodum (Miq.) Beumée ex K.Heyne (hemi-epiphyte)	Indonesia	RT	Drink (decoction)	Nervous system problem [71]
	Verbenaceae
182	Premna parasitica Blume	Indonesia	LF	Drink (decoction)	Fever [25]
	Viscaceae
183	Viscum articulatum Burm.f.	Cambodia, India, Taiwan, China	WP	Poultice, decoction	Decoction to treat bronchitis, skin tumour, neuralgia, arthritis and as tonic, sedative, febrifuge, crushed plant to treat cut [317]	Toxicity (extract, mice) [318], anti-tumor (820, MTT assay) [319], anti-inflammatory (1234718, superoxide inhibition) [320], cytotoxicity and anti-HIV-1 activity (shown by isolated compounds including 801, 804, 803, 813, 814, 815, 824, 828); MDAMB-435 and Hela cells, HIV-1ШB-infected C8166 cells) [321], anti-nephrotoxic (127, gentamicin-induced renal damage in Wistar rats) [322], antioxidant, anti-inflammatory (810, 811, 812, 822, 825, 829, 830, 831, 832, 833, 834, DPPH, NO production and cell viability assay. The murine macrophage cell line RAW264.7) [323], diuretic activity (MeOH extract, male rats) [324], antiepileptic activity (MeOH exctract, rat) [325], anti-hypertension (glucocorticoid-induced hypertension, Nω-nitro-l-arginine methyl in rats) [326,327], antioxidant (polisacharide fraction, DPPH) [328]
184	Viscum ovalifolium DC.	Cambodia, Malaysia	LF, WP	Poultice, external	Leaves (poultice) to treat neuralgia, as herbal bath to treat fever in children, ash mixed with sulphur, coconut oil to treat pustular itches [329]
	Zingiberaceae
185	Hedychium ongi cornotum Griff.	Indonesia	RZ, RT	Drink (decoction)	Rhizome is used to treat syphilis; root is used to treat worm [25]

Note: na: not mentioned; ST: stem, PT: pith; TB: tuber; SP: spore; BK: bark; LT: latex; NT: nutmeg; SD: seed; FT: fruit; BD: buds; PD: pedi; PdB: pseudobulbs; FL: flower; PdTB: pseudotuber; BL: bulbs: STh: sheath; WP: whole; LF: leaf; RT: root; RZ: rhizome.

Figure 2.

Five most popular medicinal epiphytes. (A) C. filiformis L. (B) B. odoratissimum (Sm.) Lindl. ex Wall. (C) C. goeringii (Rchb.f.) Rchb.f. (D) A. aureum Limme. (E) F. natalensis Hochst.

2.2. Distribution of Vascular Epiphytic Medicinal Plant Species by Country

Based on the available records, the data curation and analysis revealed that the Indigenous Indonesians have used 58 diverse epiphytic medicinal plant species throughout the archipelago and have the highest record compared to other tropical countries (Figure 3). China is second and is well known for its traditional medicine, including the use of epiphytes in medicament preparation. This is followed by the Indigenous Indians, with the well-established Ayurveda as a formal record of Indian medicinal plants. The traditional medicinal plant knowledge of Indonesa has been heavily influenced by Indian culture and enriched by Chinese and Arabian traders since the kingdom era [27].

Figure 3.

Density map showing a number of epiphytic medicinal plant species used by different countries. The number of species used is proportional to colour intensity.

2.3. Parts of Vascular Epiphytic Medicinal Plant Species Used in Traditional Medicines

This review determined that leaves were the main plant components used in the traditional medicines (Figure 4). This was expected given they are more easily harvested (without excessive tools) and processed compared to other plant parts, e.g., the root and stem. As some epiphytes have a small biomass compared to higher trees, the whole plant is commonly harvested in medicament preparation. Interestingly, almost half of epiphytic medicinal plants were ferns, in which the stem-like stipe is prepared for medicine. Without haustoria (a specialised absorbing structure of a parasitic plant), the root and rhizome of epiphytic medicinal plants are easily harvested and prepared.

Figure 4.

Components of epiphytic plants used in medicinal preparations (represented in percentages). LF: leaf; WP: whole; RT: root; ST: stem, RZ: rhizome; FT: fruit; PdB: pseudobulbs; BK: bark; LT: latex; TB: tuber; PT: pith; SD: seed; SP: spore; BD: buds; BL: bulbs: NT: nutmeg; PD: pedi; PdTB: pseudotuber; STh: sheath.

2.4. Modes of Preparation and Dosage of Administration of Vascular Epiphytic Medicinal Plant Species in Traditional Medicines

Generally, medicinally active secondary metabolites have a water solubility problem likely related to the lipophilic moieties in their structures [29]. Using boiling water, decoctions are able to increase the yield of secondary metabolites extracted from medicinal plants. Therefore, it is not surprising that decoctions are commonly used in traditional medicine preparations from plants (Figure 5). External applications are also commonly practiced in traditional medicinal therapies, including poultice (moist mass of material), raw, or less processed medicine. Poultices were commonly prepared for skin diseases while a decoction was ingested for internal infectious diseases (i.e., fever).

Figure 5.

Modes of preparation and administration of epiphytic medicinal plants (represented in percentages).

2.5. Category of Diseases Treated by Vascular Epiphytic Medicinal Plant Species

Interestingly, epiphytes have been used for treating various ailments, including both infectious and non-infectious diseases. Traditional communities described infectious diseases related to skin diseases (wounds, boils, ulcers, abscesses, smallpox) and non-skin diseases (fever, diarrhoea, ulcers, colds, worm infections, and malaria). A total of 54 epiphytic medicinal plant species were prescribed to treat skin diseases while 81 species to treat non-skin infectious diseases (Figure 6).

Figure 6.

Number of epiphytic medicinal plant species used traditionally to treat infectious diseases.

Hygiene has been a serious issue in traditional communities as it gives rise to infectious diseases. Fever is a common symptom of pathogenic infection and has been treated using medicinal plants, including epiphytes. Hygiene issues are also a common cause of skin disease, wounds, dysentery, and diarrhoea in traditional communities.

3. Phytochemical Composition of Vascular Epiphytic Medicinal Plants

Epiphytes belong to a distinctive plant class as they do not survive in soil and this influences the secondary metabolites present. Epiphytes are physically removed from the terrestrial soil nutrient pool and grow upon other plants in canopy habitats, shaping epiphyte morphologies by the method in which they acquire nutrients [30]. Nutrients, such as nitrogen and phosphorus, are obtained from different sources, including canopy debris (through fall) and host tree foliar leaching [30], the latter influencing canopy soil nutrient cycling [31,32]. In the conversion of sunlight into chemical energy, the epiphyte often uses a specific carbon fixation pathway (CAM: Crassulacean acid metabolism) as a result of harsh environmental conditions [33], making them unique and thus worthwhile for scientific studies.

In the early 20th century, laboratory-based research on epiphytes studied the plant’s production of alkaloids, cyanogenetic, and organic sulfur compounds, with the plants producing limited quantities of these compounds [34]. Common plant steroids, e.g., β-sitosterol, have been shown to be present in 22 different epiphytic medicinal plants (Figure 7). This is possibly due to the function of the steroids as structural cell wall components, giving rise to a wide distribution across plant families and species. A further example of a common plant steroid present is stigmasterol.

Figure 7.

Number of epiphytic medicinal plant species producing the same secondary metabolites.

Table 2 lists the secondary metabolites identified in epiphytic medicinal plants and details the species, isolated compounds, and provides references. Currently, only 69 species have been phytochemically studied (23 fern and 46 non-fern epiphytes) and 842 molecules have been isolated from these epiphytic plants. Analysis of the literature showed epiphytes were able to produce a range of secondary metabolites, including terpenes and flavonoids, with no alkaloids being isolated from epiphytic fern medicinal plants thus far. β-Sitosterol, a common phytosterol in higher plants, was reported across fern genera. Interestingly, there is one unique terpene produced, hopane, which is commonly called fern sterol. Common flavonoids, such as kaempferol, quercetin, and flavan-3-ol derivatives (catechin), were also reported across the epiphytic ferns. Epiphytic pteridaceae, Acrostichum aureum Limme, is rich in quercetin [35]. Further analysis showed there were more secondary metabolites reported from non-fern epiphytic medicinal plants than from fern epiphytic medicinal plants, including terpene derivatives, flavonoids, and alkaloids. Included were flavanone, flavone, and flavonol derivatives but no flavan-3-ols were reported in these epiphytes so far. In the non-fern epiphytes, there were more phytochemical studies on orchid genera with additional classes of compounds reported, including penantrene derivatives (flavanthrinin, nudol, fimbriol B) [36,37] from the Bulbophyllum genus and the alkaloid dendrobine from the Dendrobium genus [38].

