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. Author manuscript; available in PMC: 2022 Feb 1.
Published in final edited form as: Emotion. 2019 Sep 16;21(1):28–38. doi: 10.1037/emo0000682

Longitudinal Associations between Positive Affect and Relationship Quality among Children and Adolescents: Examining Patterns of Co-occurring Change

Julianne M Griffith 1, Jami F Young 2,3, Benjamin L Hankin 1
PMCID: PMC7073307  NIHMSID: NIHMS1049977  PMID: 31524419

Abstract

The broaden-and-build theory of positive emotions suggests that the experience of positive affect (PA) and positive interpersonal experiences should mutually reinforce each other over time, potentiating “upward spirals” of PA and social wellbeing. Informed by this “upward spirals” hypothesis, the present study used parallel process latent growth curve modeling to evaluate co-occurring trajectories of PA and parent- and peer- relationship quality in a sample of 680 youth age 8 to 16 (M = 11.87, SD = 2.41, 56.7% female). Youth PA and relationship quality were assessed every 18 months for 3 years (3 total assessments). Results of parallel process LGCM analyses indicated large positive correlations between trajectories of PA and trajectories of both parent- and peer- relationship quality. Consistent with tenets of the broaden-and-build theory of positive emotions, findings suggest that youth PA and experiences of high-quality relationships demonstrate reciprocal patterns of growth, with implications for youth health and wellbeing.

Keywords: adolescent development, positive affect, relationship quality, developmental trajectories

The broaden-and-build theory of positive emotions posits that positive affect (PA) functions, in part, to facilitate the accumulation of social resources, including the development of close interpersonal relationships (Fredrickson, 1998, 2001). Specifically, the momentary experience of positively valenced emotions such as joy, interest, and love are proposed to promote flexible thinking, creativity, and play, facilitating opportunities to engage in meaningful and satisfying interactions with others. In this way, PA and the experience of positive social relationships should mutually reinforce one another across development, such that increases in PA contribute to increases in positive relationship quality and vice versa, consistent with a pattern of “upward spirals” toward emotional wellbeing (Fredrickson & Joiner, 2002). Extant evidence suggests concurrent associations between PA and positive relationship quality across the lifespan (Ramsey & Gentzler, 2015), and a more limited body of research has examined directed, prospective relations between PA and relationship quality, and relationship quality and PA (see Ramsey & Gentzler, 2015 for review). However, further research is needed to clarify longitudinal associations between PA and relationship quality across development. Specifically, research is needed to examine co-occurring developmental trajectories of PA and relationship quality to assess the extent to which these constructs demonstrate associated patterns of longitudinal change.

It may be especially informative to examine these co-occurring trajectories as they unfold among children and adolescents. Adolescence represents a particularly important developmental period during which the parent-child relationship undergoes normative changes (e.g., becoming more conflictual), and during which youth increasingly begin to rely on peers for social support (Steinberg & Morris, 2001). Further, adolescence is posited to function as a developmental period during which enduring patterns of health and wellbeing are established (Sawyer et al., 2012). Given the role of PA in contributing to both physical and psychological wellbeing (e.g., Dockray & Steptoe, 2010; Fredrickson & Joiner, 2002; Gloria & Steinhardt, 2016; Pressman, Jenkins, & Moskowitz, 2019), it may be especially critical to examine “upward spiral” processes as they occur among adolescents in order to better understand risk and resilience processes during this sensitive stage of development.

Broaden-and-Build Theory of Positive Emotions

Fredrickson’s (1998; 2001) broaden-and-build theory of positive emotions hypothesizes that the momentary experience of state positive affects such as joy, love, and contentment enhances an individual’s ability to engage novel and creative cognitive and behavioral processes (i.e., “broadened” thought-action repertoires), and promotes the accumulation (or “building”) of social, intellectual, and psychological resources. For example, the experience of interest is proposed to potentiate exploration and engenders openness to experience, facilitating the accumulation of knowledge and promoting personal growth (Fredrickson, 1998). Similarly, the momentary experience of love is proposed to encourage savoring and interpersonally-oriented play, strengthening social bonds and enhancing interpersonal resources (Fredrickson, 1998). These personal and social resources enrich an individuals’ experience such that their momentary experience of positive emotions is then itself enhanced, contributing to “upward spirals” processes whereby PA and socioemotional resources reciprocally reinforce each other over time (Fredrickson & Joiner, 2002; 2018).

