Table 1.
Ethnopharmacological database of epiphytic medicinal plants.
| No | Epiphyte Species | Location | Part of Plants | Preparation and Route of Administration | Indication (traditional) | Pharmacological Testing (modern) |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Fern species | ||||||
| Adiantaceae | ||||||
| 1 | Adiantum caudatum L. | India, Indonesia, Malaysia | LF | Decoction | Cough, heal wound, cold, tumors of spleen, liver and other viscera, skin diseases, bronchitis, and inflammatory diseases [40,49,50] | Antimicrobial (MeOH extract, gram +, -, fungi) [40] |
| Aspleanceae | ||||||
| 2 | Asplenium nidus L. | Tahiti, Malaysia, Philippines, Vanuatu, Indonesia | LF, WP | Ointment, decoction, eaten | Headache, hair loss (pounded leaves mixed with coconut oil), ease labor, fever (decoction), contraceptive, depurative, sedative agents. edible food (young leaves), ornament, anti-inflammation, promote blood circulation [51,52,53] | Antioxidative (MeOH extract, DPPH), tyrosinase inhibiting (MeOH extract, microtitre), antibacterial (MeOH extract) [44] |
| 3 | Asplenium macrophyllum Sw. | India | LF | Decoction | As laxative, emetic, diuretic, anthelmintic agent, to treat ophthalmia, jaundice, spleen diseases [52,54] | |
| 4 | Asplenium polydon G. Foster var bipinnatum (Sledge) | India | LF | Decoction, paste | Promote labor, tumor [55] | |
| 5 | Asplenium serratum L. | Columbia, Peru | na | Not mentioned | Liver problem, stomachache, ovary inflammation [52,56] | |
| Blechnaceae | ||||||
| 6 | Stenochlaena palustris (Burm. F.) Bedd. | Indonesia, India | LF, RZ | Eaten, decoction, poultice | Young reddish leaves are used as food, leaves are used to treat fever, skin diseases, throat, and gastric ulcer, as antibacterial, rhizome and leaves are used to treat burns and ulcers, as cooling agent [18,57] | |
| Davalliaceae | ||||||
| 7 | Davallia denticulata (Burm. f.) Mett. ex Kuhn | Malaysia, Indonesia | RT | Decoction | Gout, pain, as tonic [49,58] | |
| 8 | Araiostegia divaricata (Blume) M. Kato | China, Taiwan | WP | Not mentioned | Joint pain [59] | Anti-psoriasis [60], antioxidant (water extract, DPPH) [61] |
| 9 | Davallia parvula Wall. Ex Hook. & Grev. | na | Not mentioned | Not mentioned [18,62] | ||
| 10 | Davallia solida (G. Forst.) Sw. | Tahiti, Fiji, other Polynesian | WP | Decoction (external and internal) | Dysmennorrhea, luochorea, uterine hemorrhage, sore throat, asthma, constipation, fracture, fish sting, promote health pregnancy, as a bath for newborn, anti-microbial [53,63,64,65] | Antioxidant (extract, ABTS) [61], antioxidant (DPPH, all isolates) [66], anti-neurotoxicity (extract, (Neuro-2a cells, ATCC CCL-131) [67], C-terminal cytosolic domain of P-pg [68], anti-skin aging [69] |
| 11 | Leucostegia immersa Wall. ex C. Presl | Nepal | RZ | Decoction, paste | Boils (paste), constipation (decoction), as antibacterial (paste) [70] | |
| Gesneriaceae | ||||||
| 12 | Aeschynanthus radicans Jack | Malaysia | LF | Decoction | Headache [19] | |
| 13 | Cyrtandra sp | Indonesia | LF | Poultice | Skin ailments [71] | |
| Hymenophyllaceae | ||||||
| 14 | Hymenophyllum polyanthos Sw. | Suriname | WP | Burnt (smoke inhaling), decoction | Dizziness (insanity), pain, cramps [72] | |
| 15 | Hymenophyllum javanicum Spreng. | India | WP | Smoke together with garlic and onions | Headache [55] | |
| Lycopodiaceae | ||||||
| 16 | Huperzia carinata (Desv. ex Poir.) Trevis | South-East Asia | WP | Ointment | Stimulate hair growth [73] | Anti-acetylcholinesterase (74, 75, 76, colorimetric Ellman method) [74] |
| 17 | Huperzia phlegmaria (L.) Rothm | South-East Asia, India | WP | Ointment | Stimulate hair growth, skin diseases [75,76] | Cytotoxic activities against HuCCA-1, A-549, HepG2, and MOLT-3 cancer cell lines (81, 79, 77) [77] |
| 18 | Huperzia megastachya (Baker) Tardieu | Madagascar | LF | Decoction (infusion) | Tonic [78] | |
| 19 | Huperzia obtusifolia (Sw.) Rothm. | Madagascar | LF | Decoction (infusion) | Tonic [78] | |
| Nephrolepidaceae | ||||||
| 20 | Nephrolepis acutifolia (Desv.) Christ | Malaysia | WP | Boiled, eaten | Food [79] | |
| 21 | Nephrolepis biserrata (Sw.) Schott | Malaysia, Indonesia, Ivory Coast, New Guinea | LF, RZ, WP | Decoction, cooked | Leaves are used to treat boils, blister, abscesses, sores, and cough. Rhizomes are used as edible food [80,81] | Antibacterial (extract) [82] |
| Oleandraceae | ||||||
| 22 | Nephrolepis cordifolia (L.) C. Presl | India | RZ | Decoction (fresh leaves) | Cough, rheumatism, chest congestion, nose blockage, loss appetites, infection (antibacterial), pinnae is used to treat cough, wounds, jaundice, anti-fungal, styptic, anti-tussive [57] | Antibacterial, anti-fungal (extract fractions aerial part) [83] |
| 23 | Oleandra musifolia (Blume) C. Presl | Philippines, India | ST | Decoction | Anthelmintic, emmenagogue, antidote (snake bite) [70,84] | |
| Opioglossaceae | ||||||
| 24 | Botrychum lanuginosum Wall.ex Hook & Grev. | India | WP | Decoction, paste | Antibacterial, anti-dysentery agents [57] | |
| 25 | Ophioglossum pendulum L. | Indonesia, Philippines | LF | Ointment, decoction. | Hair treatment (crushed leaves), cough (decocotion), rid the first feces (spores), ornament [85] | Cell activator, skin whitening agent and antioxidant (patent, mixed with other Ophioglossum species) [86], anti-diarrhea (stipe MeOH extract, rabit jejenum) [86] |