Table 2.

Phyctochemical constituents of epiphytic medicinal plants.

No	Epiphyte Species	Constituents
	Fern species
	Adiantaceae
1	Adiantum caudatum L., Mant	16-hentriacontanone 1, 19α-hydroxyferna-7,9(11)-diene 2, 29-norhopan-22-ol 3, 3α-hydroxy-4α-methoxyfilicane 4, 8α-hydroxyfernan-25,7β-olide 5, adiantone 6, filic-3-ene 7, hentriacontane 8, isoadiantone 9, quercetin-3-O-glucoside 10, β-sitosterol 11, β-sitosterol 11, β-sitosterol glucoside 12 [330,331,332]
	Aspleanceae
2	Asplenium nidus L.	(-)-epiafzelechin 3-O-β-d-allopyranoside 13, homoserine 14 [333]
	Blechnaceae
3	Stenochlaena palustris (Burm. F.) Bedd.	1-O-β-D-glucopyranosyl-(2S*,3R*,4E,8Z)-2-N-[(2R)-hydroxytetracosanoyl]octadecasphinga 4,8-dienine 15, 3-formylindole 16, 3-oxo-4,5-dihydro-α-ionyl-β-d-lucopyranoside 17, kaempferol 3-O-β-d-glucopyranoside 18, kaempferol 3-O-(3′,6′-di-O-E-p-coumaroyl)-β-d-glucopyranoside 19, kaempferol 3-O-(3′-O-E-p-coumaroyl)-(6′-O-E-feruloyl)-β-d-glucopyranoside 20, kaempferol 3-O-(3′-O-E-p-coumaroyl)-β-d-glucopyranoside 21, kaempferol 3-O-(6′-O-E-p-coumaroyl)-β-d-glucopyranoside 22, lutein 23, stenopaluside 24, stenopalustrosides A–E 25–29, β-sitosterol-3-O-β-d-glucopyranoside 30 [334,335]
	Davalliaceae
4	Araiostegia divaricata (Blume) M. Kato	(-)-epicatechin 3-O-β-d-(2”-O-vanillyl)allopyranoside 31, (-)-epicatechin 3-O-β-D-(2′-trans-cinnamoyl)allopyranoside 32, (-)-epicatechin 3-O-β-D-(3”-O-vanillvl)allopyranoside 33, (-)-epicatechin 3-O-β-d-(3′-trans-cinnamoyl)allopyranoside 34, (-)-epicatechin 3-O-β-d-allopyranoside 35, (-)-epicatechin 3-O-β-d-allopyranoside 35, (+)-catechin 3-O-β-allopyranoside 36, 24-norferna-4 (23) 37, 4β-carboxymethyl-(-)-epicatechin 38, 4β-carboxymethyl-(-)-epicatechin methyl ester 39, 4β-carboxymethyl-(-)-epicatechin potasium 40, 9(11)-diene 41, cyanin 42, davallic acid 43, epiafzelechin-(4β→8)-epicatechin 3-O-β-d-allopyranoside 44, epicatechin-(4β→6)-epicatechin-(4β→8)-epicatechin-(4β→6)-epicatechin-D-glucooctono-δ-lactone enediol 45, epicatechin-(4β→8)-4β-carboxymethylpicatechin 46, hop-21-ene 47, monardein 48, pelargonin 49, procyanidin B-2 3”-O-β-d-allopyranoside 50, sodium salts 51 [59,60,336,337,338,339,340]
5	Davallia solida (G. Forst.) Sw.	18-diene 52, 18-diene 52, 19α-hydroxyfernenes 53, 19α-hydroxyfilic-3-ene 54, 2-C-β-d-glucopyranosyl-1,3,6,7-tetrahydroxyxanthone 55, 2-C-β-d-xylopyranosyl-1,3,6,7-tetrahydroxyxanthone 56, 2-C-β-d-xylopyranosyl-1,3,6,7-tetrahydroxyxanthone 56, 30-O-p-hydroxybenzoylmangiferin 57, 3-O-p-hydroxybenzoylmangiferin 58, 40-O-phydroxybenzoylmangiferin 59, 4-O-β-d-glucopyranosyl-2,6,4′-trihydroxybenzophenone 60, 4β-carboxymethyl-(-)-epicatechin 38, 4β-carboxymethyl-(-)-epicatechin methyl ester 39, 60-O-p-hydroxybenzoylmangiferin 61, eriodictyol 62, eriodictyol-8-C-β-d-glucopyranoside 63, fena-9(11) 64, fern-7-en-19α-ol 65, fern-9(11)-en-19α-ol 66, ferna-7 67, filic-3-en-19α-ol 68, filica-3,18,20-triene 69, filica-3,18-diene 70, icariside E3 71, icariside E5 72, mangiferin 73 [66,68,338,341,342]
	Lycopodiaceae
6	Huperzia carinata (Desv. ex Poir.) Trevis	carinatumins A, B, and C 74, 75, 76 [74]
7	Huperzia phlegmaria (L.) Rothm	14β,21α,29-trihydroxyserratan-3β-yl dihydrocaffeate (lycophlegmariol D) 77, 21α,24-dihydroxyserrat-14-en-3β-yl 4-hydroxycinnamate (lycophlegmariol C) 78, 21β,24,29-trihydroxyserrat-14-en-3β-yl dihydrocaffeate (lycophlegmariol B) 79, 21β,29-dihydroxyserrat-14-en-3α-yl dihydrocaffeate (lycophlegmariol A) 80, 21β-hydroxy-serrat-14-en-3α-ol 81, 21β-hydroxy-serrat-14-en-3α-yl acetate 82, 8,11,13-abietatriene-3β,12-dihydroxy-7-one (margocilin) 83, 8-deoxy-13-dehydroserratinine 84, 8-deoxyserratinidine 85, acrifoline 86, annotine 87, annotinine 88, dihydrolycopodine 89, epidihydrofawcettidine 90, fawcettidine 91, huperzine A 92, lycododine 93, lycoflexine 94, lycophlegmarin 95, lycophlegmarin 95, lycophlegmarine 96, lycophlegmine 97, lycopodine 98, malycorin A 99, malycorins B, C 100, 101, N,N′-dimethylphlegmarine 102, phlegmanol A–E 103–107, phlegmaric acid 108, α-obscurine 109, β-obscurine 110 [77,343,344,345,346,347,348]
8	Huperzia megastachya (Baker) Tardieu	21-epi-serratenediol 111, 21-epi-serratenediol-3-acetate 112, lycoclavanol 113, megastachine 114, phlegmanol-D 115, serratenediol 116, serratenediol-3-acetate 117, serratenonediol diacetate 118, tohogenol diacetate 119 [349,350]
9	Nephrolepis biserrata (Sw.) Schott	1β,11α-diacetoxy-11,12-epoxydrim-7-ene 120, 1β,3β,11α-triacetoxy-11,12-epoxydrim-7-ene 121, 1β,6α,11α-triacetoxy-11,12-epoxydrim-7-ene 122, sequoyitol 123 [339,351]
	Oleandraceae
10	Nephrolepis cordifolia (L.) C. Presl	fern-9(11)-ene 124, hentriacontanoic acid 125, myristic acid octadecylester 126, oleanolic acid 127, sequoyitol (patent) 123, triacontanol 128, β-sitosterol 11 [352,353]
	Opioglossaceae
11	Botrychum lanuginosum Wall.ex Hook & Grev.	(6′-O-palmitoyl)-sitosterol-3-O-β-d-glucoside 129, 1-O-β-D-glucopyranosyl-(2S,3R,4E,8Z)-2-[(2R-hydroxy hexadecanoyl) amino]-4,8-octadecadiene-1, 3-diol 130, 30-nor-21β-hopan-22-one 131, apigenin 132, β-sitosterol 133, daucosterol 134, luteolin 135, luteolin-7-O-glucoside 136, thunberginol A 137 [354]
	Polypodiaceae