Consistent with the broaden-and-build theory, positive emotions have been shown in experimental studies to predict broadened attention on a visual processing choice task (Fredrickson & Branigan, 2005) and faster cardiovascular recovery from stress (Fredrickson, Mancuso, Branigan, & Tugade, 2000; Tugade & Fredrickson, 2004). Moreover, higher levels of positive emotionality predict greater adaptive coping, resilience, and life satisfaction (Burns et al., 2008; Cohn, Fredrickson, Brown, Mickels, & Conway, 2009; Gloria & Steinhardt, 2016), as well as enhanced health and wellbeing (Dockray & Steptoe, 2010; Pressman et al., 2019) and personal and professional success (Lyubomirsky, King, & Diener, 2005; De Neve & Oswald, 2012). Moreover, in a foundational study, Fredrickson and Joiner (2002) demonstrated reciprocal “upward spiral” relations between PA and broad-minded coping. Specifically, using residualized change scores, the authors found that change in PA predicted change in broad-minded coping, which in turn predicted change in PA, and vice versa, across a five-week follow-up period in a two-time point design (Fredrickson & Joiner, 2002). Similar “upward spiral” relations between PA and positive coping across an eight-week period were also observed by Burns and colleagues (2008). Thus, there is research to suggest the occurrence of upward spiral processes on the scale of weeks, supporting predictions of the broaden-and-build theory. Research is needed to build upon and extend these findings to evaluate the ways in which micro-level patterns of reciprocal mean-level change in PA and psychosocial resources translate into macro-level patterns of correlated growth.

PA and Close Relationships: Application of Broaden-and-Build in the Social Domain

In the domain of social functioning, the broaden-and-build theory implies that PA and interpersonal relationship quality should demonstrate mutually enhancing patterns of association over time. As micro-level (i.e., relatively time-limited), momentary experiences of state positive affects crystallize into more stable, macro-level (i.e., relatively enduring) patterns of trait PA, momentary tendencies toward social engagement and interpersonal savoring should become instantiated in high quality, rewarding relationships with family and friends. Over time, these macro-level, enduring consequences of micro-level, momentary broaden-and-build processes should demonstrate patterns of reciprocal growth such that increases in PA should be associated with increases in close relationship quality, and vice versa (see Ramsey & Gentzler, 2015). That is, the theory implies that on a micro-level time scale (e.g., days, weeks), mean-level change in PA should predict mean-level change in relationship quality and vice versa; on a macro-level time scale (e.g., years), the theory implies that trajectories of change in PA should be correlated with trajectories of change in relationship quality, as momentary broaden-and-build processes and continued upward spirals culminate in enduring patterns of co-occurring growth supporting both affective and social well-being.

Consistent with this conceptual model, extant research supports bidirectional associations between PA and positive close relationships across childhood and adolescence (Ramsey & Gentzler, 2015). Cross-sectional studies support positive concurrent associations between attachment security and youth PA during middle childhood (Abraham & Kerns, 2013; Borelli et al., 2010; Kerns, Abraham, Schlegelmilch, & Morgan, 2007), as well as between attachment security and youth PA recovery from stress (Abtahi & Kerns, 2017). Additionally, children’s positive emotionality has been found to predict social competence in both cross-sectional (Isley, O’Neil, Clatfelter, & Parke, 1999) and longitudinal studies (Lengua, 2003). Among adolescent youth, greater PA has been associated with enhanced social wellbeing (Ben-Zur, 2003), and is associated with patterns of adolescent peer and parent support over time (Weinstein, Mermelstein, Hedeker, Hankin, & Flay, 2006). Moreover, adolescent interpersonal self-efficacy has been found to prospectively predict adolescent PA (Capara, Steca, Gerbino, & Paciello, 2006). Together, this literature suggests that youths’ positive emotions and experience of close interpersonal relationships may demonstrate reciprocal patterns of co-occurring development across childhood and adolescence.

Some research has begun to document reciprocal relations between PA and positive aspects of close relationships in adulthood, although this work has not yet been extended to childhood or adolescence. Findings by Burns et al. (2008) among a sample of undergraduate students, for example, indicated a positive association between interpersonal trust and change in PA across an eight-week follow-up period, although associations between baseline PA and change in interpersonal trust were not statistically significant. Most relevant to the present study, Kok and colleagues (2013) found that trajectories of positive emotions were significantly positively correlated with trajectories of social connectedness across a nine-week period in a sample of university faculty and staff using parallel process latent growth curve analyses. Observed positive slope-slope associations in this study indicated that PA and social connectedness mutually reinforce one another over time, contributing to positive health outcomes (Kok et al., 2013). Research is needed, however, to explore how trajectories of PA and positive aspects of close relationships are related over larger periods of time and in children and adolescents. Clarifying patterns of reciprocal relations between PA and interpersonal relationship quality across childhood and adolescent development may be particularly important, given the role of this developmental period in contributing to enduring patterns of health and wellbeing (Sawyer et al., 2012; Viner et al., 2012).

