Skip to main content
Springer Nature - PMC COVID-19 Collection logoLink to Springer Nature - PMC COVID-19 Collection
. 2005;11(5):434–440. doi: 10.1080/13550280591002487

Emerging zoonotic encephalitis viruses: Lessons from Southeast Asia and Oceania

John S Mackenzie 1,
PMCID: PMC7095133  PMID: 16287684

Abstract

The last decade of the 20th Century saw the introduction of an unprecedented number of encephalitic viruses emerge or spread in the Southeast Asian and Western Pacific regions (Mackenzie et al, 2001; Solomon, 2003a). Most of these viruses are zoonotic, either being arthropod-borne viruses or bat-borne viruses. Thus Japanese encephalitis virus (JEV), a mosquito-borne flavivirus, has spread through the Indonesian archipelago to Papua New Guinea (PNG) and to the islands of the Torres Strait of northern Australia, to Pakistan, and to new areas in the Indian subcontinent; a strain of tick-borne encephalitis virus (TBEV) was described for the first time in Hokkaido, Japan; and a novel mosquito-borne alphavirus, Me Tri virus, was described from Vietnam. Three novel bat-borne viruses emerged in Australia and Malaysia; two, Hendra and Nipah viruses, represent the first examples of a new genus in the family Paramyxoviridae, the genus Henipaviruses, and the third, Australian bat lyssavirus (ABLV) is new lyssavirus closely related to classical rabies virus. These viruses will form the body of this brief review.

Keywords: Australian bat lyssavirus, emerging viruses, Hendra virus, Japanese encephalitis virus, Me Tri virus, Nipah virus, Oceania, Southeast Asia

References

  1. Allworth A, Murray K, Morgan J. A case of encephalitis due to a lyssavirus recently identified in fruit bats. Commun Dis Intell. 1996;20:504–504. [Google Scholar]
  2. Arguin PM, Murray-Lillibridge K, Miranda MEG, Smith JS, Calaor AB, Rupprecht CE. Serologic evidence of Lyssavirus infections among bats, the Philippines. Emerg Infect Dis. 2002;8:258–262. doi: 10.3201/eid0803.010330. [DOI] [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  3. Burke DS, Leake CJ. Japanese encephalitis. In: Monath TP, editor. The Arboviruses: epidemiology and ecology, Volume III. Boca Raton: CRC Press; 1988. pp. 63–92. [Google Scholar]
  4. Chant K, Chan R, Smith M, Dwyer DE, Kirkland P. Probable human infection with a newly described virus in the family Paramyxoviridae. Emerg Infect Dis. 1998;4:273–275. doi: 10.3201/eid0402.980215. [DOI] [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  5. Charrel RN, Zaki AM, Attoui H, Fakeeh M, Billoir F, Yousef AI, de Chesse R, De Micco P, Gould EA, de Lamballerie X. Complete coding sequence of the Alkhurma virus, a tick-borne flavivirus causing severe hemorrhagic fever in humans in Saudi Arabia. Biochem Biophys Res Commun. 2001;287:455–461. doi: 10.1006/bbrc.2001.5610. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  6. Chen W-R, Rico-Hesse R, Tesh RB. A new genotype of Japanese encephalitis virus from Indonesia. Am J Trop Med Hyg. 1992;47:61–69. doi: 10.4269/ajtmh.1992.47.61. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  7. Chen W-R, Tesh RB, Rico-Hesse R. Genetic variation of Japanese encephalitis virus in nature. J Gen Virol. 1990;71:2915–2922. doi: 10.1099/0022-1317-71-12-2915. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  8. Chua KB, Bellini WJ, Rota PA, Harcourt BH, Tamin A, Lam SK, Ksiazek TG, Rollin PE, Zaki SR, Shieh WJ, Goldsmith CS, Gubler DJ, Roehrig JT, Eaton B, Gould AR, Olson J, Field H, Daniels P, Ling AE, Peters CJ, Anderson LJ, Mahy BWJ. Nipah virus: a recently emergent deadly paramyxovirus. Science. 2000;288:1432–1435. doi: 10.1126/science.288.5470.1432. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  9. Chua KB, Goh KJ, Wong KT, Kamarulzaman A, Tan PS, Ksiazek TG, Zaki SR, Paul G, Lam SK, Tan CT. Fatal encephalitis due to Nipah virus among pig-farmers in Malaysia. Lancet. 1999;354:1256–1259. doi: 10.1016/S0140-6736(99)04299-3. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  10. Chua KB, Koh CK, Hooi PS, Wee KF, Khong JH, Chua BH, Chan YP, Lim ME, Lam SK. Isolation of Nipah virus from Malaysian Island flying-foxes. Microb Infect. 2002;4:145–151. doi: 10.1016/S1286-4579(01)01522-2. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  11. Chua KB, Lam SK, Tan CT, Hooi PS, Goh KJ, Chew NK, Tan KS, Kamarulzaman A, Wong KT. High mortality in Nipah encephalitis is associated with presence of virus in cerebrospinal fluid. Ann Neurol. 2000;48:802–805. doi: 10.1002/1531-8249(200011)48:5<802::AID-ANA17>3.0.CO;2-M. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  12. Chua KB, Wang LF, Lam SK, Crameri G, Yu M, Wise T, Boyle D, Hyatt AD, Eaton BT. Tioman virus, a novel paramyxovirus isolated from fruit bats in Malaysia. Virology. 2001;283:215–229. doi: 10.1006/viro.2000.0882. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  13. Dhanda V, Thenmozhi V, Hiriyan J, Arunachalam N, Batasubramanian A, Ilango A, Gajanana A. Virus isolation from wild-caught mosquitoes during a Japanese encephalitis outbreak in Kerala in 1996. Indian J Med Res. 1997;106:4–6. [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  14. Eaton BT, Wright PJ, Wang LF, Sergeyev O, Michalski WP, Bossart KN, Bruder CC. Arch Virol Suppl. 2004;18:123–131. [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  15. Endy TP, Nisalak A. Japanese encephalitis virus: ecology and epidemiology. Curr Top Microbiol Immunol. 2002;267:11–48. doi: 10.1007/978-3-642-59403-8_2. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  16. Field H, Mackenzie J, Daszak P. Novel viral encephalitides associated with bats (Chiroptera)—host management strategies. Arch Virol Suppl. 2004;18:113–121. doi: 10.1007/978-3-7091-0572-6_9. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  17. Field H, Young P, Yob JM, Mills J, Hall L, Mackenzie J. The natural history of Hendra and Nipah viruses. Microb Infect. 2001;3:307–314. doi: 10.1016/S1286-4579(01)01384-3. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  18. Goh KJ, Tan TC, Chew NK, Tan PS, Kamarulzaman A, Sarji SA, Wong KT, Abdullah BJJ, Chua KB, Lam SK. Clinical features of Nipah virus encephalitis among pig farmers in Malaysia. N Engl J Med. 2000;342:1229–1235. doi: 10.1056/NEJM200004273421701. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  19. Gould AR, Hyatt AD, Lunt R, Kattenbelt A, Hengstberger S, Blacksell SD. Characterisation of a novel lyssavirus isolated from pteropid bats in Australia. Virus Res. 1998;54:165–187. doi: 10.1016/S0168-1702(98)00025-2. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  20. Gould AR, Kattenbelt JA, Gumley SG, Lunt RA. Characterisation of an Australian bat lyssavirus variant isolated from an insectivorous bat. Virus Res. 2002;89:1–28. doi: 10.1016/S0168-1702(02)00056-4. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  21. Guyatt KJ, Twin J, Davis P, Holmes EC, Smith GA, Smith IL, Mackenzie JS, Young PL. A molecular epidemiological study of Australian bat lyssavirus. J Gen Virol. 2003;84:485–496. doi: 10.1099/vir.0.18652-0. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  22. Ha DQ, Calisher CH, Tien PH, Karabatsos N, Gubler DJ. Isolation of a newly recognised alphavirus from mosquitoes in Vietnam and evidence for human infection and disease. Am J Trop Med Hyg. 1995;53:100–104. [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  23. Halpin K, Young PL, Field HE, Mackenzie JS. Isolation of Hendra virus from pteropid bats: a natural reservoir of Hendra virus. J Gen Virol. 2000;81:1927–1932. doi: 10.1099/0022-1317-81-8-1927. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  24. Hanna JN, Carney IK, Smith GA, Tannenberg EG, Deverill JE, Botha JA, Serafin IL, Harrower BJ, Fitzpatrick PF, Searle JW. Australian bat lyssavirus infection: a second human case, with a long incubation period. Med J Aust. 2000;172:597–599. doi: 10.5694/j.1326-5377.2000.tb124126.x. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  25. Hanna JN, Ritchie SA, Phillips DA, Lee JM, Hills SL, Van Den Hurk AF, Pyke AT, Johansen CA, Mackenzie JS. Japanese encephalitis in North Queensland, 1998. Med J Aust. 1999;170:533–536. doi: 10.5694/j.1326-5377.1999.tb127878.x. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  26. Hanna JN, Ritchie SA, Phillips DA, Shield J, Bailey MC, Mackenzie JS, Poidinger M, McCall BJ, Mills PA. An outbreak of Japanese encephalitis in the Torres Strait, Australia, 1995. Med J Aust. 1996;165:256–260. doi: 10.5694/j.1326-5377.1996.tb124960.x. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  27. Hayasaka D, Suzuki Y, Kariwa H, Ivanov L, Volkov V, Demenev V, Mizutani T, Gojobori T, Takashima I. Phylogenetic and virulence analysis of tick-borne encephalitis viruses from Japan and far-Eastern Russia. J Gen Virol. 1999;80:3127–3135. doi: 10.1099/0022-1317-80-12-3127. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  28. Heinz FX, Collett MS, Purcell RH, Gould EA, Howard CR, Houghton M, Moormann RJM, Rice CM, Thiel HJ. Flaviviridae. In: van Regenmortel MHV, Fauquet CM, Bishop DHL, Carstens EB, Estes MK, Lemon SM, Maniloff J, Mayo MA, McGeoch DJ, Pringle CR, Wickner RB, editors. Viral taxonomy. Classification and nomenclature of viruses. 7th Report of the International Committee for the Taxonomy of Viruses. San Diego: Academic Press; 2000. pp. 859–878. [Google Scholar]
  29. Hooper P, Lunt R, Gould A, Samaratunga H, Hyatt AD, Gleeson LF, Rodwell BJ, Rupprecht CE, Smith JS, Murray PK. A new lyssavirus—the first endemic rabies-related virus recognized in Australia. Bull Inst Pasteur. 1997;95:209–218. doi: 10.1016/S0020-2452(97)83529-5. [DOI] [Google Scholar]
  30. Hooper P, Zaki S, Daniels P, Middleton D. Comparative pathology of the diseases caused by Hendra and Nipah viruses. Microbes Infect. 2001;3:315–322. doi: 10.1016/S1286-4579(01)01385-5. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  31. Hooper PT, Gould AR, Russell GM, Kattenbelt JA, Mitchell G. The retrospective diagnosis of a second outbreak of equine morbillivirus infection. Aust Vet J. 1996;74:244–245. doi: 10.1111/j.1751-0813.1996.tb15414.x. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  32. ICDDR The International Centre for Diarrhoeal Disease Research, Health and Science Bulletin (English) 2003;1:1–6. [Google Scholar]
  33. Igarashi A, Tanaka M, Morita A, Takasu T, Ahmed A, Ahmed A, Akram DS, Waqar MA. Detection of West Nile and Japanese encephalitis viral genome sequences in cerebrospinal fluid from acute encephalitis cases in Karachi, Pakistan. Microbiol Immunol. 1994;38:827–830. doi: 10.1111/j.1348-0421.1994.tb01866.x. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  34. Johansen C, Ritchie S, van den Hurk A, Bockarie M, Hanna J, Phillips D, Melrose W, Poidinger M, Scherret J, Hall R, Mackenzie J. The search for Japanese encephalitis virus in the Western Province of Papua New Guinea. Arbovirus Res Aust. 1997;7:131–136. [Google Scholar]
  35. Johansen CA, van den Hurk AF, Ritchie SA, Zborowski P, Paru R, Bockarie MJ, Drew AC, Khromykh TI, Mackenzie JS. Isolation of Japanese encephalitis virus from mosquitoes (Diptera: Culicidae) collected in the Western Province of Papua New Guinea, 1997–1998. Am J Trop Med Hyg. 2000;62:631–638. doi: 10.4269/ajtmh.2000.62.631. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  36. Johara MY, Field H, Rashdi AM, Morrissy C, van der Heide B, Rota P, bin Adzhar A, White J, Daniels P, Jamaluddin A, Ksiazek T. Nipah virus infection in bats (Order Chiroptera) in Peninsular Malaysia. Emerg Infect Dis. 2001;7:439–441. doi: 10.3201/eid0703.010312. [DOI] [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  37. Karabatsos N, editor. International catalogue of Arboviruses including certain other viruses of vertebrates. 3rd edition. San Antonio, Tx: American Society of Tropical Medicine and Hygiene; 1985. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  38. Kumar S. Inadequate research facilities fail to tackle mystery disease. BMJ. 2003;326:12–12. doi: 10.1136/bmj.326.7379.12/d. [DOI] [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  39. Lee KE, Umapathi T, Tan CB, Tjia HT, Chua TS, Oh HM, Fock KM, Kurup A, Das A, Tan AK, Lee WL. The neurological manifestations of Nipah virus encephalitis: a novel paramyxovirus. Ann Neurol. 1999;46:428–432. doi: 10.1002/1531-8249(199909)46:3<428::AID-ANA23>3.0.CO;2-I. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  40. Lyssavirus Expert Group Prevention of human lyssavirus infection. Commun Dis Intell. 1996;20:505–507. [Google Scholar]
  41. Lyssavirus Expert Group Update on bat lyssavirus. Commun Dis Intell. 1996;20:535–535. [Google Scholar]
  42. Mackenzie JS. The family Flaviviridae: a brief overview of the family with particular reference to members of the Asian and Australasian regions. In: Blacksell SD, editor. Classical swine fever and emerging viral diseases in South-East Asia. ACIAR Proceedings No. 94. Canberra: Australian Centre for International Agricultural Research; 2000. pp. 48–56. [Google Scholar]
  43. Mackenzie JS, Barrett ADT, Deubel V. The Japanese encephalitis serological group of Flaviviruses: a brief introduction to the group. Curr Top Microbiol Immunol. 2002;267:1–10. doi: 10.1007/978-3-642-59403-8_1. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  44. Mackenzie JS, Chua KB, Daniels PW, Eaton BT, Field HE, Hall RA, Halpin K, Johansen CA, Kirkland PD, Lam SK, McMinn P, Nisbet DJ, Paru R, Pyke AT, Ritchie SA, Siba P, Smith DW, Smith GA, van den Hurk AF, Wang LF, Williams DT. Emerging viral diseases of South-East Asia and the Western Pacific: a brief review. Emerg Infect Dis. 2001;7(Suppl 3):497–504. doi: 10.3201/eid0703.010303. [DOI] [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  45. Mackenzie JS, Field HE. Emerging encephalitogenic viruses: lyssaviruses and henipaviruses transmitted by frugiverous bats. Arch Virol Suppl. 2004;18:97–111. doi: 10.1007/978-3-7091-0572-6_8. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  46. Mackenzie JS, Johansen CA, Ritchie SA, van den Hurk AF, Hall RA. Japanese encephalitis as an emerging virus: the emergence and spread of Japanese encephalitis virus in Australasia. Curr Top Microbiol Immunol. 2002;267:49–73. doi: 10.1007/978-3-642-59403-8_3. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  47. Mackenzie JS, Lindsay MD, Coelen RJ, Broom AK, Hall RA, Smith DW. Arboviruses causing human disease in the Australasian zoogeographic region. Arch Virol. 1994;136:447–467. doi: 10.1007/BF01321074. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  48. Mackenzie JS, Poidinger M, Phillips D, Johansen CA, Hall RA, Hanna J, Ritchie S, Shield J, Graham R. Emergence of Japanese encephalitis virus in the Australasian region. In: Saluzzo JF, Dodet B, editors. Factors in the emergence of arbovirus diseases. Paris: Elsevier; 1997. pp. 191–201. [Google Scholar]
  49. McMinn PC. An overview of the evolution of enterovirus 71 and its clinical and public health significance. FEMS Microbiol. 2002;26:91–107. doi: 10.1111/j.1574-6976.2002.tb00601.x. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  50. Murray K, Selleck P, Hooper P, Hyatt A, Gould A, Gleeson L, Westbury H, Hiley L, Selvey L, Rodwell B. A morbillivirus that caused fatal disease in horses and humans. Science. 1995;268:94–97. doi: 10.1126/science.7701348. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  51. Olson JG, Ksiazek TG, Lee VH, Tan R, Shope RE. Isolation of Japanese encephalitis virus from Anopheles anularis and Anopheles vagus in Lombok, Indonesia. Trans R Soc Trop Med Hyg. 1985;79:845–847. doi: 10.1016/0035-9203(85)90135-X. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  52. Olson JG, Rupprecht C, Rollin P, An US, Niezgoda M, Clemins T, Watson J, Ksiazek T. Antibodies to Nipah-like virus in bats (Pteropus lylei), Cambodia. Emerg Infect Dis. 2002;8:987–988. doi: 10.3201/eid0809.010515. [DOI] [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  53. O’Sullivan JD, Allworth AM, Paterson DL, Snow TM, Boots R, Gleeson LJ, Gould AR, Hyatt AD, Bradfield J. Fatal encephalitis due to novel paramyxovirus transmitted from horses. Lancet. 