| Polypodiaceae | ||||||
| 26 | Pyrrosia piloselloides (L.) M.G. Price | Indonesia, Malaysia, China, Philippines, Pacific islands | LF | Decoction (internal), chewed, poultice (external) | Smallpox, rashes, gonorrhea, dysentery, tuberculosis, urinary tract infection, headache, cough, gum inflammation, tooth sockets, eczema, coagulate blood [87,88,89,90] | Antibacterial, anti-fungal (extracts) [91] |
| 27 | Drynaria rigidula (Sw.) Bedd. | Indonesia, Philippines, Treasury Island | LF, RZ | Decoction, chewing | Gonorrhea, dysentery (rhizome, decoction), and seasickness (chewed) [21] | n-Hexane, dichloromethane and ethyl acetate fractions from both rhizome and leaves of Drynaria rigidula were screened for activity against Plasmodium falciparum, Mycobacterium tuberculosis, vero cells and herpes simplex virus which all extracts showed insignificant activities [92] |
| 28 | Drynaria sparsisora (Desv.) T. Moore | Indonesia, Philippines, Thailand | LF, RZ | External, decoction | Rhizome: headache, fever, diarrhea, gonorrhea, swollen limbs, fever. Leaves: anti-vomiting, snake bite, eye infection [21,71,93] | |
| 29 | Drynaria roosii Nakaike | China | WP | Decoction | Deficient kidney, invigorate blood, heal wound, stop bleeding [21] | Compound 230 was isolated and the biotesting showed the highest stimulation toward UMR 106 cells (osteoblast) by 42.6% at a concentration of 1 µM [94] |
| 30 | Drynaria propinqua (Wall. ex Mett.) Bedd | Bhutan, India and Nepal | ST | Pills | Antidote and detoxifier especially when suffering from meat poisoning and other human-made poisons (sbyar-dug) [95] | |
| 31 | Drynaria quercifolia (L.) J.Sm. | Malaysia, Philippines, Indonesia, India | LF, RZ | Decoction, poultice | Swelling, fever (poultice leaves), haemoptysis, typhoid fever, ulcers, dyspepsia, artharlgia, diarrhea (decocted rhizome), inflammation, anthelmitic, cough, fever, phthisis, poultice of rhizome mixed with Lannea coromandelica (Houtt.) Merr.) to treat headache, hepatoprotective agent [21,22,96] | Compound 200 from the ethyl acetate fraction to be responsible for good antimicrobial activity [97] |
| 32 | Lepisorus contortus (Christ) Ching | Bhutan, India, China | LF | Powder | Heals bone fracture, burns, wounds and kidney disorders [98] | |
| 33 | Loxogramme involuta (D. Don) C. Presl | Indonesia | LF, WP | Smoked | Smoked with tobacco [18] | |
| 34 | Loxogramme scolopendria (Bory) Presley | Indonesia | LF | Smoked | Cigarette paper [99] | |
| 35 | Microsorum fortunei (T. Moore) Ching | Indonesia | WP | Decoction | Diuretic, promote blood circulation [49,51] | |
| 36 | Microsorum punctatum (L.) Copel. | India | LF | Juice | Diuretic, purgative, wounds [70] | |
| 37 | Phlebodium aureum (L.) J.Sm | Mexico | RZ | Decoction | Cough, fever, sudorific agents [57] | |
| 38 | Phymatosorus scolopendria (Burm. f.) Pic. Serm. | South-East Asia, Madagascar | RZ | Fragrance (external), poultice, decoction | Fragrance, gecko bites, accelerate childbirthRespiratory disorder [18,47] | Bronchodilator (341, in-vivo) [47] |
| 39 | Platycerium coronarium (Mull.) Desv. | Indonesia | LF | Poultice (salt added) | Thyroid edema, scabies [18,100] | |
| 40 | Platycerium bifurcatum (Cav.) C. Chr. | Indonesia | LF | Poultice (salt added) | Thyroid edema, scabies, fever, swelling [100,101] | |
| 41 | Pleopeltis macrocarpa (Bory ex Willd.) Kaulf. | South-Africa, Mexico, Guatemala | LF, RZ | Decoction | Sore throat, itches, cough, febrifuge [70,102] | |
| 42 | Pyrrosia heterophylla (L.) M.G. Price | India | WP | Poultice | Swelling, sprain, pain (cooling agent) [103] | |
| 43 | Pyrrosia lanceolata (L.) Farw. | Malaysia, South-Africa, Mexico | LF, WP | Juice, poultice, decoction | Dysentery, headache, colds, sore throats, itch guard [55,87] | |
| 44 | Pyrrosia lingua (Thunb.) Farw. | Japan, China, Indonesia, Pacific Islands | LF, WP | Decoction | Diuretic, anti-inflammation, analgesic, cough, stomachache, urinary disorder (diuretic agent) [87,104,105,106] | Antioxidant [107], inhibition effects on virus-induced CPE when SARS-CoV strain BJ001 [108] |
| 45 | Pyrrosia longifolia (Burm. f.) C.V. Morton | Indonesia, Pacific Islands | LF | Poultice (cold water) | Ease pains in labor [18,87] | |
| 46 | Pyrrosia petiolosa (Christ) Ching | China | WP | Decoction | Urinary tract infections, as diuretic [109] | |
| 47 | Pyrrosia sheareri (Baker) Ching | China | LF | Decoction | Bacillary dysentery, rheumatism [87,110] | Antioxidant [110] |
| Psilotaceae | ||||||
| 48 | Psilotum nudum (L.) P. Beauv. | India | LF, SP | Fresh, decoction | Diarrhea (infants), antibacterial, purgative [55] | |
| Pteridaceae | ||||||
| 49 | Acrostichum aureum L. | South-East Asia, Bangladesh, Fiji, China, Panama | LF, RZ | Eaten, decoction | Wounds, peptic ulcers and boils, worm infections, asthma, constipation, elephantiasis, febrifuge, chest pain, emollients [18,35] | Anti-implantation (EtOH extract, albino rats) [111], Anti-tumour (hella cells, MTT assay) [112], Antioxidant (DPPH), tyrosine inhibition (96-well microtitre), antibacterial activity [44,113], anti-cancer ((gastric: AGS; colon: HT-29 and breast: MDA-MB-435S) using the MTT assay) [114] |