Moreover, late childhood and adolescence represents a period during which youth renegotiate the topography of their social milieu, pursuing greater autonomy from parents and increasingly investing in their relationships with peers (Collins & Steinberg, 2004; Longmore, Manning, & Giordano, 2013; Steinberg, 2001; Steinberg & Morris, 2001). Thus, mean-level trajectories of youths’ relationship quality with parents and peers may be relatively distinct across this period of development. Indeed, previous research using growth curve modeling to examine normative trajectories of parent and peer support across childhood and adolescence has found evidence for decreasing trajectories of perceived support from parents between ages 11 and 15 (De Goede, Branje, & Meesus, 2009; Laursen, DeLay, & Adams, 2010) and increasing trajectories of perceived support from peers between ages 14 and 18 (Way & Greene, 2006). Additionally, prior work examining relations between varying forms of social support and youth momentary experience of PA found that the influence of peer support on youths’ daily emotional experience was greater among older relative to younger adolescents, although the strength of associations between parental support and youth momentary PA remained relatively stable across adolescent development (Weinstein et al., 2006). As trajectories of youth perceived relationship quality with parents and with peers may differ in both shape and strength of association with youth PA, it will be critical to consider trajectories of change in youths’ perceived parent and peer relationship quality separately as they relate to youth PA trajectories. Such an analysis is necessary to provide appropriately nuanced insight into the ways in which youths’ positive emotionality co-develops with their experiences of close interpersonal relationships.

The Present Study

The present study examined longitudinal associations between PA and parent and peer relationship quality in a moderately large sample of children and adolescents recruited from the general community in association with the Gene, Environment, and Mood (GEM) Study (Hankin et al., 2015). Youth were recruited in grades 3, 6, and 9 and followed prospectively for a period of 3 years. Youth provided self-report measures of PA and relationship quality every 18 months, yielding 3 time points per participant. To examine mutually reinforcing patterns of longitudinal growth in PA and relationship quality, the present study used latent growth curve modeling (LCGM) to model parallel growth in PA and parent and peer relationship quality. Parallel process LCGM represents a sophisticated and rigorous strategy for evaluating patterns of co-occurring change over time (Castro-Schilo & Grimm, 2018; Curran, Obeidat, & Losardo, 2010), and complements and extends previous upward spiral research demonstrating reciprocal mean-level change on the scale of weeks (e.g., Fredrickson & Joiner, 2002; Kok et al., 2013) by modeling correlated trajectories of growth on the scale of years. Thus, by collecting repeated assessments of PA and relationship at 18-month intervals across 3 years, the present design advances knowledge of the ways in which PA and positive aspects of close relationships may mutually reinforce one another on a macro-level time scale across an influential period of development.

Consistent with the broaden-and-build theory of positive emotions (Fredrickson, 1998; 2001), we hypothesized that trajectories of PA and domains of relationship quality would be associated such that PA and positive relationship quality with parents and peers would demonstrate correlated change in trajectories of growth over time. Importantly, we expected that the slope of PA across development would be positively associated with the slopes of parent and peer relationship qualities, indicating that levels of PA and levels of positive relationship quality demonstrate correlated patterns of change in the same direction over time. To examine if patterns of observed associations were specific to PA and not negative affect (NA), as would be implied by broaden-and-build theory, additional post-hoc sensitivity analyses were conducted to examine parallel growth in domains of relationship quality and NA over time.

Method

Participants and Procedures

Participants comprised 680 youth recruited in 3rd, 6th, and 9th grade cohorts (age 8–16 at baseline, Mage = 11.87, SDage = 2.41, 56.7% female) in association with the Gene, Environment, and Mood (GEM) Study (Hankin et al., 2015). Statisticians generally propose a ratio of 10 observations per model parameter as a conservative guideline for calculating adequate sample sizes for structural equation modeling (SEM) analyses (Kline, 2015; Harrell, 2015); thus, the present sample size was adequate to provide a valid test of study hypotheses. Inclusion criteria included English language fluency, absence of autism or psychotic disorder diagnosis, and IQ > 70 as assessed via parent report. Demographics of the study sample are approximately representative of the ethnic and racial characteristics of the United States population (68.3% White, 11.4% African American, 9.2% Asian/Pacific Islander, 5.7% Multi-racial, 5.6% Other racial identity, with 11.9% identifying as having a Latinx ethnic identity). Further details regarding sampling procedures and participant characteristics are described in Hankin et al. (2015). All study procedures were approved by the Institutional Review Boards at the University of Denver and Rutgers University. Youth were invited to the laboratory to complete a battery of measures, including the Positive and Negative Affect Scale for Children (PANAS-C; Laurent et al., 1999) and the Networks of Relationships Inventory (NRI; Furman & Buhrmester, 2009), every 18 months for a period of 3 years, yielding 3 assessment points per participant (e.g., baseline [T1], 18 months [T2], and 36 months [T3]).

Measures

Positive Affect (PA) and Negative Affect (NA).

PA and NA were assessed using the Positive and Negative Affect Scale for Children (PANAS-C; Laurent et al., 1999). The PANAS-C is a reliable and commonly used questionnaire measure assessing youths’ experience of 27 discrete emotion states (e.g., “interested,” “sad,” “excited”) on a 5-point Likert scale from 1 (very slightly or not at all) to 5 (extremely). The PA subscale comprises 12 items assessing youths’ experience of such positive emotion states as “cheerful,” “delighted,” and “calm.” The NA subscale comprises an analogous 15 items assessing youths’ feelings of such emotion states as “frightened,” “ashamed,” and “upset.” PA and NA subscales of the PANAS-C demonstrate strong psychometric properties among adolescent samples and evidence good convergent and discriminant validity in both clinical (Hughes & Kendall, 2009) and community samples (Laurent et al., 1999). Internal consistency in the present sample was good at each wave (α = .86–.89 and .88–.91 for PA and NA, respectively).