12	Drynaria roosii Nakaike	kaempferol 3-O-β-d-glucopyranoside-7-O-α-l-arabinoside 138, (2R)-naringin 139, (2S)-narigenin-7-O-β-d-glucoside 140, kaemperol 3-O-α-l-rhamnosyl-7-O-β-d-glucoside 141, luteolin-7-O-β-d-neohesperidoside 142, maltol glucoside 143, (-)-epicatechin 144, 12-O-caffeoyl-12-hydroxyldodecanoic acid 145, xanthogalenol 146, naringenin 147, kushennol F 148, sporaflavone G 149, kuraninone 150, leachianone A 151, 8-phenylkaempferol 152, kaempferol 153, chiratone 154, fern-9(11)-ene 155, hop-22(29)-ene 156, isoglaucanone 157, dryocrassol 158, dryocrassol acetate 159, (+)-afzelechin-3-O-β-allopyranoside 160, (+)-afzelechin-6-C-β-glucopyranoside 161, 4α-carboxymethyl-(+)-catechin methyl ester 162, (-)-epiafzelechin-(4β→8)-(-)-epiafzelechin-(4β→8)-4β-carboxymethyl-(-)-epiafzelechin methyl ester 163, (-)-epiafzelechin-(4β→8)-4β-carboxymethyl-(-)-epicatechin methyl ester 164, (-)-epiafzelechin-(4β→8)-4α-carboxymethy-(-)-epiafzelechin ethyl ester 165, (-)-epiafzelechin-3-O-β-d-allopyranoside 166, (-)-epicatechin-3-O-β-d-allopyranoside 167, (+)-catechin 168, 4β-carboxymethyl-(-)-epiafzelechin methyl ester 169, 4β-carboxymethyl-(-)-epiafzelechin 170, (-)-epiafzelechin-(4β→82→O→7)-epiafzelechin-(4β→8)-epiafzelechin 171, (-)-epiafzelechin 172, (-)-epiafzelechin-(4β→8)-4β-carboxymethyl-epiafzelechin methyl ester 173, epicatechin-(4β→8)-epicatechin 174, (+)-afzelechin 175, (+)-epicatechin-3-O-β-d-allopyranoside 176, (-)-epicatechin-8-C-β-d-gluclopyranoside 177, (-)-epiafzelechin-5-O-β-d-allopyranoside 178, drynachromoside A 179, drynachromoside B 180, fortunamide 181, curcumine 182, demethoxycurcumine 183, bisdemethoxycurcumine 184, bavachinine 185, isobavachalcone 186, (-)-epicatechin 144, liquiritine 187, bakuchiol 188, protocatechuic acid 189, (R)-5,7,3′,5′-tetrahydroxy-flavonone 7-O-neohesperidoside 190, (2S)-5,7,3′,5′-tetrahydroxyflavonone 7-O-β-d-glucopyranoside 191, 5,7,3′,5′-tetrahydroxflavanone 192, 3′-lavandulyl-4-methoxy-2,2′,4′,6′-tetrahydroxyylcalcone 193, 5,7-dihydroxychromone-7-O-β-d-glucopyranoside 194, 5,7-dyhidroxychromone-7-O-neohesperidosyl 195 [43,94,355,356,357,358]
13	Drynaria propinqua (Wall. ex Mett.) Bedd	(-)-epiafzelechin 3-O-β-d-allopyranoside 13 [359]
14	Drynaria quercifolia (L.) J.Sm.	friedelin 196, epifriedelinol 197, β-amyrin 198, β-sitosterol 11, 3-β-d-glucopyranoside 199, 3,4-dihydroxybenzoic acid 200, acetyllupeol 201 [97,360]
15	Drynaria rigidula (Sw.) Bedd.	fern-9(11)ene 202, hop-22(29)-ene 156, γ-sitosterol 203, 3,4-dihydroxybenzoic acid 200, 4-hydroxybenzoic acid 204, 4-hydroxyphenyl-1-(2-arabinopyranosyl)-tetrahydro-2H-pyran-3,4,5-triol 205, 4-hydroxyphenyl-1-tetrahydro-2H-pyran-3,4,5-triol 206, kaempferitrin 207, 3,5-dihydroxy-flavone-7-O-β-rhamnopyranosyl-4′-O-β-glucopyranoside 208 [92,361]
16	Phymatosorus scolopendria (Burm. f.) Pic. Serm.	1,2-benzopyrone (coumarin) 209 [47]
17	Pyrrosia lingua (Thunb.) Farw.	diploptene 210, β-sitosterol 11, octanordammarane 211, dammara-18(28),21-diene 212, (18S)-18-hydroxydammar-21-en 213, (18R)-18-hydroxydammar-21-ene 214, (18S)-pyrrosialactone 215, (18R)-pyrrosialactone 216, (18S)-pyrrosialactol 217, 3-deoxyocotillol 218, dammara-18(28),21-diene 212, cyclohopenol 219, cyclohopanediol 220, hop-22(29)-en-28-al 221 [362,363,364]
18	Pyrrosia petiolosa (Christ) Ching	α-tocopherol 222, diploptene 210, 24-methylene-9,19-cyclolanost-3β-yl acetate 223, cycloeucalenol 224, β-sitosterol 11, daucosterol 134, vanillic acid 225, protocatechualdehyde 226, hydrocaffeic acid 227, caffeic acid 228, 7-O-[6-O-(α-l-arabinofuranosyl)-β-D-glucopyranosyl]gossypetin 229, kaempferol-3-O-β-d-glucopyranoside-7-O-α-l-arabinofuranoside 230 [365,366,367,368]
19	Pyrrosia sheareri (Baker) Ching	diploptene 210, β-sitosterol 11, vanillic acid 225, protocatechuic acid 189, mangiferin 73, fumaric acid 231, sucrose 232 [42]
	Psilotaceae
20	Psilotum nudum (L.) P. Beauv	apigenin di-C-glycoside 233, 7,4′,4′-tri-O-β-d-glucopyranoside 234, 4′,4′-di-O-β-d-glucopyranoside 235, 7,4′-di-O-β-d-glucopyranoside 236, 3′-hydroxypsilotin (6-[4′-(β-D-glucopyranosyloxy)-3′-hydroxyphenyl]-5,6-dihydro-2-oxo-2H-pyran) 237, 24-methylene-5α-lanost-8-en-3β-ol 238, 24β-methyl-25-dehydrolophenol 239, codisterol 240, isofucosterol 241, 24-methylene-25-hydroxyphenol 242, avenasterol 243, psilotin 244 [368,369,370,371]
	Pteridaceae
21	Acrostichum aureum L.	quercetin 3-O-β-d-glucoside 245, ponasterone A 246, lupeol 247, friedelin 196, β-sitosterol 11, stigmasterol 248, campesterol 249, tetracosanoic acid 250, ursolic acid 251, gallic acid 252, (2R,3S)-sulfated pterosin C 253, (2S,3S)-sulfated pterosin C 254, (2S,3S)-pterosin C 255, (2R)-pterosin P 256, patriscabratine 257, tetracosane 258, quercetin-3-O-β-d-glucoside 259, quercetin-3-O-β-d-glucosyl-(6→1)-α-l-rhamnoside 260, quercetin-3-O-α-l-rhamnoside 261, quercetin-3-O-α-l-rhamnosyl-7-O-β-d-glucoside 262, kaempferol 153 [35,372,373,374]
22	Selaginella involvens (P.Beauv.) Spring	hexadecanoic acid 263, stearic acid 264, β-sitosterol 11, stigmasterol 248, amentoflavone 265, β-d-glucopyranoside 266, (3β)-cholest-5-en-3yl 267, β-amyrin 198 [375]
	Vittariaceae
23	Vittaria elongate Sw.	vittarin-A-F 268–273, 3-O-acetylniduloic acid 274, ethyl 3-O-acetylniduloate 275, methyl 4-O-coumaroylquinate 276, vittarilide-A, B 277, 278, vittariflavone 279, methyl 4-O-caffeoylquinate 280, ethyl 4-O-caffeoylquinate 281, methyl 5-O-caffeoylquinate 282, apigenin 132, vitexin 283, 5,7-dihydroxy-3′,4′,5′-trimethoxyflavone 284, amentoflavone 265, trans-p-coumaric acid 285, methyl trans-p-coumarate 286, methyl caffeate 287, ferulic acid 288, p-cresol 289, 4-hydroxybenzaldehyde 290, 4-hydroxybenzoic acid 204, methyl 4-hydroxybenzoate 291, protocatechualdehyde 226, protocatechuic acid 189, methyl protocatechuate 292, vanillin 293, vanillic acid 225 [119]
	Non-Fern
	Balsaminaceae
24	Impatiens niamniamensis Gilg (semi epiphytic)	α-N,N,N-trimethyltryptophan betaine 294 [129]