| 50 | Acrostichum speciosum Willd. | South-East Asia | Thatch [18] | |||
| 51 | Taenitis blechnoides (Willd.) Sw. | Malaysia | LF | Decoction | Postnatal protection [115] | |
| Selaginellaceae | ||||||
| 52 | Selaginella tamariscina (P.Beauv.) Spring | Nepal | WP, SP | Fresh (spore), decoction | Vermilion powder, prolapsed rectum, cough, bleeding piles, amenorrhea, antibacterial [57,116] | Anti-acne [117], thymus growth-stimulatory activity in adult mice (reversal of involution of thymus) and remarkable anti-lipid peroxidation activity [118] |
| Vittariaceae | ||||||
| 53 | Vittaria elongata Sw. | South-East Asia, Andaman | LF | Decoction | Rheumatism [57] | Cytotoxicity against two human cancer cell lines, lung carcinoma (NCI-H460) and central nervous system carcinoma (SF-268), antioxidant (DPPH) [119] |
| Non-Fern | ||||||
| Araceae | ||||||
| 54 | Philodendron fragrantissimum (Hook.) G.Don | Guyana, Suriname, Brazil | LF, RT | Decoction, external (leaves) | Inflammation, aphrodisiac, demulcent, diuretic [72] | |
| Aralliaceae | ||||||
| 56 | Schefflera caudata (Vidal) Merr. & Rolfe | Philippines | WP | Decoction | Tonic for women after birth [120] | |
| 57 | Schefflera elliptica (Blume) Harms. | South-East Asia, China, India | BK, LF, RT | Decoction, chewed, external | Bechic, vulnerary, toothache, aromatic bath, dropsy [120]. | Antibacterial [121] |
| 58 | Schefflera elliptifoliola Merr. | Philippines | LF | Decoction | Tonic for woman after birth [120] | |
| 59 | Schefflera oxyphylla (Miq.) R.Vig. | Thailand, Malaysia, Indonesia | RT | Decoction | Sedative for frightened child, externally to treat fevers [120] | |
| 60 | Schefflera simulans Craib | Thailand, Malaysia | LF, RT | Decoction | Stomach problem, protective medicine after birth [120] | |
| Asclepiadaceae | ||||||
| 61 | Asclopidae sp. | Indonesia | LF, RT | Decoction | Promote blood circulation [71] | |
| 62 | Dischidia acuminata Costantin | Vietnam | WP | Decoction | Blenorrhoea, promote urination [19] | |
| 63 | Dischidia bengalensis Colebr. | Thailand | LT, RT | Latex (external), decoction (tonic) | Anthemintic (ringworm), tonic [122] | |
| 64 | Dischidia imbricata (Blume) Steud. | Indonesia | LF | Poultice | Gonorrhea, burns and wounds [25,123] | |
| 65 | Dischidia major (Vahl) Merr. | India, Thailand, Philippines, Malaysia, Brunei | LF, RT, WP | Decoction, chrused (external), chewed with areca catechu | Peptic ulcer, liver dysfunction (decocted leaves mixed with Hoya kerii Craib leaves and Vanilla aphylla Blume stem), fever (root), goiter (crushed leaves mixed with salt), cough (root mixed betel quid), wound and injuries, stomache [19,124,125] | |
| 66 | Dischidia nummularia R.Br. | Thailand, Indonesia | LF, LT, WP | Decoction, latex (external) | Wound, gonorrhea, sprue in children, cirrhosis [126] | |
| 67 | Dischidia platyphylla Schltr | Philippines | LF | Decoction | Putrefaction [19] | |
| 68 | Dischidia purpurea Merr. | Philippines | LF | Crushed leaves mixed with coconut oil applied as external poultice | Eczema, herpes [19,127] | |
| 69 | Toxocarpus sp. | Indonesia | LF | Decoction | Headache, fever, nervous system problem [71] | |
| Balsaminaceae | ||||||
| 70 | Impatiens niamniamensis Gilg (semi epiphytic) | Congo | LF | Poultice | Wounds, sores, pain [128] | Anti-hyperglicemic (Rat) [129] |
| 71 | Convolvulaceace (parasite) | |||||
| 72 | Cassytha filiformis L | India, Taiwan, China, Vietnam, Malaysia, Philippines, Indonesia, Fiji, Africa, Central America. | WP, NT | Decoction | Cough, dysentery, diarrhea, intestinal problems, headache, malaria fever, nephritis, edema, hepatitis, sinusitis, gonorrhea, syphilis, skin ulcer, eczema, prevent haemoptysis. Parasite skin and scalp. Induce lactation (after still birth), promote hair growth, diuretic, vermifuge, laxative agent, saliva blood removal (childbirth) [19,130,131,132] | An α1-adrenoceptor antagonist (Rat thoracic aorta) [133], antiplatelet and vasorelaxing actions (Rabit platelet, aortic contraction) [134], anti-trypanosomal, citotoxicity [135], antioxidant [136] |
| 73 | Cuscuta australis R.Br. | Indonesia, Vietnam, China | WP, SD | Decoction, poultice | Whole plant: emollient, sedative, sudorific and tonic agents, urinary complaint. The seeds: sedative agent, diabetes, cornea opacity, acne, dandruff [137]. | Cytotoxicity, antioxidant activity, and inhibitory effects on tyrosinase activity and melanin biosynthesis were estd. by using melanoma Clone M-3 [138] |
| 74 | Cuscuta reflexa Roxb. | India | WP | Decoction, poultice | Mixed with the twigs of Vitex negundo L. applied as fomentation on the abdomen of kwarsiokor children, fever, itchy [139,140] | Anti-viral [141,142], anti-HIV [143], analgesic, relaxant (ether extract) [144], antisteroidogenic activity (MeOH extract) [141], antibacterial activity [145], hair growth activity in androgen-induced alopecia [146], anti-inflammatory (murine macrophage cell line RAW264.7), anti-cancer (Hep3B cells by MTT assay) [147], antioxidant (etOAc extract, DPPH), anti-obesity (EtOAc extract) [148] |
| Clusiaceae | ||||||