Relationship Quality.

Parent and peer relationship quality as forms of social support were assessed using a shortened version of the Network of Relationships Inventory (NRI; Furman & Buhrmester, 2009). Youth were asked to indicate the extent to which seven statements reflecting positive aspects of close relationships (e.g., “How much does this person treat you like you’re admired and respected?”) characterized their relationship with various interaction partners (e.g., mother, father, romantic partner, friends) on a 5-point Likert scale from 1 (little or none) to 5 (the most). For the purposes of the present analyses, parent relationship quality was represented by a single score reflecting the mean of youths’ ratings of positive relationship quality with their mother and their father. Peer relationship quality was represented by a single mean score reflecting the quality of youths’ relationship with romantic partners, same-sex friends, and opposite-sex friends. Cronbach’s alpha ranged from .88 to .89 for parental relationship quality and from .94 to .95 for peer relationship quality across waves of the present sample, indicating good internal consistency.

Data Analytic Plan

Study hypotheses and data analytic plan were preregistered on the Open Science Framework prior to analyses (project link: osf.io/4cz8h/). Analyses were conducted using SEM implemented in the lavaan library in R (Rosseel, 2012; R Core Team, 2018) using full-information maximum likelihood (FIML) estimation to account for missing data. Goodness of fit was assessed using convergence across multiple fit indices, including Root Mean Square Error of Approximation (RMSEA), Standardized Root Mean Square Residual (SRMR), and Comparative Fit Index (CFI), consistent with recommendations proposed by Hu and Bentler (1999). Specifically, good fit was indicated by RMSEA ≤ .06, SRMR ≤ .08, and CFI ≥ .95 (Hu & Bentler, 1999). Acceptable fit was indicated by RMSEA ≤ .08 and CFI ≥ .90. We prioritized convergence across indices over reliance on any one particular measure of fit (Barrett, 2007; Kenny, 2015).

Parallel growth in PA, parent relationship quality, and peer relationship quality were modeled using LGCM1. First, separate univariate growth curve models were fit to identify developmental trajectories of PA, parent relationship quality, and peer relationship quality, respectively. Specifically, an unconditional means (no-growth) model was fit to each domain, followed by a linear model. Goodness of fit for each model was determined based on the criteria delineated above, and models were compared on AIC and BIC to identify the best shape of growth for each domain. Growth in each construct was best characterized by a linear model (see Table 1). Therefore, we fit a parallel growth model to the data in which growth parameters (i.e., intercepts and slopes) of the linear model for each domain were allowed to covary with growth parameters of both of the other domains (see Figure 1). Residuals were allowed to covary within time point to account for correlated error associated with common method variance (Cole, Ciesla, & Steiger, 2007). To examine specificity of relations between co-occurring trajectories of parent- and peer- relationship qualities and PA, parallel growth in domains of relationship quality and NA was modeled in a series steps identical to those described above.

Table 1.

Fit Indices for Univariate Growth Models

χ2 (df) p CFI RMSEA [95% CI] SRMR AIC BIC
Positive Affect
No-growth 51.08 (4) <.001 .79 .13 [.10, .17] .09 12378.96 12385.69
Linear 1.52 (1) .873 1.00 .03 [.00, .11] .01 12335.39 12346.17
Parent Relationship Quality
No-growth 111.05 (4) <.001 .73 .20 [.17, .23] .13 10453.59 10460.27
Linear .176 (1) .675 1.00 .00 [.00, .08] .00 10348.72 10359.40
Peer Relationship Quality
No-growth 19.73 (4) .001 .95 .08 [.05, .11] .06 10655.42 10662.09
Linear 1.35 (1) .246 1.00 .02 [.00, .11] .01 10643.03 10653.70
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Note. CFI = comparative fit index; RMSEA = root mean square error of approximation; SRMR = standardized root mean square residual; AIC = akaike information criteria; BIC = sample-size adjusted bayesian information criteria.

Figure 1.

Figure 1.

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Conceptual model describing parallel process growth in PA, parent-, and peer-relationship quality across a three-year follow up period.

Results

Preliminary Analyses

Descriptive statistics for primary variables of interest in the sample overall, as well as by gender, are reported in Table 2. Mean levels of PA significantly differed between boys and girls at T1, such that girls reported higher levels of PA than boys (t(672) = −2.80, p = .005); however, boys and girls did not differ in mean PA at either subsequent time point. Mean levels of parent relationship quality were not significantly different between boys and girls at any time point, but girls consistently reported higher levels of peer relationship quality across time points relative to boys. Correlations between primary variables of interest are reported in Table 3. Of note, PA and parent- and peer- relationship quality demonstrated significant bivariate correlations both concurrently (r’s = .28–.45) and prospectively (r’s = .17–.34).

Table 2.