25	Convolvulaceace (parasite)
26	Cassytha filiformis L.	N-(3,4-dimethoxyphenethyl)-4,5-methylenedioxy-2-nitrophenylacetamide 295, actinodaphnine 296, cassythine 297, isoboldine 298, cassameridine 299, cassamedine 300, lysicamine 301, cathafiline 302, cathaformine 303, actinodaphnine 304, N-methylactinodaphnine 305, cathafiline 306, cathaformine 307, predicentrine 308, ocoteine 309, filiformine 310, (+)-diasyringaresinol 311, cathafiline 312, cathaformine 313, actinodaphnine 314, N-methylactinodaphnine 315, predicentrine 308, ocoteine 316, neolitsine 317, dicentrine 318, cassythine (cassyfiline) 319, actinodaphnine 320, 4-O-methylbalanophonin 321, cassyformin 322, isofiliformine 323, cassythic acid 324, cassythic acid 324, cassythine 325, neolitsine 326, dicentrine 318, 1,2-methylenedioxy-3,10,11-trimethoxyaporphine 327, (-)-O-methylflavinatine 328, (-)-salutaridine 329, isohamnetin-3-O-β-glucoside 330, isohamnetin-3-O-rutinoside 331 [134,354,376,377,378,379,380]
27	Cuscuta australis R.Br.	4-oic acid-7-oxo-kaurene-6α-O-β-d-glucoside 332, thymidine 333, caffeic acid 228, p-coumaric acid 334, caffeic-β-d-glucoside 335, kaempferol 153, quercetin 336, astragalin 337, hyperoside 338, astragalin 339, kaempferol 153, quercetin 336, β-sitosterol 11, β-sitosterol 3-O-β-D-xylopyranoside 340 [381,382,383]
28	Cuscuta reflexa Roxb.	coumarin 341, α-amyrin 342, β-amyrin 198, α-amyrin acetate 343, β-amyrin acetate 344, oleanolic acetate 345, oleanolic acid 127, stigmasterol 248, lupeol 247, stigmast-5-en-3-O-β-d-glucopyranoside tetraacetate 346, stigmast-5-en-3-O-β-d-glucopyranoside 347, stigmast-5-en-3-yl-acetate 348, β-sitosterol 11, 3,5,7,3′-pentahydroxyflavanone (taxifolin) 349, 3,5,7,4′-tetrahydroxyflavanone (aromadendrin) 350 [143,384,385]
	Clusiaceae
29	Clusia grandiflora Splitg. (hemi epiphyte)	friedelin 196, β-amyrin 198, β-sitosterol 11, lupeol 247, chamone I 351, chamone II 352 [149,386]
	Loganiaceae
30	Fagraea auriculata Jack. (semi epiphyte)	di-O-methylcrenatin 353, potalioside B 354, adoxosidic acid 355, adoxoside 356, (þ)-pinoresinol 357, salicifoliol 358 [153]
	Loranthaceae (parasite)
31	Dendrophthoe falcata (L.f.)Ettingsh	3β-acetoxy-1β-(2-hydroxy-2-propoxy)-11α-hydroxy-olean-12-ene 359, 3β-acetoxy-11α-ethoxy-1β-hydroxy-olean-12-ene 360, 3β-acetoxy-1β-hydroxy-11α-methoxy-olean-12-ene 361, 3β-acetoxy-1β,11α-dihydroxy-olean-12-ene 362, 3β-acetoxy-1β,11α-dihydroxy-urs-12-ene 363, 3β-acetoxy-urs-12-ene-11-one 364, 3β-acetoxy-lup-20(29)-ene 365, 30-nor-lup-3β-acetoxy-20-one 366, (20S)-3β-acetoxy-lupan-29-oic acid 367, kaempferol-3-O-α-l-rhamnopyranoside 368, quercetin-3-O-α-l-rhamnopyranoside 369, gallic acid 252 [387]
32	Loranthus globosus Roxb	(+)-catechin 168, 3,4-dimethoxycinnamyl alcohol 370, 3,4,5-trimethoxycinnamylalcohol 371 [163]
33	Macrosolen cochinchinensis (Lour.) Tiegh.	quercetin 336, gallic acid 252, orientin 372, rutin 373, quercetin-3-O-apiosyl(1→2)-[rhamnosyl(1→6)]-glucoside 374, vicenin 375 [388]
34	Scurrula atropurpurea (Blume) Danser	octadeca-8,10,12-triynoic acid 376, hexadec-8-ynoic acid 377, hexadec-10-ynoic acid 378, hexadeca-8,10-diynoic acid 379, hexadeca-6,8,10-triynoic acid 380, hexadeca-8,10,12-triynoic acid 381, (Z)-9-octadecenoic acid 382, (Z,Z)-octadeca-9,12-dienoic acid 383, (Z,Z,Z)-octadeca-9,12,15-trienoicacid 384, octadeca-8,10-diynoic acid 385, (Z)-octadec-12-ene-8,10-diynoic acid 386, octadeca-8,10,12-triynoic acid 376, theobromine 387, caffeine 388, quercitrin 389, rutin 373, icariside B2 390, aviculin 391, (+)-catechin 168, (-)-epicatechin 144, (-)-epicatechin-3-O-gallate 392, (-)-epigallocatechin-3-O-gallate 393 [169,170]
35	Scurrula ferruginea (Jack) Danser	glycoside 4′-O-acetyl-quercitrin 394 [389]
36	Scurrula parasitica L.	(+)-catechin 168 [178]
	Moraceae
37	Ficus pumila L.	(1S,4S,5R,6R,7S,10S)-1,4,6-trihydroxyeudesmane 6-O-β-d-glucopyranoside 39, (1S,4S,5S,6R,7R,10S)-1,4-dihydroxymaaliane 1-O-β-d-glucopyranoside 396, (23Z)-3β-acetoxycycloart-23-en-25-ol 39, (23Z)-3β-acetoxyeupha-7,23-dien-25-ol 39, (24RS)-3β-acetoxycycloart-25-en-24-ol 39, (24S)-24-hydroxystigmast-4-en-3-one 400, (24S)-stigmast-5-ene-3β,24-diol 401, 10α,11-dihydroxycadin-4-ene 11-O-β-d-glucopyranoside 402, 3β-acetoxy-(20R,22E,24RS)-20,24-dimethoxydammaran-22-en-25-ol 403, 3β-acetoxy-(20S,22E,24RS)-20,24-dimethoxydammaran-22-en-25-ol 404, 3β-acetoxy-20,21,22,23,24,25,26,27-octanordammaran-17β-ol 405, 3β-acetoxy-22,23,24,25,26,27-hexanordammaran-20-one 406, cycloartane-type triterpenoids 407, triterpenoid 408 [390,391,392]
	Orchidaceae
38	Anoectochilus formosanus Hayata	(6R,9S)-9-hydroxy-megastigma-4,7-dien-3-one-9-O-β-d-glucopyranoside 409, (R)-(+)-3,4-dihydroxybutanoic acid γ-lactone 410, 1-O-isopropyl-β-d-glucopyranoside 411, 2-(β-d-glucopyranosyloxymethyl)-5-hydroxymethylfuran 412, 3-(R)-3-β-d-glucopyranosyloxy-4-hydroxybutanoic acid 413, 3-(R)-3-β-d-glucopyranosyloxybutanolide (kinsenoside) 414, 4-(β-d-glucopyranosyloxy)benzyl alcohol 415, corchoionoside C 416 [393]