| 75 | Clusia grandiflora Splitg. (hemi epiphyte) | Guyana, Suriname | RT | Decoction | Aphrodisiac [72] | Antibacterial [149] |
| 76 | Clusia fockeana Miq. (hemi epiphyte) | Guyana, Suriname | ST(Exudate) | Poultice | Snake bites, ulcers [72] | |
| Gesneriaceae | ||||||
| 77 | Columnea nicaraguensis Oerst. | Panama | ST, LF, WP | Decoction, maceration | Fever [150] | |
| 78 | Columnea sanguinolenta (Klotzsch ex Oerst.) Hanst. | Panama | ST, LF | Decoction | Dysmenorrhea [150] | |
| 79 | Columnea tulae Urb. var. tomentulosa (C.V. Morton) B.D. Morley | Panama | ST | Decoction | Fever [150] | |
| 80 | Drymonia serrulata (Jacq.) Mart. | Amazon | na | Not mentioned | Eczema [151] | Analgesic, anti-inflammatory [152] |
| 81 | Drymonia coriacea (Oerst. ex Hanst.) Wiehler | Amazon | na | Not mentioned | Toothache [151] | |
| Loganiaceae | ||||||
| 82 | Fagraea auriculata Jack. (semi epiphyte) | Indonesia | ST | Stem for stick [25] | Anti-inflammatory [153] | |
| Loranthaceae (parasite) | ||||||
| 83 | Amyema bifurcata (Benth.) Tiegh. | Australia | ST, LF | Decoction | Colds, fever, sores [154] | |
| 84 | Amyema quandang (Lindl.) Tiegh. | Australia | LF | Decoction | Fever [155] | |
| 85 | Amyema maidenii (Blakely) Barlow | Australia | FT | Decoction | Inflammation in the genital regions [156] | |
| 86 | Dendrophthoe falcata (L.f.) Ettingsh | India | WP | Decoction | Pulmonary tuberculosis, asthma, menstrual disorders, swellings, wounds, ulcers, strangury, renal and vesical calculi, aphrodisiac, astringent, narcotic, diuretic [157]. | Wound healing activity was studied, antimicrobial activity and antioxidant activity [158] |
| 87 | Dendrophthoe frutescens L. | Indonesia | LF, WP | Drink (decoction) | Anti-inflammation, antibacterial [51] | |
| 88 | Dendrophthoe incarnata (Jack) Miq. | Malaysia | LF | Poultice | Mixed with Curcuma longa L and rice to make poultice to treat ringworm [159] | |
| 89 | Dendrophthoe pentandra (L.) Miq. | Indonesia, Malaysia, Thailand, Vietnam | LF, WP | Poultice, decoction | Sores, ulcers, other skins infections, protective medicine after childbirth, cough, hypertension, cancer, diabetes, tonsil problem [18,25,159,160] | Antioxidant (MeOH extract, DPPH), Tyrosinase activity [160] |
| 90 | Taxillus umbellifer (Schult. f.) Danser | Indonesia, Malaysia, Vietnam | RT, LF | Decoction drink, poultice | Fever, headache, wounds [159] | |
| 91 | Erianthemum dregei (Eckl. & Zeyh.) Tiegh. | Southern & Eastern Africa | BK | Mixed with milk | Powdered mixed with milk to treat stomach problems in children [161] | |
| 92 | Loranthus globosus Roxb | Malaysia, Indo-China | LF, ST, FT | Poultice (leaves), juice | Headache, expel afterbirth, cough [162] | Antimicrobial, cytotoxicity (brine shrimp) [163], toxicity (Evan’s rat) [164] |
| 93 | Loranthus spec div. | Indonesia | WP | Poultice, decoction | Ariola, varicella, diarrhea, ankylostomiasis, morbilli (gabag), cancer [25] | |
| 94 | Macrosolen robinsonii (Gamble) Danser | Vietnam | LF | Decoction | Enlarged abdomen (diuretic tea) [165] | |
| 95 | Macrosolen cochinchinensis (Lour.) Tiegh. | Malaysia, Indo-China | ST, LF | Decoction, juice, poultice | Expel after birth, headache, cough [165] | |
| 96 | Scurrula atropurpurea (Blume) Danser | Indonesia, Philippines | LF, ST, WP | Decoction | Mouthwash (gargled), cancer (breast, throat cancer), cowpox, chickenpox, diarrhea, hookworm, measles, hepatitis, and cancer [166,167,168] | Cancer cell invasion inhibitory effects [169,170] |
| 97 | Scurrula ferruginea (Jack) Danser | Malaysia | LF, WP | Decoction, poultice | Decocted whole plant (mixed with Millettia sericea (Vent.) Wight & Arnott) is used as bathing to relieve malaria, decocted leaves as protective medicine after childbirth, pounded leaves to treat wounds, snake bites [166] | Antiviral (HSV-1 and poliovirus) and cytotoxic activities on murine and human cancer lines (3LL, L1210, K562, U251, DU145, MCF-7) [171] |
| 98 | Scurrula parasitica L. | China, Vietnam | WP | Decoction | Swelling, back pains, numbness, soreness of limbs, hypertension, galactagogue, quieting uterus (no contraction), reducing lumbago, bone strengthening. [166] | Anti-cancer (flavonoids extract, Leukimia cell line HL-60) [172], NF-κB inhibition [173], recovery of cisplatin-induced nephrotoxicity [174], Antioxidant (extracts, DPPH) [175] anti-cancer (Polysacharide fraction, S180, K562 and HL-60 cell lines, MTT assay) [176], anti-obesity activity using porcine pancreatic lipase assay (EtOH extract, PPL; triacylglycerol lipase, EC 3.1.1.3)[177], neuroprotective activity (168, H2O2-induced oxidative damage in NG108-15 cells)[178], antibacterial (EtOH extract, MRSA) [179] |
| 99 | Viscum aethiopicum [sic] | Southern & Eastern Africa | LF | Decoction (tea) | Diarrhea [161] | |
| 100 | Viscum capense L.f. | Southern & Eastern Africa | ST, FT | Decoction, external | Wart, asthma, irregular menstruation, hemorrhage [161] | Antimicrobial activity (stems extract), Anticonvulsant activity (MeOH extract, albino mice) [180] |
| 101 | Viscum pauciflorum L.f. | Southern & Eastern Africa | WP | Decoction | Astringent [161] | |
| 102 | Viscum rotundifolium L.f. | Southern & Eastern Africa | WP | External | Wart [161] | Immunoassay (stem, aqueous extracts, T cell activity in ruminants) [181] |