Means (SDs) of Primary Variables in the Overall Sample and by Gender

Overall M (SD) Boys M (SD) Girls M (SD) t (df) p
PA T1 44.34 (8.59) 43.30 (9.04) 45.16 (8.13) −2.80 (672) .005
PA T2 43.62 (8.66) 43.57 (8.64) 43.66 (8.70) −.13 (555) .899
PA T3 41.98 (8.59) 42.32 (8.40) 41.72 (8.73) .79 (524) .432
Parent T1 26.17 (5.25) 26.11 (5.31) 26.22 (5.21) −.27 (647) .787
Parent T2 24.94 (5.60) 24.98 (5.59) 24.91 (5.61) .16 (551) .876
Parent T3 23.73 (5.58) 23.37 (5.85) 24.01 (5.36) −1.31 (517) .192
Peer T1 23.02 (6.13) 21.69 (6.30) 24.02 (5.82) −4.84 (636) < .001
Peer T2 22.89 (6.14) 21.66 (6.15) 23.85 (5.98) −4.17 (539) < .001
Peer T3 22.12 (6.12) 20.77 (6.45) 23.16 (5.65) −4.38 (442.94) < .001
Age 11.83 (2.40) 11.78 (2.43) 11.86 (2.38) −.46 (678) .645
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Note. PA = positive affect; Parent = parent relationship quality; Peer = peer relationship quality.

Table 3.

Bivariate Correlations between Primary Variables

2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
1. PA T1 .37 .29 .33 .21 .17 .30 .21 .17 −.01
2. PA T2 --- .50 .25 .45 .34 .22 .28 .24 −.14
3. PA T3 --- .21 .30 .37 .13 .21 .30 −.16
4. Parent T1 --- .51 .43 .34 .14 .15 −.22
5. Parent T2 --- .59 .20 .38 .17 −.22
6. Parent T3 --- .16 .22 .36 −.19
7. Peer T1 --- .48 .39 .12
8. Peer T2 --- .53 .18
9. Peer T3 --- .17
10. Age ---
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Note. PA = positive affect; Parent = parent relationship quality; Peer = peer relationship quality; all r values greater than or equal to |.12| are significant at p < .05.

Univariate Growth Trajectories

Parameter estimates for univariate growth models are reported in Table 4. After controlling for gender and grade cohort, growth in PA was characterized by a linear model with a significant intercept (b = 42.52, p < .001) and significant positive linear slope (b = 2.35, p = .006). Significant variance in both intercept and slope parameters indicated significant individual differences in starting levels and rates of change in PA. Growth in parent relationship quality was characterized using a linear growth model with a significant intercept (b = 29.30, p <.001) and negative linear slope (b = −1.87, p <.001), indicating that controlling for age and gender, mean-levels of parent relationship quality declined over the three-year follow up period. Significant variance estimates for intercept and slope parameters again indicated individual differences in developmental trajectories. Growth in peer relationship quality was characterized by a linear model including a significant intercept (b = 17.65, p < .001) and non-significant negative linear slope (b = −.82, p = .172), with significant variance estimates indicating individual differences in patterns of developmental change. Significant variance in the slope, specifically, indicated that although the mean value for the slope of peer relationship quality was not significantly different from zero, some youth increased in peer relationship quality while other youth decreased in peer relationship quality across the follow-up period.

Table 4.

Parameter estimates for univariate growth models controlling for gender and grade cohort

β b (SE) [95% CI] p
Positive Affect
Means
Intercept 7.37 42.52 (1.30) [39.98, 45.07] <.001
Linear Slope .75 2.35 (.86) [.66, 4.04] .006
Variances
Intercept .98 32.52 (5.74) [21.28, 43.76] <.001
Linear Slope .92 9.13 (2.87) [3.50, 14.76] .001
Covariances
Intercept with Slope −.32 −5.48 (2.30) [−11.94, .99] .097
Parent Relationship Quality
Means
Intercept 7.11 29.30 (.80) [27.73, 30.88] <.001
Linear Slope −.94 −1.87 (.51) [−2.86, −.87] <.001
Variances
Intercept .91 15.40 (2.08) [11.33, 19.47] <.001
Linear Slope .99 3.95 (1.04) [1.92, 5.98] <.001
Covariances
Intercept with Slope −.26 −2.03 (1.16) [−4.31, .24] .079
Peer Relationship Quality
Means
Intercept 3.78 17.65 (.94) [15.80, 19.50] <.001
Linear Slope −.40 −.82 (.60) [−1.98, .35] .172
Variances
Intercept .92 19.93 (2.91) [14.23, 25.64] <.001
Linear Slope .99 4.17 (1.41) [1.40, 6.94] .003
Covariances
Intercept with Slope −.37 −3.39 (1.67) [−6.66, −.12] .042
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Note. 95% CI = 95% confidence interval of the unstandardized effect size

Parallel Growth in PA and Domains of Relationship Quality

A parallel growth model including co-occurring trajectories of PA, parent- and peer-relationship quality, controlling for youth gender and grade cohort, demonstrated good fit to the data (CFI = .999, RMSEA = .01, SRMR = .01). Parameter estimates are reported in Table 5.

