Skip to main content
PMC home page
Springer Nature - PMC COVID-19 Collection logoLink to Springer Nature - PMC COVID-19 Collection
. 2009;330:173–189. doi: 10.1007/978-3-540-70617-5_9

Measles Control and the Prospect of Eradication

W J Moss ‡,✉
Editors: Diane E Griffin*, Michael B A Oldstone6
PMCID: PMC7120973  PMID: 19203110

Abstract

Remarkable progress has been made in reducing measles incidence and mortality as a consequence of implementing the measles mortality reduction strategy of the World Health Organization (WHO) and United Nations Children's Fund (UNICEF). The revised global measles mortality reduction goal set forth in the WHO-UNICEF Global Immunization Vision and Strategy for 2006–2015 is to reduce measles deaths by 90% by 2010 compared to the estimated 757,000 deaths in 2000. The possibility of measles eradication has been discussed for almost 40 years, and measles meets many of the criteria for eradication. Global measles eradication will face a number of challenges to achieving and sustaining high levels of vaccine coverage and population immunity, including population growth and demographic changes, conflict and political instability, and public perceptions of vaccine safety. To achieve the measles mortality reduction goal, continued progress needs to be made in delivering measles vaccines to the world's children.

Keywords: Measle Vaccine, Measle Vaccination, Polio Eradication, Population Immunity, Measle Case