| Melastomataceae | ||||||
| 103 | Medinilla radicans Blume | LF, RT | Leaves eaten to treat dysentery, adventitious roots applied as poultice to wound, young leaves to skin disorders | Dysentery, wound and skin disorders [123] | ||
| 104 | Pachycentria constricta (Bl) Blume | Indonesia | TB | Tubers are boiled and eaten | Hemorrhoids [18,71] | |
| Moraceae | ||||||
| 105 | Ficus annulata Blume | Indonesia | LF, RT | Leaves decoction to treat fever, the root to treat Hansen diseases | Fever and Hansen diseases [168] | |
| 106 | Ficus deltoidea Jack | Indonesia, Malaysia, Thailand | LF, RT, FT | Drink (decoction), oitment | Leucorrhea, headache, fever, diabetes, high blood pressure, skin infection, aphrodisiac agent, ornament [71,182,183,184] | Toxicity (aqueous extract, rats) [185], anti-nociceptive [186], antioxidant (leaves aqueous extracs, redn. power of iron (III), superoxide anion (O2-) scavenging, xanthine oxidase (XOD), nitric oxide (NO·) and lipid peroxidn) [187], anti-melanogenic effect (extract, B16F1 melanoma cells, MTT assay) [188], anti-cancer [189], hypoglycemic activity (extract, rodents) [45,188] antimicrobial activity (extract) [190], Anti-inflammatory [191] |
| 107 | Ficus lacor Buch.-Ham. | India | BK, LT, BD, SD | Decoction, poultice | Decocted stem bark to treat gastric and ulcer, latex to treat boils (external), typhoid and fever (internal), decocted bud to treat ulcer, leucorrhoea, Seed as tonic for stomach disorder [157,192,193,194] | The medicated liquor has effects of relaxing muscles and tendons, activating collateral flow, promoting blood circulation, dispelling blood stasis, expelling wind, removing dampness, and relieving pain [195] |
| 108 | Ficus natalensis Hochst. (semi epiphytic, secondary terrestrial) | Uganda, Tanzania, Senegal, West Africa, South Africa, | LF, LT, RT, BK | Decoction, poultice | Root was used to treat lumbago, headache, arthritis, cataract and cough, Leaves were used to treat snakes bite, malaria, dysentery, ulcers, wounds and used as septic ears [196] | Antibacterial, antimalarial, and/or antileishmania activities were obsd. in some crude extracts., and five of these exts. showed a significant cytotoxicity against human tumor cells [41] |
| 109 | Ficus parietalis Blume | Vietnam, Thailand, Malaysia, Indonesia | RT | Decoction | Stomach-ache [184] | |
| 110 | Ficus pumila L. | Vietnam | FT, LF, LT | Drink (decoction) | Diarrahea, hemaroid, rheumatic, anemia, haematura, dysentery, dropsy, galactoge, tonic for impotence, lumbago, anthelmintic agent, externally used to treat carbuncles [184] | Against T-cell leukemia [197], antimicrobial [198] |
| 111 | Poikilospermum suaveolens (Blume) Merr. | Indonesia, Thailand | BK | Decoction | Water from the stem for drink, aide the secretion of waste products from the vagina, pain, numbness, stomach ulcer [25,199,200] | Anti-viral (MeOH extract) [201] |
| Orchidaceae | ||||||
| 112 | Acampe carinata (Griff.) Panigrahi | Himalaya, Nepal | WP | Decoction | Rheumatism, sciatica, neuralgia, beneficial in secondary syphilis and uterine diseases [202] | |
| 113 | Acriopsis liliifolia (J.Koenig) Seidenf. | Malaysia | LF, RT | Decoction of the roots and leaves | Fever [203] | |
| 114 | Anoectochilus formosanus Hayata | Taiwan | WP | Decoction | Fever, anti-inflammatory agent, diabetes, liver disorder, chest and abdominal pain [204] | Anti-inflammatory (water extract, rat paw), hepatoprotective (water extract, rat, SGOT-OPT) [205], anti-hyperliposis (414, rat induced) [206], ameliorative effect (water extract, ovariectomised rat) [207], antioxidant (water extract, DPPH) [208], anti-hyperglycemic (water extract, diabetic rats induced by streptozotocin) [209], anti-cancer (extracts, breast cancer MCF-7 cell) [210], liver regeneration (extract, rat) [211,212], Hepatoprotective (414, CCl4 induced rat) anti-inflammatory (414, lps stimulate mice) [213,214], anti-cancer (polysaccharide water extract, protate cancer cell lin PC3) [215] |
| 115 | Anoectochilus roxburghii (Wall.) Lindl. | Taiwan, China, Japan | WP | Decoction | Fever, snake bite, lung and liver diseases, hypertension, child malnutrition [216] | Hypoglycemic effect (414, streptozotocin (STZ) diabetic rats) [217], hypoglycemic and antioxidant effects (water extract, alloxan-induced diabetic mice, DPPH) [218] |
| 116 | Ansellia africana Lindl. | Southern & Eastern Africa | PD, ST, ST, RT | Decoction | Pedi is used to treat cough, the stem is used as aphrodisiac, used as emetic agent [161] | |
| 117 | Bulbophyllum kwangtungense Schltr. | China, Japan | TB | Tonic | To treat pulmonary tuberculosis, promote body liquid production, reduce fever, hemostatic agent [219] | Anti-tumor activities (456, 457, 458, against HeLa and K562 human tumor cell line) [220] |
| 118 | Bulbophyllum odoratissimum (Sm.) Lindl. ex Wall. | China, Burma, Vietnam, Thailand, Laos, Nepal, Bhutan, India | WP | Decoction | To treat pulmonary tuberculosis, chronic inflammation and fracture [221] | Anti-tumor (bibenzyl, inhibiting NO microphage) [221,222], anti-cancer (225, 470, 471, 475, 476, 478, 479, 482, 484, human leukaemia cell lines K562 and HL-60, human lung adenocarcinoma A549, human hepatoma BEL-7402 and human stomach cancer SGC-790) [223], anti-cancer (human leukemia cell lines K562 and HL-60, human lung adenocarcinoma A549, human hepatoma BEL-7402 and human stomach cancer cell lines SGC-7901) Anti-cancer (473 and 474, human leukemia cell lines K562 and HL-60, human lung adenocarcinoma A549, human hepatoma BEL-7402 and human stomach cancer SGC-7901) [224] |