1997;349:93–95. doi: 10.1016/S0140-6736(96)06162-4. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  54. Paton NI, Leo YS, Zaki SR, Auchus AP, Lee KE, Ling AE, Chew SK, Ang B, Rollin PE, Umapathi T, Sng I, Lee CC, Lim E, Ksiazek TG. Outbreak of Nipah virus infection among abattoir workers in Singapore. Lancet. 1999;354:1253–1256. doi: 10.1016/S0140-6736(99)04379-2. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  55. Philbey AW, Kirkland PD, Ross AD, Davis RJ, Gleeson AB, Love RJ, Daniels PW, Gould AR, Hyatt AD. An apparently new virus (family Paramyxoviridae) infectious for pigs, humans and fruit bats. Emerg Infect Dis. 1998;4:266–271. doi: 10.3201/eid0402.980214. [DOI] [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  56. Prasad SR, Kumar V, Marwaha RK, Batra KL, Rath RK, Pal SR. An epidemic of encephalitis in Haryana: serological evidence of Japanese encephalitis in a few patients. Indian J Pediatr. 1993;30:905–910. [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  57. ProMED (2001). Nipah-like virus—India (North Bengal): 2001. http://www.promedmail.org. Archive number 20030106.0050.
  58. Pyke AT, Williams DT, Nisbet DJ, van den Hurk AF, Taylor CT, Johansen CA, Macdonald J, Hall RA, Simmons RJ, Mason RJV, Lee JM, Ritchie SA, Smith GA, Mackenzie JS. The appearance of a second genotype of Japanese encephalitis virus in the Australasian region. Am J Trop Med Hyg. 2001;65:747–53. doi: 10.4269/ajtmh.2001.65.747. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  59. Ritchie SA, Phillips D, Broom A, Mackenzie J, Poidinger M, van den Hurk A. Isolation of Japanese encephalitis virus from Culex annulirostris in Australia. Am J Trop Med Hyg. 1997;56:80–84. doi: 10.4269/ajtmh.1997.56.80. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  60. Rogers RJ, Douglas IC, Baldock FC, Glanville RJ, Seppanen KT, Gleeson LJ, Selleck PN, Dunn KJ. Investigation of a second focus of equine morbillivirus infection in coastal Queensland. Aust Vet J. 1996;74:243–244. doi: 10.1111/j.1751-0813.1996.tb15413.x. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  61. Samaratunga H, Searle JW, Hudson N. Non-rabies lyssavirus human encephalitis from fruit bats. Australian bat lyssavirus (pteropid lyssavirus) infection. Neuropathol Appl Neurobiol. 1998;24:331–335. doi: 10.1046/j.1365-2990.1998.00129.x. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  62. Selvey L, Taylor R, Arklay A, Gerrard J. Screening of bat carers for antibodies to equine morbillivirus. Commun Dis Intell. 1996;20:477–478. [Google Scholar]
  63. Selvey LA, Wells RM, McCormack JG, Ansford AJ, Murray K, Rogers RJ, Lavercombe PS, Selleck P, Sheridan JW. Infection of humans and horses by a newly described morbillivirus. Med J Aust. 1995;162:642–645. doi: 10.5694/j.1326-5377.1995.tb126050.x. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  64. Solomon T. Exotic and emerging viral encephalitides. Curr Opin Neurol. 2003;16:411–418. doi: 10.1097/00019052-200306000-00023. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  65. Solomon T. Recent advances in Japanese encephalitis. J Neurovirol. 2003;9:274–283. doi: 10.1080/13550280390194037. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  66. Solomon T, Dung NM, Vaughn DW, Kneen R, Thao LT, Raengsakulrach B, Loan HT, Day NP, Farrar J, Myint KS, Warrell MJ, James WS, Nisalak A, White NJ. Neurological manifestations of dengue infection. Lancet. 2000;25:1053–1059. doi: 10.1016/S0140-6736(00)02036-5. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  67. Solomon T, Vaughn DW. Pathogenesis and clinical features of Japanese encephalitis and West Nile virus infections. Curr Top Microbiol Immunol. 2002;267:171–194. doi: 10.1007/978-3-642-59403-8_9. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  68. Spicer PE. Japanese encephalitis in Western Irian Jaya. J Travel Med. 1997;4:146–147. doi: 10.1111/j.1708-8305.1997.tb00803.x. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  69. Takashima I, Morita K, Chiba M, Hayasaka D, Sato T, Takezawa C, Igarashi A, Kariwa H, Yoshimatsu K, Arikawa J, Hashimoto N. A case of tick-borne encephalitis in Japan and isolation of the the virus. J Clin Microbiol. 1997;35:1943–1947. doi: 10.1128/jcm.35.8.1943-1947.1997. [DOI] [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  70. Takeda T, Ito T, Chiba M, Takahashi K, Niioka T, Takashima I. Isolation of tick-borne encephalitis virus from Ixodes ovatus (Acari: Ixodidae) in Japan. J Med Entomol. 1998;35:227–231. doi: 10.1093/jmedent/35.3.227. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  71. Takeda T, Ito T, Osada M, Takahashi K, Takashima I. Isolation of tick-borne encephalitis virus from wild rodents and a seroepizootiologic survey in Hokkaido, Japan. Am J Trop Med Hyg. 1999;60:287–291. doi: 10.4269/ajtmh.1999.60.287. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  72. Tan CT, Goh KJ, Wong KT, Sarji SA, Chua KB, Chew NK, Murugasu P, Loh YL, Chong HT, Tan KS, Thayaparan T, Kumar S, Jusoh MR. Relapsed and late-onset Nipah encephalitis. Ann Neurol. 2002;51:703–708. doi: 10.1002/ana.10212. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  73. Umenai T, Krzysko R, Bektimirov TA, Assaad FA. Japanese encephalitis: current worldwide status. Bull World Health Org. 1985;63:625–631. [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  74. Vaughn DW, Hoke CH. The epidemiology of Japanese encephalitis: prospects for prevention. Epidemiol Rev. 1992;14:197–221. doi: 10.1093/oxfordjournals.epirev.a036087. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  75. van den Hurk AF, Johansen CA, Zborowski P, Phillips DA, Pyke AT, Mackenzie JS, Ritchie SA. Flaviviruses isolated from mosquitoes collected during the first recorded outbreak of Japanese encephalitis virus on Cape York Peninsula, Australia. Am J Trop Med Hyg. 2001;64:125–130. doi: 10.4269/ajtmh.2001.64.125. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  76. van den Hurk AF, Nisbet DJ, Johansen CA, Foley PN, Ritchie SA, Mackenzie JS. Japanese encephalitis on Badu Island, Australia: the first isolation of Japanese encephalitis virus from Culex gelidus in the Australasian region and the role of mosquito host-feeding patterns in virus transmission cycles. Trans R Soc Trop Med Hyg. 2001;95:595–600. doi: 10.1016/S0035-9203(01)90090-2. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  77. Warrilow D, Smith IL, Harrower B, Smith GA. Sequence analysis of an isolate from a fatal human infection of Australian bat lyssavirus. Virology. 2002;297:109–110. doi: 10.1006/viro.2002.1417. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  78. WHO Nipah virus outbreak(s) in Bangladesh, January–April 2004. WHO Wkly Epidemiol Rec. 2004;79:168–171. [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  79. Williams WR, Kaluza G, Boschek CB, Bauer H, Hager H, Schutz H-J, Feistner H. Semliki Forest virus: cause of a fatal case of human encephalitis. Science. 1979;203:1127–1129. doi: 10.1126/science.424742. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  80. Young PL, Halpin K, Selleck PW, Field H, Gravel JL, Kelly MA, Mackenzie JS. Serologic evidence for the presence in pteropus bats of a paramyxovirus related to equine morbillivirus. Emerg Infect Dis. 1996;2:239–240. doi: 10.3201/eid0203.960315. [DOI] [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  81. Zaki AM. Isolation of a flavivirus related to the tick-borne encephalitis complex from human cases in Saudi Arabia. Trans R Soc Trop Med Hyg. 1997;91:179–181. doi: 10.1016/S0035-9203(97)90215-7. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]

Articles from Journal of Neurovirology are provided here courtesy of Nature Publishing Group

RESOURCES