39	Anoectochilus roxburghii (Blume)	24ξ-isopropenylcholesterol 417, 5-hydroxy-3′,4′,7-trimethoxyflavonol-3-O-β-D-rutinoside 418, 7-O-β-D-diglucoside 419, 8-C-β-hydroxybenzylquercetin 420, 8-p-hydroxybenzyl quercetin, 421, anoectosterol 422, campesterol 249, cirsilineol 423, daucosterol 134, ferulic acid 288, isorhamnetin 424, isorhamnetin-3 425, isorhamnetin-3, 4′-O-β-d-diglucoside 426, isorhamnetin-3-O-β-D-rutinoside 427, isorhamnetin-7-O-β-d-glucopyranoside 428, isorhamnetin-7-O-β-d-diglucoside 429, kaempferol-3-O-β-d-glucopyranoside 430, kaempferol-7-O-β-d-glucopyranoside 431, p-coumaric acid 334, p-hydroxybenzaldehyde 432, quercetin 336, quercetin 3′-O-β-d-glucopyranoside 433, quercetin 3-O-β-d-glucopyranoside 434, quercetin 3-O-β-d-rutinoside 435, quercetin 7-O-β-glucoside 436, quercetin-7-O-β-D-[6′-O-(trans-feruloyl)]-glucopyranoside 437, sitosterol 438, stigmasterol 248, succinic acid 439, 3′,4′,7-trimethoxy-3,5-dihydroxyflavone 440, 3-methoxyl-p-hydroxybenzaldehyde 441, daucosterol 134, daucosterol 134, ferulic acid 288, isorhamnetin-3-O-β-d-glucopyranoside 442, isorhamnetin-3-O-β-D-rutinoside 443, lanosterol 444, methy1 4-β-d-glucopyranosyl-butanoate 445, o-hydroxy phenol 446, oleanolic acid 127, palmitic acid 447, p-hydroxy benzaldehyde 448, p-hydroxy cinnamic acid 449, p-hydroxybenzaldehyde 432, rutin 373, sorghumol 3-O-E-p-coumarate 450, sorghumol 3-O-Z-p-coumarate 451, stearic acid 264, succinic acid 452, β-D-glucopyranosyl-(3R)-hydroxybutanolide 453, β-sitosterol 11 [394,395,396,397,398,399,400,401,402]
40	Bulbophyllum kwangtungense Schltr.	10,11-dihydro-2,7-dimethoxy-3,4-methylenedioxydibenzo[b,f]oxepine 454, 5-(2,3-dimethoxyphenethyl)-6-methylbenzo[d][1,3]dioxole 455, 7,8-dihydro-3-hydroxy-12,13-methylenedioxy-11-methoxyldibenz[b,f]oxepin 456, 7,8-dihydro-4-hydroxy-12,13-methylenedioxy-11-methoxyldibenz[b,f]oxepin 457, 7,8-dihydro-5-hydroxy-12,13-methylenedioxy-11-methoxyldibenz [b,f]oxepin, 458, cumulatin 459, densiflorol A 460, plicatol B 461 [219,403]
41	Bulbophyllum odoratissimum (Sm.) Lindl. ex Wall.	(+)-lyoniresinol-3a-O-β-d-glucopyranoside 462, 3,5-dimethoxyphenethyl alcohol 463, 3,7-dihydroxy-2,4,6-trimethoxyphenanthren 464, 3-hydroxyphenethyl 4-O-(6′- O-β-apiofuranosyl)-β-d-glucopyranoside 465, 3-methoxy-4-hydroxycinnamic aldehyde 466, 3-methoxyphenethyl alc. 4-O-β-D-glucopynanoside 467, 4-hydroxy-3,5-dimethoxybenzaldehyde 468, 4-O-β-d-glucopynanoside 469, 7-hydroxy-2,3,4-trimethoxy-9,10-dihydrophenanthrene 470, batatasin III 471, Bulbophyllanthrone 472, bulbophythrins A, B 473, 474, Coelonin 475, densiflorol B 476, ethyl orsellinat 477, gigantol 478, moscatin 479, p-hydroxyphenylpropionic acid 480, p-hydroxyphenylpropionic methyl ester 481, syringaldehyde 482, syringin 483, tristin 484, vanillic acid 225 [223,224,404,405,406,407]
42	Bulbophyllum vaginatum (Lindl.) Rchb.f.	(±)-syringaresinol 485, (2R*,3S*)-3-hydroxymethyl-9-methoxy-2-(4′-hydroxy-3′,5′-dimethoxyphenyl)-2,3,6,7-tetrahydrophenanthro [4,3-b]furan-5,11-diol 486, 2,4-dimethoxyphenanthrene-3,7-diol 487, 3,4,6-trimethenanthrene-2,7-diol 488, 3,4,6-trimethoxy-9,10- dihydrophenanthrene-2,7-diol 489, 3,4′,5-trihydroxy-3′-methoxybibenzyl (tristin) 490, 3,4′-dihydroxy-5,5′-dimethoxybibenzyl 491, 3,4-dihydroxybenzoic acid 200, 3,4-dimethoxy-9,10- dihydrophenanthrene-2,7-diol (erianthridin) 492, 3,4-dimethoxyphenanthrene-2,7-diol (nudol) 493, 3,5-di- methoxy-9,10-dihydrophenanthrene-2,7-diol (6- methoxycoelonin) 494, 3,5-dimeth- oxyphenanthrene-2,7-diol 495, 3′-dihydroxy-5-methoxybibenzyl 496, 4,4′,6,6′-tetramethoxy-[1,1′-biphenanthrene]-2,2′,3,3′,7,7′-hexol 497, 4,6-dimethoxy-9,10-di- hydrophenanthrene-2,3,7-triol 498, 4,6-dimethoxyphenanthrene-2,3,7-triol 499, 4-methoxy-9,10- dihydrophenanthrene-2,7-diol (coelonin) 500, 4-methoxyphenan- threne-2,7-diol (flavanthrinin) 501, 4-methoxyphenanthrene- 2,3,5-triol (fimbriol B) 502, 9,10- dihydrophenanthrenes 503, dihydroferulic acid 504, Friedelin 196, p-coumaric acid, 334 [36,408,409]
43	Catasetum barbatum (Lindl.) Lindl.	2,7-dihydroxy-3,4,8-trimethoxyphenanthrene 505 [225]
44	Cymbidium aloifolium (L.) Sw.	aloifol I 506, aloifol II 507, 6-O-methylcoelonin 508, batatasin III 471, coelonin 475, gigantol, 478, 1-(4′-hydroxy-3′,5′-dimethoxyphenyl)-2-(3″-hydroxyphenyl)ethane 509, 1-(4′-hydroxy-3′,5′-dimethoxyphenyl)-2-(4″-hydroxy-3″-methoxyphenyl)ethane 510, 2,7-dihydroxy-4,6-dimethoxy-9,10-dihydrophenanthrene 511, cymbinodin-A 512, cymbinodin B 513 [410,411,412]
45	Cymbidium goeringii (Rchb.f.) Rchb.f.	β-sitosterol 11, daucosterol 134, ergosterol 514, gigantol 478, cymbidine A 515 [229,230,413]
46	Dendrobium amoenum Wall. ex Lindl.	amotin 516, amoenin 517, amoenumin 518, amoenylin, isoamoenylin 519, 3,4′-dihydroxy-5-methoxybibenzyl, 520, 4,4′-dihydroxy-3,3′,5-trimethoxybibenzyl (moscatilin) 521 [414,415,416]
47	Dendrobium chryseum Rolfe	araxerol 522, coumarin 341, moscatilin 523, chrysotobibenzyl 524, chrysotoxin 525, gigantol 478, kaempferol 153, cis-melilotoside 526, defuscin 527, dendroflorin 528, dengibsin 529, dihydromelilotoside 530, naringenin 147, n-octacosyl ferulate 531, trans-melilotoside 532 [233,417]
48	Dendrobium candidum Wall. Ex Lindl.	(-)-loliolide 533, (-)-secoisolariciresinol 534, (-)syringaresinol 535, (+)-lyoniresinol-3a-O-β-d-glucopyranoside 462, (+)-syringaresinol-4-β-d-monoglucoside 536, (1′R)-1′-(4-hydroxy-3,5-dimethoxylphenyl) propan-1′-ol 4-O-β-d-glucopyranoside 537, (E)-p-Hydroxycinnamic acid 538, 2,4,7-trihydroxy-9,10-dihydrophenanthrene 539, 2-methoxyphenol-O-β-d-apiofuromosyl-(1→2)-β-d-glucopyranoside 540, 3,4-dihydroxy-5,4′-dimethoxybibenzyl 541, 3-O-methylgigantol 542, 4,4′-dihydroxy-3,5-dimethoxybibenzyl 543, 4′,5-dihydroxy-3,3′-dimethoxybibenzyl 544, 4-allyl-2,6-dimethoxyphenylglucoside 545, 4′-dihydroxy-5-methoxybibenzyl 546, 5-hydroxymethyl-furaldehyde 547, Adenosine 548, Aduncin 549, cis-feruloyl-p-hydroxybenzenethylamine 550, coniferyl alcohol 551, daucosterol 134, defuscin 527, denbinobin, 552, dendrocandin A 553, dendrocandin B 554, dendrocandin C 555, dendrocandin D 556, dendrocandin E 557, dendrocandins F—I 558–561, dendromoniliside E 562, dendrophenol 563, dihydroresveratrol 564, gigantol 478, guanosine 565, hentriacontane 8, heptadecanoic acid 566, hexadecanoic acid 263, icariol A 2-4-O-β-d-glucopyranoside 567, khaephuouside 568, leonuriside A 569, naringenin 147, n-octacosyl ferulate 531, N-trans-feruloyl tyramine 570, n-triacontyl cis-p-coumarate 571, p-hydroxy-phenylpropionic acid 480, sucrose 232, syringaresinol 572, syringaresinol-4,4′-O-bis-β-d-glucoside 573, trans-cinnamoyl-p-hydroxybenzenethylamine 574, uridine 575, vanillyl alcohol 576, β-sitosterol 11 [237,238,239,418,419,420]