| 119 | Bulbophyllum vaginatum (Lindl.) Rchb.f. | Malaysia | WP | Juice | Juice of the plant is instilled in the ear to cure earache [130] | |
| 120 | Catasetum barbatum (Lindl.) Lindl. | Japan, Guiana, Paraguayan | WP | Decoction | Febrifuge, anti-inflammatory [46] | Anti-inflammatory (505, rat) [225] |
| 121 | Coelogyne sp | Indonesia | RT | Decoction | Headache, fever [71] | |
| 122 | Cymbidium aloifolium (L.) Sw. | Thailand, Vietnam | LF | Decoction (internal), juice from heated or crushed leaves. | Otitis media, colds, irregular periods, arthritis, sores, burns, tonic [226] | Antinociceptive, anti-inflammatory (EtOH extract, mice) [227] |
| 123 | Cymbidium canaliculatum R.Br | Australia | PdB | Chewed, poultice | Dysentery, boils, sores, wounds, itschy skin, fractured arms over the break [154,228] | |
| 124 | Cymbidium ensifolium (L.) Sw | Taiwan, Vietnam | LF, RT, FL, WP, RT | Decoction | Diuretic agent (leaves), pectoral agent (root), eye problem (flower), cough, lung, gastrointestinal problems and sedative [226] | |
| 125 | Cymbidium goeringii (Rchb.f.) Rchb.f. | Japan, China, Korea, Thailand, Vietnam, India | WP | Decoction | Hypertension, diuretic agent [229] | Anti-inflammatory (478, RAW 264.7 cells) [230], anti-hypertensive (515, rat), diuretic activity (515, rats) [229] |
| 126 | Cymbidium madidum Lindl. | Australia | PdB | Chewed | Dysentery [154] | |
| 127 | Dendrobium affine (Decne.) Steud. | Australia | PdB | Poultice, external | Chrushed pseudobulbs (sticky) is applied to itchy skins, boils, infected skin lesion, minor burns [154] | |
| 128 | Dendrobium aloifolium (Blume) Rchb.f. | South East Asia | LF | Poultice | Headache [18] | |
| 129 | Dendrobium amoenum Wall. ex Lindl. | China | LF | Dried and ground | Skin diseases [231] | Antioxidant (519, NBT), antibacterial (519, diffusion) [231] |
| 130 | Dendrobium chryseum Rolfe | Australia | LF | Decoction | Diabetes [232] | Antioxidant (526, 530, 532, DPPH) [233] |
| 131 | Dendrobium candidum Wall. ex Lindl. | China | LF | Decoction | Diabetes [234] | Inhibitory effect of atropine on salivary secretion (extracts, rabbit) [235], anti-hyperglicemic (extract, streptozotocin-induced diabetic (STZ-DM) rats) [234], antioxidant (polysaccharide, 10-phenanthroline-Fe2+-H2O2 systems and ammonium peroxydisulfate/N,N,N’,N’-tetra-methylethanediamine systems) [236] antioxidant (555, 556, DPPH) [237], antioxidant (558, 559, 560, DPPH) [238], anti-tumor (soluble polysacharride, human neuroblastoma (SH2SY5Y) induced by SPD was observed and analyzed by Hoechst stain method) [239] |
| 132 | Dendrobium canaliculatum var. foelschei (F.Muell.) Rupp & T.E.Hunt | Australia | PdB | Poultice, external | Chrushed pseudobulbs (sticky) is applied to infected skin and cuts [154] | |
| 133 | Dendrobium crumenatum Sw. | Malaysia, Indonesia | LF, PdTB | Leaves pounded, bulbs heated to produce juice and applied as external uses | Acne (leaves), infected ears (pseudo-tubers) [240,241] | Antimicrobial [242] |
| 134 | Dendrobium chrysanthum Wall. ex Lindl. | China | LF | Dried and ground | Skin diseases, immune regulator, anti-pyretic, improve eyesight [243,244] | Anti-inflammation (590, macrophages were harvested from 2-month-old male C57BL/6J mice) [244] |
| 135 | Dendrobium densiflorum Lindl. | China | LF | Tonic | Promote body fluid production [245] | |
| 136 | Dendrobium faciferum J.J.Sm | Indonesia | ST | Dried | For twist work (craft) [246] | |
| 137 | Dendrobium fimbriatum Hook. | Japan, China | LF | Decoction, paste | Promote body fluid production, set fractured bone (paste) [247] | Antioxidant (water-soluble crude polysaccharide (DFHP), DPPH) [248] |
| 138 | Dendrobium loddigesii Rolfe | China | LF | Decoction | Promote body fluid production, reduce fever, nourish the stomach., anti-cancer agent [249] | Inhibitors of Na+, K+-ATPase of rat kidney (607, 608) [250], antiplatelet aggregation activity (479, 523, 606, rabit platelet) [251], antioxidant (DPPH), anti NO production (activated macrophages-like cell line, RAW264.7) [252] |
| 139 | Dendrobium moniliforme (L.) Sw. | China, Taiwan | ST | Decocted dried stem | Anti-pyretic, analgesic, aphrodisiac, stomachic, tonic agents [253] | Anti-inflammatory (552, RAW 264.7 cells) [254], hypoglicemic (polisaccharide, mice) [255], antioxidant (polisacharide) [256] |
| 140 | Dendrobium moschatum (Buch.-Ham) S.w | Nepal | LF | Juice | Cure earache [257] | |
| 141 | Dendrobium nobile Lindl. | China, Indonesia | WP | Tonic | Fever, reduce mouth dryness, aphrodisiac, promote body fluid production, nourish stomach, anorexia, lumbago, impotence [240,258,259,260,261] | Immunomodulatory activity (656, 660, 661, 662, 663, lymphocyte proliferation test MTT test) [262,263], antioxidant (478, 523, 524, 528, 584, 641, 672, 673, 674, DPPH) anti-NO (478, 523, 524, 528, 584, 641, 672, 673, 674, murine macrophage-like cell line RAW 264.7) [264], antioxidant (water-soluble polysaccharide (DNP), DPPH) [265], antimicrobial (Extracts), antitumour (extracts, Dalton’s lymphoma ascites (DLA) cells w), induction of in vitro lipid peroxidation (extracts, TBARS) [266], NO inhibition (475, 523, 542, 632, 633, 634, 665–671, murine macrophage RAW 264.7 cells) [267], anti-tumor (polisachacaride extracts, sarcoma 180 in vivo and HL-60)[268] |