Contributor Information

Diane E. Griffin, Email: dgriffin@mail.jhmi.edu, Email: dgriffin@jhsph.edu

Michael B. A. Oldstone, Email: mbaobo@scripps.edu

W. J. Moss, Email: wmoss@jhsph.edu

References

  1. Amanna IJ, Carlson NE, Slifka MK. Duration of humoral immunity to common viral and vaccine antigens. N Engl J Med. 2007;357:1903–1915. doi: 10.1056/NEJMoa066092. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  2. Andrews N, Tischer A, Siedler A, Pebody RG, Barbara C, Cotter S, Duks A, Gacheva N, Bohumir K, Johansen K, Mossong J, Ory F, Prosenc K, Slacikova M, Theeten H, Zarvou M, Pistol A, Bartha K, Cohen D, Backhouse J, Griskevicius A. Towards elimination: measles susceptibility in Australia and 17 European countries. Bull World Health Organ. 2008;86:197–204. doi: 10.2471/BLT.07.043034. [DOI] [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  3. Angel JB, Walpita P, Lerch RA, Sidhu MS, Masuredar M, DeLellis RA, Noble JT, Snydman DR, Udem SA. Vaccine-associated measles pneumonitis in an adult with AIDS. Ann Intern Med. 1998;129:104–106. doi: 10.7326/0003-4819-129-2-199807150-00007. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  4. Bellini WJ, Helfand RF. The challenges and strategies for laboratory diagnosis of measles in an international setting. J Infect Dis. 2003;187:S283–S290. doi: 10.1086/368040. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  5. Biellik R, Madema S, Taole A, Allies A, Kutsulukuta A, Eggers R, Ngcobo N, Nxumalo M, Shearley A, Mabuzane E, Kufa E, Okwo-Bele JM. First 5 years of measles elimination in southern Africa: 1996–2000. Lancet. 2002;359:1564–1568. doi: 10.1016/S0140-6736(02)08517-3. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  6. Centers for Disease Control Measles eradication: recommendations from a meeting cosponsored by the World Health Organization, the Pan American Health Organization, and the CDC. MMWR. 1997;46:1–20. [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  7. Centers for Disease Control Measles outbreak—Netherlands, April 1999 – January 2000. MMWR Morb Mortal Wkly Rep. 2000;49:299–303. [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  8. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention Global Measles and Rubella Laboratory Network, January 2004–June 2005. MMWR Morb Mortal Wkly Rep. 2005;54:1100–1104. [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  9. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention Vaccination coverage among children in kindergarten – United States, 2006–07 school year. MMWR Morb Mortal Wkly Rep. 2007;56:819–821. [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  10. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention Multistate measles outbreak associated with an international youth sporting event — Pennsylvania, Michigan, and Texas, August—September 2007. MMWR Morb Mortal Wkly Rep. 2008a;57:169–173. [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  11. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention Outbreak of measles — San Diego, California, January—February 2008. MMWR Morb Mortal Wkly Rep. 2008b;57:203–206. [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  12. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention Progress toward measles mortality reduction and elimination — Eastern Mediterranean Region, 1997–2007. MMWR Morb Mortal Wkly Rep. 2008c;57:262–267. [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  13. Cohen JE. Human population: the next half century. Science. 2003;302:1172–1175. doi: 10.1126/science.1088665. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  14. Connolly MA, Gayer M, Ryan MJ, Salama P, Spiegel P, Heymann DL. Communicable diseases in complex emergencies: impact and challenges. Lancet. 2004;364:1974–1983. doi: 10.1016/S0140-6736(04)17481-3. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  15. Costa A, Henao-Restrepo AM, Hall SM, Jarrett S, Hoekstra EJ. Determining measles-containing vaccine demand and supply: an imperative to support measles mortality reduction efforts. J Infect Dis. 2003;187:S22–S28. doi: 10.1086/368274. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  16. Cutts FT, Steinglass R. Should measles be eradicated? BMJ. 1998;316:765–767. doi: 10.1136/bmj.316.7133.765. [DOI] [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  17. Dowdle WR, Hopkins DR. The eradication of infectious diseases: report of the Dahlem Workshop on the eradication of infectious diseases, Berlin, March 1997. New York: Wiley; 1998. pp. 16–22. [Google Scholar]