49	Dendrobium chrysanthum Wall. ex Lindl.	(2S)-N-cis-cinnamoyl-2-oxopropyrrolidine 577, (2S)-N-trans-cinnamoyl-2-oxopropyrrolidine 578, (þ)-lyoniresinol 579, 2,5-dihydroxy-4,9-dimethoxylphenanthrene 580, 4,4′-dihydroxy-3,3′,5-trimethoxybibenzyl 581, 7,70-bis-(4-hydroxy-3,5-dimethoxyphenyl)-8,80-dihydroxymethyl-tetrahydrofuran-4-β-d-glucoside 582, chrysophanol 583, chrysotobibenzyl 524, chrysotobibenzyl 524, chrysotoxin 525, crepidatin 584, crepidatin 584, dehydrodiconiferyl alcohol-4-β-d-glucoside 585, denchrysans A, B 586, 587, denchryside A 588, denchryside B 589, dendrochrysanene 590, dendroflorin 528, dengibsin 529, dengibsin 529, emodin 591, gigantol 478, moscatilin 523, moscatilin 523, moscatin 479, physcion 592, β-sitosterol 11 [226,417,421,422,423,424]
50	Dendrobium fimbriatum Hook.	2-hydroxyethyl caffeate 593, ayapin 594, chrysophanol 583, chrysotobibenzyl (I) 595, confusarin 596, crepidatin 584, defuscin 527, denhydroshizukanolide 597, fimbriatone 598, n-dotriacontanoic acid 599, n-octacosyl ferulate 531, n-triacontyl cis-p-coumarate 571, physcion 592, rhein 600, scopolin methyl ether 601, β-sitosterol 11 [425,426]
51	Dendrobium loddigesii Rolfe	dendrophenol (4,4′-dihydroxy-3,3′,5-trimethoxybibenzyl) 563, loddigesiinols A-D 602-605, moscatilin 523, moscatilin diacetate 606, moscatin 479, shihunidine 607, shihunine 608, stilbenes 609 [250,251,252]
52	Dendrobium moniliforme (L.) Sw.	heptacosane 610, 3,4-dihydroxy-4′,5-dimethoxy bibenzyl 611, 3,4-dihydroxy-5,4′-dimethoxy bibenzyl 612, 4-methoxybenzaldehyde 613, a known alkaloid 6-hydroxynobiline 614, alkyl 4′-hydroxy-cis-cinnamates 615, alkyl ferulates 616, daucosterol 134, denbinobin 552, denbinobin, alkyl 4′-hydroxy-trans-cinnamates 617, dendromoniliside E 562, ethyl linolenates 618, heptatriaconsanoic acid 619, linoleic acid 620, methyl linolenates 621, moniliformin 622, moniline 623, n-nonacosane 624, n-octacosyl ferulate 531, n-triacontyl p-hydroxy-cis-cinnamate 625, octacosanyl hexadecanoate 626, phytosterols 627, stigmast-4-en-3-one 628, vanillin 293, α-dihydropicrotoxinin 629, β-sitosterol 11 [255,427,428,429,430,431]
53	Dendrobium moschatum (Buch.-Ham) S.w	moscatin 479, moscatilin 523 [432,433]
54	Dendrobium nobile Lindl.	10,12-dihydroxypicrotoxane 630, 10β,13,14-trihydroxyalloaromadendrane 631, 3,4,8-trimethoxyphenanthrene-2,5-diol 632, 3,4′-dihydroxy-5,5′-dimethoxydihydrostilbene 633, 3-O-methylgigantol 542, 5,7-dimethoxyphenanthrene-2,6-diol 634, 6-hydroxy-dendrobine (dendramine) 635, 6-hydroxy-dendroxine 636, 6α,10,12-trihydroxypicrotoxane 637, 7,12-dihydroxy-5-hydroxymethyl-11-isopropyl-6-methyl-9-oxatricyclo [6.2.1.02,6]undecan-10-one-15-O-β-d-glucopyranoside 638, batatasin III 471, bullatantirol 639, chrysotobibenzyl 524, coelonin 475, crepidatin 584, denbinobin 552, dendrobane A 640, dendrobin A,7 chrysotoxine 641, dendrobine 642, dendrobiumane 643, dendrodensiflorol, 644, dendroflorin 528, dendronobilin A-I 645–653, dendronobilin J 654, dendronobiline A 655, dendronobilosides A, B 656, 657, dendronophenol A-B 658, 659, dendroside A 660, dendroside E-G 661–663, dendroxineo 664, ephemeranthol A 665, epheneranthol C 666, erianthridin 667, fimbriol-B 668, flavanthridin 669, gigantol 478, hircinol 670, lusianthridin 671, moscatilin 523, moscatilin 523, moscatin, 479, gigantol 478, nobilin D-E 672, 673, nobilone 674, nobilonine 675, stigmasterol 248, β-sitosterol 11, β-sitosterol glucoside 12 [38,261,262,263,264,267,433,434,435,436,437,438]
55	Epidendrum strobiliferum Rchb.f.	24-methylenecycloartanol 676, campesterol 249, pholidotin 677, stigmasterol 248, β-sitosterol 11 [272]
56	Epidendrum rigidum Jacq.	2,3-dimethoxy-9,10-dihydrophenathrene-4,7-diol 678, 24-methyl-9,19-cyclolanostane-25-en-3β-ol 679, 3,4,9-trimethoxyphenanthrene-2,5-diol 680, apigenin 132, batatasin III 471, gigantol 478, isovitexin 681, stilbenoids I-IV 682–685, triterterpenoids 24,24-dimethyl-9,19-cyclolanostane-25-en-3β-ol 686, vitexin 283 [274]
57	Mycaranthes pannea (Lindl.) S.C.Chen & J.J.Wood	Acervatol 687, acervatone 688, flavanthridin 669, flavanthrinin 689 [276]
58	Camaridium densum (Lindl.) M.A.Blanco	2,5-dihydroxy-3,4-dimethoxyphenanthrene 690, 2,5-dihydroxy-3,4-dimethoxyphenanthrene 690, 9,10-dihydro-2,5-dihydroxy-3,4-dimethoxyphenanthrene 691, 9,10-dihydro-2,7-dihydroxy-3,4-dimethoxyphenanthrene 692, erianthridin 667, fimbriol-A 693, gymnopusin 694, nudol 695 [37,439]
59	Nidema boothii (Lindl.) Schltr.	1,5,7-trimethoxy-9,10-dihydrophenanthrene-2,6-diol, 696, 1,5,7-trimethoxyphenanthrene-2,6-diol 697, 2,4-dimethoxyphenanthrene-3,7-diol 488, 9,19-cyclolanosta-24,24-dimethyl-25-en-3β-yl trans-p-hydroxycinnamate 698, aloifol II 507, batatasin III 471, ephemeranthol B 699, ephemeranthoquinone 700, gigantol 478, lusianthridin 671, nidemin 701, nidemone 702 [282,440]