| 142 | Dendrobium pachyphyllum (Kuntze) Bakh.f. | Indonesia | WP | Decoction | Hydropsy [246] | |
| 143 | Dendrobium purpureum Roxb. | Indonesia, Malaysia | LF | Crushed and heated to make poultice | Nail fungal infection [240] | |
| 144 | Dendrobium salaccense (Blume) Lindl. | Indonesia | LF | Fragrance | Fragrance [246] | |
| 145 | Dendrobium teretifolium R.Br. | South-Pacific Island | LF | Decoction | Severe headache, other pains [269,270] | |
| 146 | Dendrobium catenatum Lindl. | China | LF | Decoction | Anxiety and panic [271] | |
| 147 | Dendrobium utile J.J.Sm. | Indonesia | ST | Dried | Twist work [246] | |
| 148 | Dichaea muricata (Sw.) Lindl. | Central, South American | LF | Decoction (wash) | Eye infection [260] | |
| 149 | Eulophia speciosa (R.Br.) Bolus | Indonesia | RT | Decoction | Analgesic [246] | |
| 150 | Epidendrum strobiliferum Rchb.f. | China, Korea | ST | Infusion, decoction | Analgesic [272] | Analgesic (676, 677 exhibited notable analgesic action at 3 mg/kg, causing 86 and 83% inhibition of abdominal constriction, respectively [272], antinociceptive effect (MeOH extract, methanolic ext. (ME) [273] |
| 151 | Epidendrum rigidum Jacq. | Mexico, North Sudamerica, Antilles | ST | Infusion, decoction | Replenish body fluid [274] | Phytotoxin (chloroform-methanol extract) [274] |
| 152 | Mycaranthes pannea (Lindl.) S.C.Chen & J.J.Wood | Vietnam, Malaysia | WP | External, medicinal bath | Medicinal bath to treat ague and malaria fever, fractures, bruises, skin complaints, dislocated joint to relieve severe pain, swelling, dislocation and fracture [123,275,276] | |
| 153 | Eriopsis biloba Lindl. | America | ST | Poultice | Sore gums and mouth membranes [260] | |
| 154 | Grammatophyllum scriptum (L.) Blume | Indonesia, Thailand | BL, SD, ST | Poultice | Pseudo bulb mixed with curcuma and salt applied to sores and abdomen to expel worms, to treat dropsy and aphthae, seeds mixed with food to treat dysentery, aphthae, crushed plant mixed with rice liquor to treat snake bite, scorpions’ and centipedes’ stings [246,277] | |
| 155 | Jumellea fragrans (Thouars) Schltr. | Madagascar | LF, ST | Decoction | Anti-spasmodic, anti-asthmatic agents, mixed leaves of Ziziphus mauritana, Mussaenda arcuate to treat eczema (deecotion), mixed with Eugenia uniflora to treat diarrhea [24] | |
| 156 | Liparis condylobulbon Rchb.f. | Indonesia | PdB, LF | Chewing, external | Intestinal complaints and constipation. (eastern Sulawesi, ambon), tormina, abscess [246,278] | |
| 157 | Liparis nervosa (Thunb.) Lindl. | China, Thailand, Malaysia | WP | Decoction, external | Stop internal/external bleeding, treat snake bites [278] | |
| 158 | Neottia ovata (L.) Bluff & Fingerh. | Spain | TB | Tincture | Stomach diseases [279] | Anti-viral (extract, SARS-CoV Frankfurt 1 strain [280] |
| 159 | Masdevallia uniflora Ruiz & Pav. | Mexico, south America | WP | Decoction | Facilitate urination (pregnant women), reduce bladder inflammation [260] | |
| 160 | Camaridium densum (Lindl.) M.A.Blanco | Mexico | WP | Decoction | Analgesic, relaxant agents [281] | Spasmolytic activity (667, 690, 693, 694, 695, Wistar rat) [37], antinociceptive activity (extract, mice) [281] |
| 161 | Nidema boothii (Lindl.) Schltr. | Malaysia | WP | Decoction | Relaxant agent [282] | Spasmolytic effects (471, 478, 488, 508, 671, 696, 697, 699, 700, 702, guinea ileum pig model) [282] |
| 162 | Oberonia lycopodioides (J.Koenig) Ormerod | Malaysia | LF | Poultice | Boils [123,283] | |
| 163 | Oberonia mucronata (D.Don) Ormerod & Seidenf. | China, Vietnam | WP | Decoction | Rheumatism, promote blood circulation, inflammation of the bladder/ureter, bruises and fractures, detoxicant, diuretic agent [284] | |
| 164 | Erycina pusilla (L.) N.H.Williams & M.W.Chase | Mali | WP | Decoction | Lacerations [260] | |
| 165 | Otochilus lancilabius Seidenf. | Bhutan, Nepal, India, China (Tibet), Laos and Vietnam | WP | Pills | Antiemetic, febrifuge for stomach inflammation (bad-tshad), and allays hyperdipsia and dehydration [23] | |
| 166 | Phragmipedium pearcei (Rchb.f.) Rauh & Senghas | South America | WP | Decoction | Stomachache [260] | |
| 167 | Pholidota articulata Lindl. | Himalaya, Nepal | WP | Whole plant: bone fractures [202] | ||
| 168 | Pholidota chinensis Lindl. | China, India | PdB | Tincture | Scrofula, toothache, stomachache, chronic bronchitis, duodenal ulcer [285] | Antioxidant (475, 539, 667, 670, 671, 711, 712, 717, 722, 723, 726, (DPPH), anti-inflammatory (475, 539, 667, 670, 671, 711, 712, 717, 722, 723, 726, inhibitory activity on NO production from activatedmacrophage-like cell line, RAW 264.7)[286], antioxidant (715, 741, 742, 746, 747, 749, 750, DPPH), anti-inflammatory (as above, inhibitory activity on NO production from activated macrophages-like cell line, RAW 264.7) [285] |