Table 5.

Parameter estimates describing parallel growth in PA and domains of relationship quality

β b (SE) [95% CI] p
Within-Domain Covariances
InterceptPA with SlopePA −.29 −4.71 (3.25) [−11.09, 1.66] .147
InterceptParent with SlopeParent −.27 −2.05 (1.17) [−4.33, .24] .079
InterceptPeer with SlopePeer −.37 −3.52 (1.64) [−6.74, −.31] .032
Intercept-Intercept Cross-Domain Covariances
InterceptPA with InterceptParent .54 11.97 (2.55) [6.97, 16.97] <.001
InterceptPA with InterceptPeer .56 14.00 (2.97) [8.18, 19.82] <.001
InterceptParent with InterceptPeer .43 7.53 (1.88) [3.85, 11.21] <.001.
Intercept-Slope Cross-Domain Covariances
InterceptPA with SlopeParent −.17 −1.81 (1.53) [−4.81, 1.18] .235
InterceptPA with SlopePeer −.20 −2.40 (1.79) [−5.90, 1.10] .179
InterceptParent with SlopePA −.19 −2.15 (1.55) [−5.19, .90] .167
InterceptParent with SlopePeer −.08 −.70 (1.12) [−2.88, 1.49] .531
InterceptPeer with SlopePA −.20 −2.55 (1.86) [−6.20, 1.08] .169
InterceptPeer with SlopeParent −.08 −.73 (1.14) [−2.96, 1.51] .524
Slope-Slope Cross-Domain Covariances
SlopePA with SlopeParent .64 3.64 (1.26) [1.17, 6.12] .004
SlopePA with SlopePeer .59 3.64 (1.47) [.77, 6.51] .013
SlopeParent with SlopePeer .36 1.48 (.91) [−.30, 3.27] .103
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Note. 95% CI = 95% confidence interval of the unstandardized effect size. PA = positive affect; Parent = parent relationship quality; Peer = peer relationship quality.

Intercept-intercept associations.

The intercept of PA was significantly related to the intercept of parent (r = .54, p < .001) and peer (r = .56, p <.001) relationship quality, such that individuals who started higher in PA tended to also start higher in parent and peer relationship quality. The intercepts of parent and peer relationship quality were also positively related (r = .43, p < .001).

Intercept-slope associations.

The intercept and slope terms describing growth in peer relationship quality were significantly negatively related (r = −.37, p = .032), such that individuals who started higher in peer relationship quality tended to experience less change (i.e., smaller slope) in peer relationship quality over time. Intercepts and slopes across domains were not significantly related (see Table 5).

Slope-slope associations.

The slope of PA was significantly associated with slopes of parent (r = .64, p = .004) and peer (r = .59, p = .013) relationship quality, such that individuals who demonstrated more rapid linear growth in PA tended to demonstrate more rapid linear growth in the same direction across domains of relationship quality (see Figure 2). That is, individuals who increased more quickly in PA tended to experience steeper increases in parent and peer relationship quality, while individuals who decreased more quickly in PA tended to experience steeper declines in parent and peer relationship quality. Slopes of parent and peer relationship quality were not significantly associated (r = .36, p = .103).2

Figure 2.

Figure 2.

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Scatterplots representing the pattern of associations observed between the slope of PA and the slopes of parent and peer relationship quality across adolescent development. Shaded bars represent standard error around mean.

Sensitivity Analysis: Parallel Growth in NA and Domains of Relationship Quality

A parallel growth model including co-occurring trajectories of NA, parent- and peer-relationship quality, controlling for youth gender and grade cohort, demonstrated good fit to the data (CFI = .99, RMSEA = .03, SRMR = .02). Parameter estimates are reported in Table 6. Neither the intercept nor the slope of NA was significantly associated with intercepts or slopes of parent- or peer- relationship quality, indicating that trajectories of NA were unrelated to trajectories of parent- and peer-relationship quality over the three-year follow-up period.

Table 6.

Parameter estimates describing parallel growth in NA and domains of relationship quality

β b (SE) [95% CI] p
Within-Domain Covariances
InterceptNA with SlopeNA −.38 −5.87 (4.14) [−13.98, 2.24] .156
InterceptParent with SlopeParent −.27 −2.10 (1.70) [−4.39, .19] .073
InterceptPeer with SlopePeer −.37 −3.46 (1.66) [−6.71, −.20] .037
Intercept-Intercept Cross-Domain Covariances
InterceptNA with InterceptParent −.11 −2.45 (2.64) [−7.62, 2.72] .353
InterceptNA with InterceptPeer −.07 −1.84 (3.10) [−7.91, 4.22] .552
InterceptParent with InterceptPeer .43 7.64 (1.88) [3.96, 11.32] <.001
Intercept-Slope Cross-Domain Covariances
InterceptNA with SlopeParent .07 .80 (1.66) [−2.45, 4.04] .629
InterceptNA with SlopePeer −.16 −1.89 (1.94) [−5.69, 1.91] .329
InterceptParent with SlopeNA −.08 −.81 (1.74) [−4.21, 2.60] .643
InterceptParent with SlopePeer −.09 −.75 (1.12) [−2.95, 1.45] .504
InterceptPeer with SlopeNA −.10 −1.19 (2.07) [−5.25, 2.87] .565
InterceptPeer with SlopeParent −.09 −.81 (1.15) [−3.07, 1.44] .479
Slope-Slope Cross-Domain Covariances
SlopeNA with SlopeParent −.34 −1.85 (1.37) [−4.52, .83] .175
SlopeNA with SlopePeer −.05 −.30 (1.58) [−3.39, 2.78] .850
SlopeParent with SlopePeer .38 1.57 (.92) [−.24, 3.37] .089
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Note. 95% CI = 95% confidence interval of the unstandardized effect size. NA = negative affect; Parent = parent relationship quality; Peer = peer relationship quality.