60	Pholidota articulata Lindl.	2,7-dihydroxy-3,4,6-trimethoxyla 9, 10-dihydrophenanthrene flavidin 703, 2,7-dihydroxyll-methoxy-9,10-dihydrophenanthrene (coelonin) 704, 9, 10-dihydrophenanthrenes 705, coelogin 706, coeloginin 707, flavidin 708, flavidinin 709, oxoflavidinin 710 [441]
61	Pholidota chinensis Lindl.	(E)-2′,3,3′-trihydroxy-5-methoxystilbene (pholidotol C) 711, (Z)-3,3′-hydroxy-5-methoxystilbene (pholidotol D) 712, 2,4,7-trihydroxy-9,10-dihydrophenanthrene 539, 2,5-dimethoxy-3,4,3′,4′-bis(dimethylenedioxy)bibenzyl 713, 3,4′-dihydroxy-3′,5-dimethoxybibenzyl 714, 3,4-dihydroxy-4-methoxydihydrostilbene 715, 4,4′-dihydroxydiphenylmethane 716, 4,5-dihydroxy-2-methoxy-9,10-dihydrophenanthrene 717, 5,3′-dihydroxy-2,3-(methylenedioxy)bibenzyl 718, 9,10-dihydro-2,4-dihydroxy-7-methoxyphenanthrene 719, batatasin III 471, blestrianol A 720, blestrin A 721, bulbophylol B 722, cannabidihydrophenanthrene 723, coelonin 475, coelonin 475, cyclopholidone 724, cyclopholidone 724, cyclopholidonol 725, cyclopholidonol 725, erianthridin 667, eulophiol 726, flavanthrin 727, flavanthrin 727, gymconpin C 728, hircinol 670, lusianthridin 671, lusianthridin, 671, phochinenins A – F 729–734, phochinenins G-L 735–740, pholidotols A-B 741, 742, 3,4-dihydroxy-5-methoxydihydrostilbene 743, phoyunnanin D 744, p-hydroxybenzaldehyde 432, p-hydroxybenzyl alcohol 745, protocatechuic aldehyde 746, resveratrol 747, thunalbene 748, thunalbene 749, trans-3-3-dihydroxy-2,5-dimthoxystilbene 750, trans-3-hydroxy-2,3,5-trimthoxystilbene 751, β-daucosterol 752 [285,286,442,443,444,445]
62	Scaphyglottis livida (Lindl.) Schltr.	24,24,dimethyl-9,19-cyclolanosta-9(11),25-dien-3-one (cyclobalanone) 753, 3,4′-dihydroxy-3′,4,5-trimetoxybibenzyl 754, 3,4′-dihydroxy-3′,5-dimethoxybibenzyl 714, 3,7-dihydroxy-2,4,8-trimethoxyphenanthrene 755, 3,7-dihydroxy-2,4-dimethoxyphenanthrene 756, 5α-lanosta-24,24-dimethyl-9(11),25-dien-3β-ol 757, batatasin III 471, coelonin 475, gigantol 478, nidemin 701 [287,288,440]
63	Papilionanthe teres (Roxb.) Schltr.	eucomic acid 758, vandaterosides I-III 759–761 [295]
64	Vanda tessellate (Roxb.) Hook. ex G. Don.	Oxotessallatin 762 [446]
	Piperaceae
65	Peperomia galioides Kunth	(+)-epi-α-bisabolol 763, galopiperone 764, grifolic acid 765, grifolin 766, hydropiperone 767, piperogalin 768, piperogalone 769 [447,448,449]
66	Piper retrofractum Vahl	28-methylnonacos-27-en-1-oic acid 770, 3-methyl-5-decanoylpyridine 771, caffeic acid 228, di-methyl 3,4-bis(4-hydroxyphenyl)-1,2-cyclobutanedicarboxylate 772, esculetin 773, methyl piperate 774, N-isobutyleicosa-2,4-dienamide 775, p-coumaric acid 334, pipereicosalidine 776, piperine 777, piperine 777, pipernonaline 778, piperoctadecalidine 779, retrofractamide-D 780, retrofractamides A, C 781, 782, uracil 783, uridine 575, vitexin 283, vitexin 2′-O-β-glucopyranoside 784, β-d-glucopyranoside 266, β-sitosterol 11 [301,306,450,451,452,453]
	Rubiaceae
67	Hydnophytum formicarum Jack	4-aminophenyl acetate 785, 7,3′,5′-trihydroxyflavone 786, butein 787, butin 788, Isoliquiritigenin 789, protocatechualdehyde 226, stigmast-4-en-3-one 628, stigmasterol 248, β-sitosterol 11 [313,361]
	Viscaceae
68	Viscum articulatum Burm.f.	(2S)-5,3,4-trihydroxyflavanone 7-O-β-d-glucoside 790, (2S)-homoeriodictyol 791, (2S)-homoeriodictyol 7-O-β-d-glucoside 792, (2S)-naringenin 7-O-β-d-glucoside 793, (2S)-pinocembrin 7-O-[cinnamoyl(1→5)-β-d-apiosyl(1→2)]-β-d-glucoside 794, (2S)-pinocembrin 7-O-[β-d-apiosyl(1→2)]-β-d-glucoside (1) 795, (2S)-pinocembrin 7-O-β-d-glucoside 796, (4′-hydroxy-2′,3′,6′,3′′-tetramethoxy-1,3-diphenylpropane)-4′′-O-β-d-glucopyranoside 797, 1-O-benzyl-[5-O-benzoyl-β-Dapiofuranosyl(1→2)]-β-d-glucopyranoside 798, 2-deoxy-epi-inositol 799, 2-phenylethanol 800, 4-β-d-glucosyloxy-3-hydroxy-benzoic acid 801, 4′-hydroxy-7,3′-dimethoxyflavan-5-O-β-d-glucopyranoside 802, 4-O-cinnamoyl quinic acid 803, 5,3′,4′-trihydroxyflavanone-7-O-β-d-glucopyranoside 804, 5,4′-dihydroxyflavanone-7-O-β-d-lucopyranoside 805, 7-O-β-d-glucopyranoside 806, botulin 807, betulin 808, betulinic acid 809, cinnamic acid methyl ester 810, diphenylpropane glycoside 811, eriodictyol 7-O-β-d-glucopyranoside 812, homoeriodictyol 7-O-β-d-glucopyranoside 813, homoeriodictyol-7-O-β-d-glucopyranoside 814, homoeriodictyol-7-O-β-d-glucopyranoside-4′-O-β-d-(5′′′-cinnamoyl)apiofuranoside 815, homoeriodictyol-7-O-β-d-glucopyranoside-4′-O-β-d-apiofuranoside 816, lupenyl acetate 817, lupeol 247, lupeol acetate 818, lupeol palmitate 819, lupeol stearate 820, lycorin 821, methylparaben 822, naringenin 7-O-β-d-glucopyranoside 823, Oleanolic acid 127, p-hydroxybenzaldehyde 432, p-hydroxy-benzoic acid 824, pinocembrin 825, pinocembrin 7-O-β-d-glucopyranoside 826, pinocembrin-7-O-[cinnamoyl (1→5)-β-d-apiofuranosyl (1→2)]-β-d-glucopyranoside 827, pinocembrin-7-O-β-d-apio furanosyl(1→2)-β-d-glucopyranoside 828, pinocembrin-7-O-β-d-apiofuranosyl-(1→5)-β-d-apiofuranosyl-(1→2)-β-d-glucopyranoside 829, protocatechuic acid 189, vanillin 293, visartisides A-C 830, 831, 832, visartisides D-F (4–6) 833, 834, 835, viscumitol 836, α-amyrin 342, β-amyrin acetate 837, β-sitosterol 11 [319,320,321,322,323,454,455,456]
69	Viscum ovalifolium DC	3-O-α-l-arabinopyranoyl-hederagenin-28-O-β-d-glucopyranosyl-(1→6)-β-d-glucopyranoside 838, gypsogenic acid 839, hederagenin 840, hederagenin-3-O-α-l-arabinopyranoside 841, hederagenin-3-O-α-l-arabinopyranoyl-(2→1)-O-β-d-glucopyranoside 842, lupeol acetate 818, lupeol palmitate 819, oleanolic acid 127, lupeol stearate 820, β-amyrin 198, β-amyrin acetate 344 [457,458]