  18. D'Souza RM, D'Souza R. Vitamin A for the treatment of children with measles — a systematic review. J Trop Pediatr. 2002;48:323–327. doi: 10.1093/tropej/48.6.323. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  19. Dayan GH, Cairns L, Sangrujee N, Mtonga A, Nguyen V, Strebel P. Cost-effectiveness of three different vaccination strategies against measles in Zambian children. Vaccine. 2004;22:475–484. doi: 10.1016/j.vaccine.2003.07.007. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  20. de Quadros CA. Can measles be eradicated globally? Bull World Health Organ. 2004;82:134–138. [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  21. de Quadros CA, Olive JM, Hersh BS, Strassburg MA, Henderson DA, Brandling-Bennett D, Alleyne GA. Measles elimination in the Americas. Evolving strategies. JAMA. 1996;275:224–229. doi: 10.1001/jama.275.3.224. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  22. de Quadros CA, Izurieta H, Venczel L, Carrasco P. Measles eradication in the Americas: progress to date. J Infect Dis. 2004;189:S227–S235. doi: 10.1086/377741. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  23. DeStefano F, Thompson WW. MMR vaccine and autism: an update of the scientific evidence. Expert Rev Vaccines. 2004;3:19–22. doi: 10.1586/14760584.3.1.19. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  24. Dine MS, Hutchins SS, Thomas A, Williams I, Bellini WJ, Redd SC. Persistence of vaccine-induced antibody to measles 26–33 years after vaccination. J Infect Dis. 2004;189:S123–S130. doi: 10.1086/380308. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  25. Duke T, Mgone CS. Measles: not just another viral exanthem. Lancet. 2003;361:763–773. doi: 10.1016/S0140-6736(03)12661-X. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  26. Dye C. Health and urban living. Science. 2008;319:766–769. doi: 10.1126/science.1150198. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  27. Feikin DR, Lezotte DC, Hamman RF, Salmon DA, Chen RT, Hoffman RE. Individual and community risks of measles and pertussis associated with personal exemptions to immunization. JAMA. 2000;284:3145–3150. doi: 10.1001/jama.284.24.3145. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  28. Frank SA, Bush RM. Barriers to antigenic escape by pathogens: trade-off between reproductive rate and antigenic mutability. BMC Evol Biol. 2007;7:229. doi: 10.1186/1471-2148-7-229. [DOI] [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  29. Gans HA, Arvin AM, Galinus J, Logan L, De Hovitz R, Maldonado Y. Deficiency of the humoral immune response to measles vaccine in infants immunized at age 6 months. JAMA. 1998;280:527–532. doi: 10.1001/jama.280.6.527. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  30. Gay NJ. The theory of measles elimination: implications for the design of elimination strategies. J Infect Dis. 2004;189:S27–S35. doi: 10.1086/381592. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  31. Gomi H, Takahashi H. Why is measles still endemic in Japan? Lancet. 2004;364:328–329. doi: 10.1016/S0140-6736(04)16715-9. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  32. Gounder C. The progress of the Polio Eradication Initiative: what prospects for eradicating measles? Health Policy Plan. 1998;13:212–233. doi: 10.1093/heapol/13.3.212. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  33. Grais RF, Conlan AJ, Ferrari MJ, Djibo A, Le Menach A, Bjornstad ON, Grenfell BT. Time is of the essence: exploring a measles outbreak response vaccination in Niamey, Niger. J R Soc Interface. 2008;5:67–74. doi: 10.1098/rsif.2007.1038. [DOI] [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  34. Helfand RF, Moss WJ, Harpaz R, Scott S, Cutts F. Evaluating the impact of the HIV pandemic on measles control and elimination. Bull World Health Organ. 2005;83:329–337. [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  35. Jansen VA, Stollenwerk N, Jensen HJ, Ramsay ME, Edmunds WJ, Rhodes CJ. Measles outbreaks in a population with declining vaccine uptake. Science. 2003;301:804. doi: 10.1126/science.1086726. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  36. Kamugisha C, Cairns KL, Akim C. An outbreak of measles in Tanzanian refugee camps. J Infect Dis. 2003;187:S58–S62. doi: 10.1086/368057. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  37. Katz SL. Polio: new challenges in 2006. J Clin Virol. 2006;36:163–165. doi: 10.1016/j.jcv.2006.03.003. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  38. Low N, Kraemer S, Schneider M, Restrepo AM. Immunogenicity and safety of aerosolized measles vaccine: systematic review and meta-analysis. Vaccine. 2008;26:383–398. doi: 10.1016/j.vaccine.2007.11.010. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  39. Madsen KM, Hviid A, Vestergaard M, Schendel D, Wohlfahrt J, Thorsen P, Olsen J, Melbye M. A population-based study of measles, mumps, and rubella vaccination and autism. N Engl J Med. 2002;347:1477–1482. doi: 10.1056/NEJMoa021134. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  40. McQuillan GM, Kruszon-Moran D, Hyde TB, Forghani B, Bellini W, Dayan GH. Seroprevalence of measles antibody in the US population, 1999–2004. J Infect Dis. 2007;196:1459–1464. doi: 10.1086/522866. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  41. Meissner HC, Strebel PM, Orenstein WA. Measles vaccines and the potential for worldwide eradication of measles. Pediatrics. 2004;114:1065–1069. doi: 10.1542/peds.2004-0440. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  42. Monafo WJ, Haslam DB, Roberts RL, Zaki SR, Bellini WJ, Coffin CM. Disseminated measles infection after vaccination in a child with a congenital immunodeficiency. J Pediatr. 1994;124:273–276. doi: 10.1016/S0022-3476(94)70318-3. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  43. Morgan OW. Following in the footsteps of smallpox: can we achieve the global eradication of measles? BMC Int Health Hum Rights. 2004;4:1. doi: 10.1186/1472-698X-4-1. [DOI] [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  44. Moss WJ, Griffin DE. Global measles elimination. Nat Rev Microbiol. 2006;4:900–908. doi: 10.1038/nrmicro1550. [DOI] [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  45. Moss WJ, Cutts F, Griffin DE. Implications of the human immunodeficiency virus epidemic for control and eradication of measles. Clin Infect Dis. 1999;29:106–112. doi: 10.1086/520136. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  46. Moss WJ, Monze M, Ryon JJ, Quinn TC, Griffin DE, Cutts F. Prospective study of measles in hospitalized human immunodeficiency virus (HIV)-infected and HIV-uninfected children in Zambia. Clin Infect Dis. 2002;35:189–196. doi: 10.1086/341248. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  47. Moss WJ, Scott S, Mugala N, Ndhlovu Z, Beeler JA, Audet SA, Ngala M, Mwangala S, Nkonga-Mwangilwa, Ryon JJ, Monze M, Kasolo F, Quinn TC, Cousens S, Griffin DE, Cutts FT. Immunogenicity of standard-titer measles vaccine in HIV-1-infected and uninfected Zambian children: an observational study. J Infect Dis. 2007;196:347–355. doi: 10.1086/519169. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  48. Offit PA, Coffin SE. Communicating science to the public: MMR vaccine and autism. Vaccine. 2003;22:1–6. doi: 10.1016/S0264-410X(03)00532-2. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  49. Orenstein WA, Strebel PM, Papania M, Sutter RW, Bellini WJ, Cochi SL. Measles eradication: is it in our future? Am J Public Health. 2000;90:1521–1525. doi: 10.2105/AJPH.90.10.1521. [DOI] [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  50. Otten M, Kezaala R, Fall A, Masresha B, Martin R, Cairns L, Eggers R, Biellik R, Grabowsky M, Strebel P, Okwo-Bele JM, Nshimirimana D. Public-health impact of accelerated measles control in the WHO African Region 2000–03. Lancet. 2005;366:832–839. doi: 10.1016/S0140-6736(05)67216-9. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  51. Pan American Health Organization . Measles eradication. Field guide. Pan American Health Organization: Washington, DC; 1999. [Google Scholar]
  52. Parker AA, Staggs W, Dayan GH, Ortega-Sanchez IR, Rota PA, Lowe L, Boardman P, Teclaw R, Graves C, LeBaron CW. Implications of a 2005 measles outbreak in Indiana for sustained elimination of measles in the United States. N Engl J Med. 2006;355:447–455. doi: 10.1056/NEJMoa060775. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  53. Permar SR, Moss WJ, Ryon JJ, Monze M, Cutts F, Quinn TC, Griffin DE. Prolonged measles virus shedding in human immunodeficiency virus-infected children, detected by reverse transcriptase-polymerase chain reaction. J Infect Dis. 2001;183:532–538. doi: 10.1086/318533. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  54. Salama P, Assefa F, Talley L, Spiegel P, van Der V, Gotway CA. Malnutrition, measles, mortality, and the humanitarian response during a famine in Ethiopia. JAMA. 2001;286:563–571. doi: 10.1001/jama.286.5.563. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  55. Schimmer B, Ihekweazu C. Polio eradication and measles immunisation in Nigeria. Lancet Infect Dis. 2006;6:63–65. doi: 10.1016/S1473-3099(06)70358-9. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  56. Scott S, Moss WJ, Cousens S, Beeler JA, Audet SA, Mugala N, Quinn TC, Griffin DE, Cutts FT. The influence of HIV-1 exposure and infection on levels of passively acquired antibodies to measles virus in Zambian infants. Clin Infect Dis. 2007;45:1417–1424. doi: 10.1086/522989. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  57. Scott S, Mossong J, Moss WJ, Cutts FT, Cousens S. Predicted impact of the HIV-1 epidemic on measles in developing countries: results from a dynamic age-structured model. Int J Epidemiol. 2008;37:356–367. doi: 10.1093/ije/dyn007. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  58. Sencer DJ, Dull HB, Langmuir AD. Epidemiologic basis for eradication of measles in 1967. Public Health Rep. 1967;82:253–256. [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  59. Senessie C, Gage GN, von Elm E. Delays in childhood immunization in a conflict area: a study from Sierra Leone during civil war. Confl Health. 2007;1:14. doi: 10.1186/1752-1505-1-14. [DOI] [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  60. Stone R. Smallpox. WHO puts off destruction of U.S., Russian caches. Science. 2002;295:598–599. doi: 10.1126/science.295.5555.598. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  61. Takahashi H, Saito H. Measles exportation from Japan to the United States, 1994 to 2006. J Travel Med. 2008;15:82–86. doi: 10.1111/j.1708-8305.2008.00183.x. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  62. Tangermann RH, Hull HF, Jafari H, Nkowane B, Everts H, Aylward RB. Eradication of poliomyelitis in countries affected by conflict. Bull World Health Organ. 2000;78:330–338. [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  63. Tejiokem MC, Gouandjika I, Beniguel L, Zanga MC, Tene G, Gody JC, Njamkepo E, Kfutwah A, Penda I, Bilong C, Rousset D, Pouillot R, Tangy F, Baril L (2007) HIV-infected children living in central Africa have low persistence of antibodies to vaccines used in the Expanded Program on Immunization. PLoS ONE:e1260 [DOI] [PMC free article] [PubMed]
  64. United Nations, Department of Economic and Social Affairs Population Division . World population prospects: the 2006 revision, highlights. New York: United Nations; 2007. [Google Scholar]
  65. United Nations Population Fund (2007) State of the world population 2007: unleashing the potential of urban growth. United Nations Population Fund
  66. Uzicanin A, Zhou F, Eggers R, Webb E, Strebel P. Economic analysis of the 1996–1997 mass measles immunization campaigns in South Africa. Vaccine. 2004;22:3419–3426. doi: 10.1016/j.vaccine.2004.02.042. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  67. Wakefield AJ, Murch SH, Anthony A, Linnell J, Casson DM, Malik M, Berelowitz M, Dhillon AP, Thomson MA, Harvey P, Valentine A, Davies SE, Walker-Smith JA. Ileal-lymphoid-nodular hyperplasia, non-specific colitis, and pervasive developmental disorder in children. Lancet. 1998;351:637–641. doi: 10.1016/S0140-6736(97)11096-0. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  68. Wolfson LJ, Strebel PM, Gacic-Dobo M, Hoekstra EJ, McFarland JW, Hersh BS. Has the 2005 measles mortality reduction goal been achieved? A natural history modelling study. Lancet. 2007;369:191–200. doi: 10.1016/S0140-6736(07)60107-X. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  69. Wolfson LJ, Gasse F, Lee-Martin SP, Lydon P, Magan A, Tibouti A, Johns B, Hutubessy R, Salama P, Okwo-Bele JM. Estimating the costs of achieving the WHO-UNICEF Global Immunization Vision and Strategy, 2006–2015. Bull World Health Organ. 2008;86:27–39. doi: 10.2471/BLT.07.045096. [DOI] [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  70. World Health Organization Measles vaccines. Wkly Epidemiol Rec. 2004;79:130–142. [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  71. World Health Organization Progress in reducing measles mortality — worldwide 1999– 2003. Weekly Epidemiol Rec. 2005;80:78–81. [Google Scholar]
  72. World Health Organization Global distribution of measles and rubella genotypes — update. Wkly Epidemiol Rec. 2006a;81:474–479. [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  73. World Health Organization Impact of measles control activities in the WHO African Region, 1999–2005. Wkly Epidemiol Rec. 2006b;81:365–371. [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  74. World Health Organization . Expanded Programme on Immunization of the Department of Immunization, Vaccines and Biologicals. WHO vaccine-preventable diseases: monitoring system. 2007 global summary. WHO/IVB/2007. Geneva: World Health Organization; 2007a. [Google Scholar]
  75. World Health Organization Progress in global measles control and mortality reduction, 2000–2006. Wkly Epidemiol Rec. 2007b;82:418–424. [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  76. World Health Organization . Immunization surveillance, assessment and monitoring. Geneva: World Health Organization; 2008. [Google Scholar]
  77. World Health Organization. United Nations Children's Fund . Measles mortality reduction and regional elimination strategic plan 2001–2005. Geneva: World Health Organization; 2001. [Google Scholar]
  78. World Health Organization. United Nations Children's Fund . Global Immunization Vision and Strategy 2006–2015. Geneva: World Health Organization; 2005. [Google Scholar]

Articles from Measles are provided here courtesy of Nature Publishing Group

RESOURCES