Discussion

Informed by the broaden-and-build theory of positive emotions (Fredrickson, 1998; 2001) and the “upward spirals” hypothesis of PA and positive aspects of close relationships (Ramsey & Gentzler, 2015), the present study examined longitudinal patterns of bidirectional, reciprocal change in PA and positive relationship quality across adolescent development. Specifically, we used latent growth curve modeling (LGCM) to assess the extent to which trajectories of growth in PA were associated with trajectories of growth in positive relationship quality over three years follow-up. Results suggest that trajectories of growth in PA and positive relationship quality were significantly related, such that individuals who increase in PA tend to simultaneously increase in parent and peer relationship quality across time, consistent with tenets of the broaden-and-build theory of positive emotions (Fredrickson, 1998; 2001). These patterns of co-occurring change in positive affect and parent and peer relationships were relatively specific to youth PA, as trajectories of NA were unrelated to trajectories of relationship quality; this lends further support for the “upward spirals” hypothesis.

These findings represent a relatively novel extension and rigorous test of the broaden-and-build theory of positive emotions. Positive PA slope – relationships slope associations observed in the present study provide insight into the way in which micro-level upward spiral processes may accumulate and crystallize into macro-level patterns of co-occurring growth across a three-year follow-up during childhood and adolescence. Specifically, the broaden-and-build theory of positive emotions (Fredrickson, 1998; 2001) postulates that momentary experiences of positive affect states promote the accumulation of social and emotional resources and vice versa. When these micro-level patterns reciprocally reoccur over time and are then translated on a macro-level time scale (i.e., over three years), the theory would predict a crystallization of these patterns to result in positively correlated growth. That is, as increases in PA contribute to increases in social resources repeatedly over time, PA and social resources should demonstrate co-occurring, mutually reinforcing developmental trajectories. These macro-level implications of the theory, however, had not been previously tested. Consistent with the broaden-and-build theory, results suggest that youths’ accumulation of social resources in the form of high-quality interpersonal relationships occurs in tandem with their accumulation of positive affective experiences. Moreover, results indicated that the slopes of parent- and peer-relationship quality were uniquely related to PA, but not to NA during childhood and adolescence, lending further confidence that the observed pattern of co-occurring growth effects reflect upward spiral processes unfolding over time.

The present findings build upon and extend prior empirical and conceptual work supporting bidirectional, reciprocal patterns of associations between PA and positive aspects of close relationships (e.g., Abraham & Kerns, 2013; Abtahi & Kerns, 2017; Borelli et al., 2010; Burns et al., 2008; Kerns et al., 2007; Ramsey & Gentzler, 2015; Weinstein et al., 2006). Results of the present study are consistent with prior research using parallel process LGCM to investigate patterns of reciprocal growth in PA and social connectedness among adults (Kok et al., 2013). Specifically, Kok et al. (2013) demonstrated positive bivariate associations between trajectories of positive emotions and trajectories of social connectedness across nine weeks. Present findings extend this work to illustrate positive associations between PA and relationship quality across time on a larger temporal scale (3 years) and further demonstrate strong co-occurrence in these trajectories during adolescence, a particularly influential period of human development. Indeed, adolescence has been identified as a key stage of development during which enduring patterns of health and well-being begin to crystallize (Sawyer et al., 2012; Viner et al., 2012). Associations between PA and both physical and psychological well-being are documented in the literature (Dockray & Steptoe, 2010; Fredrickson & Joiner, 2002; Gloria & Steinhardt, 2016; Pressman et al., 2019).

A number of momentary, micro-level processes may account for the “upward spiral” of PA and relationship quality observed in the present study. Consistent with Fredrickson’s (1998; 2001) theoretical model, the experience of momentary positive emotions such as interest, joy, and love may promote engagement with one’s social environment and interpersonal savoring processes. Increased social engagement and upregulation (i.e., savoring) of positive emotions in an interpersonal context may function to reinforce PA, contributing to a mutually reinforcing cycle of positive emotions and social connectedness. Capitalization, or the process of sharing positive experiences with others (Gable, Reis, Impett, & Asher, 2004), may also contribute to observed associations between PA and relationships quality. Engagement in capitalization processes has been associated with interpersonal trust and relational wellbeing, as well as enhanced positive emotionality (Gable et al., 2004; Reis et al., 2010).