Therefore, while epiphytes may have limitations in accessing nutrients, adaptation has enabled them to successfully survive these environments. Studies on numerous medicinal epiphytes show that the unique environment does not constrain the plants from producing different types of secondary metabolites. These include terpenes, flavonoids, and alkaloids, especially the non-fern epiphytic medicinal plants.

4. Pharmacological Activities of Vascular Epiphytic Medicinal Plants

The pharmacological activities of medicinal epiphytes are summarised in Table 1, including the plant species, ethnopharmacological indication, and pharmacological test results. The ethnopharmacological uses of each plant are also present for a correlation and comparison with the pharmacological activities. There are a large number of phytochemical studies on the four fern-epiphytes (Stenochlaena palustris (Burm. F.) Bedd., Botrychum lanuginosum Wall.ex Hook & Grev., Pyrrosia petiolosa (Christ) Ching, Psilotum nudum (L.) P. Beauv) without any biological activity testing reported. This occurred to four non-fern epiphytes (Bulbophyllum vaginatum (Lindl.) Rchb.f, Mycaranthes pannea (Lindl.) S.C.Chen & J.J.Wood, Pholidota articulata Lindl., Viscum ovalifolium DC) and non-fern epiphytic medicinal plants. This lack of pharmacological testing limits scientific support for the traditional uses of these plants.

From the 191 collected records of epiphytic medicinal plants, around 71 species were subjected to bioactivity testing, with 25 of these species using crude extract samples. Although this testing represents almost 50% of the species examined, only a few of the pharmacological tests were related to ethnopharmacological claims. Here, we discuss selected species where the outcomes indicated a coherent relationship between bioactivities and traditional claims.

4.1. Infectious Disease Therapy

Research on epiphytes that have been used in infectious disease therapy include in wound healing, dysentery, and skin infections. A study on the methanol extract of Adiantum caudatum L., Mant showed anti-fungal activity against common fungi found in wounds (Aspergilus and Candida species) [39], including Aspergillus flavus, A. spinulosus, A. nidulans, and Candida albicans, with minimum inhibitory concentration (MIC) values of 15.6, 15.6, 31.2, and 3.9 µg/mL, respectively. Gallic acid was one of the bioactive constituents [40]. The methanol extract of Ficus natalensis Hochst (a semi-epiphytic plant) showed anti-malarial activity against Plasmodium falciparum, with an half maximal inhibitory concentration (IC₅₀) value of 41.7 µg/mL, and weak bactericidal activity against Staphylococcus aureus, with an MIC value of 99 µg/mL [41]. These results became preliminary data for confirming its traditional uses as malarial fever therapy and wound healing. Phytochemical studies on Pyrrosia sheareri (Bak.) Ching successfully isolated several compounds and were subjected to anti-oxidant testing. While this was not in line with the plant’s ethnomedical uses for dysentery therapy [42], one of the isolated constituents was protocateuchic acid, which is known to possess anti-bacterial activity. It implies that the traditional uses of the epiphyte was for bacillary dysentery therapy.

4.2. Non-Infectious/Degenerative Disease-Related Therapy

An exploration on Drynaria species, highly prescribed in bone fracture therapy, successfully isolated flavonoid constituents that induce osteoblast proliferation [43]. Previous studies on Acrostichum aureum Limme failed to show its anti-bacterial activities [44] contrary to its traditional claims in wound management. However, patriscabratine 257 was isolated from the defatted methanol extract of whole plant of A. aureum, and subsequent testing showed it possessed anti-cancer activity in gastric cells and this supprted the traditional use of the plant in peptic ulcer therapy [35]. A decoction from the epiphyte Ficus deltoida has been used to treat diabetes. A study on the hot aqueous extract of this plant revealed anti-hyperglycemic activity by stimulating insulin secretion up to seven-fold. Furthermore, its activity mechanism was related to both the K⁺_ATP-dependant and -non-dependant insulin secretion pathway [45]. However, further studies are required to identify the constituents responsible for the anti-hyperglycaemic activity.

The Indigenous people of Paraguay have used Catasetum barbatum Lindley to topically treat inflammation. Four bioactive compounds were isolated from this species and 2,7-dihydroxy-3,4,8-trimethoxyphenanthrene (confusarin) 595 showed the highest anti-inflammatory activity [46]. The study also revealed the compound to be a non-competitive inhibitor of the H₁-receptor.

From the polypodiaceae family, the rhizome of Phymatodes scolopendria (burm.) Ching has been used to treat respiratory disorders. A bioassay-guided phytochemical study on Phymatodes scolopendria (Burm. f.) Pic. Serm. isolated 1,2-benzopyrone (coumarin) 209 as a bronchodilator [47].

5. Epiphytic Plant–Host Interactions on Secondary Metabolite Tapping

Secondary metabolite tapping has been an interesting study to reveal the molecular interactions between epiphytes and their host. This interaction was more visible when a physical channel between the two were developed. This channel (haustorium) made an epiphytic plant act as a parasite that enabled the plant to harvest molecular components from the host plant. A study on Scurulla oortiana (Korth.) Danser growth in three different host species (Citrus maxima, Persea Americana, and Camellia sinensis) identified three secondary metabolites (quercitrin, isoquercitrin, and rutin) in the S. oortiana (Korth.) Danser epiphyte growing on the three hosts [48]. Interestingly, extensive chromatographic and spectroscopic studies discovered that the flavonoids found in the S. oortiana (Korth.) Danser were independent of the host plants [48]. Secondary metabolite production in a host plant can also be triggered by the existence of a parasite, as discussed in a study on Tapirira guianensis infested by Phoradendron perrottetii, in which infested branches produced more tannin compare to non-infested branches, with infestation inducing a systemic response [48].

6. Conclusions

Epiphytes are the most beautiful vascular plants and contain interesting phytochemicals and possess exciting pharmacological activities. An analysis of the literature revealed 185 epiphytes that are used in traditional medicine, in which phytochemical studies identified a total of 842 secondary metabolites. Only 71 epiphytic medicinal plants were studied for their pharmacological activities and showed promising pharmacological activities, including anti-inflammatory, antimicrobial, and anticancer. Several species were not investigated for their activities and are worthy of exploration, including epiphytes from the Araceae (P. fragantissimum), Aralliaceae (S. caudata, S. elliptica, S. elliptifoliola, S. oxyphylla, S. simulans), and Asclepidaceae (Asclopidae sp., D. acuminate, D. benghalensis, D. imbricate, D. major, D. nummularia, D. platyphylla, D. purpurea, Toxocarpus sp) families, in which no phytochemical and pharmacological studies had been reported. These species have been used by Indigenous populations to treat both degenerative and nondegenerative diseases. It is known that there are examples of Indigenous populations living in protected forest reserves (e.g., in Indonesia) where epiphytes are used in their medicine, e.g., some species of Dischidia are used to treat fever, eczema, herpes etc.; these plants have not yet been studied. Therefore, the possibility of responsible bioprospecting exists (in compliance with the Nagoya protocol), which would be invaluable in biodiscovery knowledge as well as in mutual benefit sharing agreements.

Author Contributions

Conceptualization, A.S.N., P.W., P.A.K.; data curation and analysis, A.S.N.; making and editing of the figures, A.S.N.; writing—original draft preparation, A.S.N., P.W., P.A.K.; writing—review and editing, A.S.N., B.T., P.W., P.A.K. All authors have read and agreed to the published version of the manuscript.

Funding

This research received no external funding.

Conflicts of Interest

The authors declare no conflict of interest.