| 169 | Renanthera moluccana Blume | Indonesia | WP | Ornament | Ornament [246] | |
| 170 | Rhynchostylis retusa (L.) Blume | Himalaya, Nepal, India | LF | Rheumatic, hepaoprotective agent [96,202] | ||
| 171 | Scaphyglottis livida (Lindl.) Schltr. | Mexico | WP | Decoction | Analgesic, anti-inflammatory agents [281,287] | Spasmolytic (471, 475, 714, 754, 755, rat ileum rings) [288], antinociceptive (extracts, male mice ICR) [281], acute toxicity (extract, male mice ICR) [287] |
| 172 | Vanda tessellata (Roxb.) Hook. ex G.Don | India, Sri Lanka, Burma | LF, RT, FL | Leaves pounded to make juice, paste, extract (alcoholic) of the root and flower | Fever (as paste), otitis (dropped juice), the root to treat bronchitis, rheumatic, dyspepsia, sciatica, inflammation, otitis, nervous problem, fever and as aphrodisiac, laxative, tonic (for liver) agent [140,289,290,291] | Cholinergic activity (glycoside fraction), anti-arthritic (extract, albino rat) [292], anti-inflammatory (extract), antidiabetic (extract, rat) [291,293] |
| 173 | Papilionanthe teres (Roxb.) Schltr. | Indonesia | WP | Ornament | Ornamental [294] | Anti-aging (758, 759, HaCaT cytochrome C oxidase) [295] |
| 174 | Vanilla griffithii Rchb.f. | Indonesia | WP | Eaten | Edible [294] | |
| 175 | Vanilla planifolia Jacks. ex Andrews | Indonesia, Mexico | FT, STh | Decoction | Fever, rheumatism, hysteria, increase energy and muscular system [25,259,294] | Antimicrobial activity (extract) [296] |
| Piperaceae | ||||||
| 176 | Peperomia galioides Kunth | Peru | WP | Poultice (external), drink (internal) | Chrused plant is used to treat wounds, cuts, plant juice is used to treat gastric ulcers [297] | Antibacterial (oil) [298,299] |
| 177 | Piper retrofractum Vahl | Indonesia | FT, RT | Drink (decoction) | Anticonvulsion, antivomiting, diarrhea, dysentery, constipation, headache [300] | Anti-convulsan (776, mice) [301], cytotoxicity (extract, 779) [302], anti-platelet aggregation (extract) [303], anti-vector (extract, mosquito larvae) [304,305], antioxidant (228, 283, 334, 574, 771, 772, 782, 783, DPPH) [306], antileishmanial activity (extracts, leishmania donovani) [307], anti-obesity (776, 777, C57BL/6J mice) [308] |
| Rubiaceae | ||||||
| 178 | Hydnophytum formicarum Jack | Indonesia, Philippines, Thailand | TB | Poultice, decoction, powder | Poultice to treat swelling, headache, decoction to treat liver, intestinal complaints, powder as anthelmintic, heart tonic, antidiabetic agent and to treat skin, bone, knee, ankle, lung diseases [278] | Anti-tumor (extracts, against human tumor cell lines, HeLa and A549) [309], xanthine oxidase inhibitory (MeOH extract, assayed spectrophotometrically under aerobic conditions [310], antimicrobial, cytotoxicity (226, 786, 787, against HuCCA-1 and KB cell lines) [311], trigger cytochrome C release in treated MCF-7 cell (786, ELISA) [312], anti-cancer (786, the human breast carcinoma cell line MCF-7) [313] |
| 179 | Myrmecodia tuberosa Jack | Indonesia | PT | Drink (decocted) | Swelling, headache [18,71,314] | Immunomodulatory effect (EtOH fractions) [315] |
| 180 | Myrmecodia pendens Merr. & L.M.Perry | Papua | PT | Decoction | Rheumatism, headache, renal problems, tumor [316] | |
| Sterculiaceae | ||||||
| 181 | Scaphium macropodum (Miq.) Beumée ex K.Heyne (hemi-epiphyte) | Indonesia | RT | Drink (decoction) | Nervous system problem [71] | |
| Verbenaceae | ||||||
| 182 | Premna parasitica Blume | Indonesia | LF | Drink (decoction) | Fever [25] | |
| Viscaceae | ||||||
| 183 | Viscum articulatum Burm.f. | Cambodia, India, Taiwan, China | WP | Poultice, decoction | Decoction to treat bronchitis, skin tumour, neuralgia, arthritis and as tonic, sedative, febrifuge, crushed plant to treat cut [317] | Toxicity (extract, mice) [318], anti-tumor (820, MTT assay) [319], anti-inflammatory (1234718, superoxide inhibition) [320], cytotoxicity and anti-HIV-1 activity (shown by isolated compounds including 801, 804, 803, 813, 814, 815, 824, 828); MDAMB-435 and Hela cells, HIV-1ШB-infected C8166 cells) [321], anti-nephrotoxic (127, gentamicin-induced renal damage in Wistar rats) [322], antioxidant, anti-inflammatory (810, 811, 812, 822, 825, 829, 830, 831, 832, 833, 834, DPPH, NO production and cell viability assay. The murine macrophage cell line RAW264.7) [323], diuretic activity (MeOH extract, male rats) [324], antiepileptic activity (MeOH exctract, rat) [325], anti-hypertension (glucocorticoid-induced hypertension, Nω-nitro-l-arginine methyl in rats) [326,327], antioxidant (polisacharide fraction, DPPH) [328] |
| 184 | Viscum ovalifolium DC. | Cambodia, Malaysia | LF, WP | Poultice, external | Leaves (poultice) to treat neuralgia, as herbal bath to treat fever in children, ash mixed with sulphur, coconut oil to treat pustular itches [329] | |
| Zingiberaceae | ||||||
| 185 | Hedychium ongi cornotum Griff. | Indonesia | RZ, RT | Drink (decoction) | Rhizome is used to treat syphilis; root is used to treat worm [25] | |
Note: na: not mentioned; ST: stem, PT: pith; TB: tuber; SP: spore; BK: bark; LT: latex; NT: nutmeg; SD: seed; FT: fruit; BD: buds; PD: pedi; PdB: pseudobulbs; FL: flower; PdTB: pseudotuber; BL: bulbs: STh: sheath; WP: whole; LF: leaf; RT: root; RZ: rhizome.