The present study demonstrated a number of strengths that represent notable contributions to the extant literature examining prospective associations between youth PA and relationship quality with parents and peers. We used parallel process latent growth curve analyses to examine prospective associations between co-occurring developmental trajectories of PA and parent- and peer- relationship quality across three years. Thus, findings contribute to understanding the ways in which youth PA and social wellbeing co-develop over a particularly sensitive stage of development. Additionally, present analyses modeled unique trajectories of youths’ experience of relationship quality with parents and peers, demonstrating that although adolescent development is characterized by normative changes in the relative salience of parent and peer relationships (Steinberg & Morris, 2001), the quality of these interpersonal relationships remain highly related across development, and trajectories of both parent and peer relationship quality correlate highly with trajectories of youth PA. Moreover, by examining “upward spirals” of PA and relationship quality across a three-year period, the present findings demonstrate that micro-social processes implied by the broaden-and-build theory of positive emotions correspond to macro-level patterns of developmental change.

Despite these strengths, the present results should be interpreted in light of several limitations that represent important areas for future research. The macro-level scale of the developmental processes examined in the present study represent an important addition to the extant literature; however, the present study was unable to model the dynamic, momentary processes hypothesized to contribute to “upward spirals” processes. Research is needed to connect these two by incorporating experience sampling methods to capture dynamic micro-relations between PA and aspects of social relatedness in daily life with longer-term repeated measures of PA and relationships over time. Moreover, the PANAS-C is limited in its assessment of youths’ experience of social and self-transcendent positive emotions (e.g., gratitude, awe) and may be more accurately understood as a measurement of positive activation rather to PA more generally (Watson, Wiese, Vaidya, & Tellegen, 1999). Additionally, the present study relied on self-report questionnaire measures of youth affect and relationship quality, which may introduce biases related to common method variance and reporter bias (Podsakoff, MacKenzie, Lee, & Podsakoff, 2003). Notably, the present work may be susceptible to “rosy glow” response biases wherein youth experiencing greater PA perceive their social environments to be more positive in general, although specificity of observed effects to PA relative to NA strengthens confidence in the present findings and demonstrates that patterns of effects are not better explained by biases related to dispositional affect more generally. Future research should seek to incorporate multiple informants and observational methods to address limitations inherent to monomethod designs. Moreover, the present work was limited by its reliance on a single measure of PA and relationship quality at each time point; future work should aim to include multiple indicators of constructs of interest in order to more rigorously test patterns of co-occurring growth using “second-order” latent growth curve approaches (Ferrer, Balluerka, & Widaman, 2008; Widaman et al., 2010). Finally, the present study assessed constructs of interest at three time points approximately 18 months apart. More frequent assessments and smaller sampling intervals may contribute to more precise estimates of PA and relationship quality trajectories over time. Such designs would allow researchers to rigorously test more complex patterns of reciprocal within-person change (see Usami, Murayama, & Hamaker, 2019; Fredrickson & Joiner, 2018), and thus represent a critical next step for advancing knowledge of the shape and patterning of upward spirals across time and development.

The present study advances the literature on positive affective development among child and adolescent youth by demonstrating associations between trajectories of PA and youths’ high-quality relationships with parents and peers across a three-year period. Findings demonstrate that youth who increase in PA tend to simultaneously increase in parent and peer relationship quality, consistent with “upward spiral” hypotheses implied by the broaden-and-build theory of positive emotions (Fredrickson 1998; 2001). Results suggest that bolstering youth PA may contribute to enhanced interpersonal relationships and accumulation of social support, and bolstering youth interpersonal support systems may similarly function to enhance youth positive emotionality, with potential downstream consequences for long-term physical and psychological wellbeing.

Acknowledgements:

This material is based upon work supported by the National Science Foundation Graduate Research Fellowship Program under Grant No. DGE – 1746047.

Funding Source: The research reported in this article was supported by grants from the National Institute of Mental Health to Benjamin L. Hankin, R01MH077195, and to Jami F. Young, R01MH077178.

Footnotes

Conflicts of Interest: The authors declare no conflicts of interest.

1

Factorial invariance of PANAS-C and NRI subscales across time points was assessed following procedures described by Widaman, Ferrer, and Conger (2010). Strong invariance was supported for both PA and NA scales, and strong or partial strong invariance was supported for all subscales of the NRI. For more details regarding these analyses, interested readers may contact the first author. Due to the hierarchical factor structure of the NRI and the complexity of the present parallel process growth curve analysis, growth in PA and domains of relationship quality were modeled using manifest scale scores rather than higher-order factor scores.

2

Given that patterns of co-occurring growth could plausibly differ between boys and girls, gender differences in observed slope-slope associations were explored in the present data. Results suggested that patterns of co-occurring change in PA and domains of relationship quality did not meaningfully differ between boys and girls. For more details regarding these exploratory analyses, interested readers may contact the first author.

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