Skip to main content
NCBI home page
Elsevier - PMC COVID-19 Collection logoLink to Elsevier - PMC COVID-19 Collection
. 2006 Aug 24;40(8):364–374. doi: 10.1016/S1579-2129(06)60322-4

Update to the Latin American Thoracic Society (ALAT) Recommendations on Community-Acquired Pneumonia

ALAT Work Group*
PMCID: PMC7128316  PMID: 15274866

The content is available as a PDF (159.6 KB).

Footnotes

These recommendations were made possible by the unrestricted support of Bayer and Aventis

REFERENCES

  • 1.Park DR, Skerrett SJ. The usefullness of the sputum Gram stain in the diagnosis of pneumonia. Clin Pulm Med. 1995;2:201–212. [Google Scholar]
  • 2.Kalin M, Lindberg A, Olausson E. Diagnosis of pneumococcal pneumonia by coagglutination and counterimmunoelectrophoresis of sputum samples. Eur J Clin Microbiol. 1982;1:91–96. doi: 10.1007/BF02014198. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  • 3.Torres A, Serra-Battles J, Ferrer A, Jiménez P, Celis R, Cobo E. Severe community-acquired pneumonia: epidemiology and prognostic factors. Am Rev Respir Dis. 1991;144:312–318. doi: 10.1164/ajrccm/144.2.312. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  • 4.Marrie TJ. Bacteremic pneumococcal pneumonia: a continuously evolving disease. J Infect. 1992;242:47–55. doi: 10.1016/s0163-4453(05)80029-5. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  • 5.Pallares R, Liñares J, Vadillo M, Cabellos C, Manresa F, Viladrich PF. Resistance to penicillin and cephalosporins and mortality from severe pneumococcal pneumonia in Barcelona. N Engl J Med. 1995;333:474–480. doi: 10.1056/NEJM199508243330802. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  • 6.Fang GD, Fine M, Orflof J, Arisumi D, Yu VL, Kapoor W. New and emerging etiologies for community acquired pneumonia with implications for therapy; a prospective multicenter study of 359 cases. Medicine (Baltimore) 1990;69:307–316. doi: 10.1097/00005792-199009000-00004. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  • 7.Woodhead MA, McFarlane JT, McCraken JS, Rose DH, Finch RG. Prospective study on the aetiology and outcome of pneumonia in the community. Lancet. 1987;1:671–674. doi: 10.1016/s0140-6736(87)90430-2. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  • 8.Bartlett JG, Dowell SF, Mandell LA, File TM, Musher DM, Fine MJ. Guidelines from the Infectious Diseases Society of America. Clin Infect Dis. 2000;31:347–382. doi: 10.1086/313954. [DOI] [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  • 9.Luna CM, Efron ED, Schiavi E, Gené RJ, Famiglietti A, Jolly EC. Neumonía adquirida en la comunidad (NAC) en adultos, guía práctica clínica para la Argentina. Medicina (Buenos Aires) 1997;57:343–355. [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  • 10.Almirall J, Morató I, Riera F, Verdaguer A, Priu R, Coll P. Incidence of community-acquired pneumonia and Chlamydia pneumoniae infection: a prospective multicentre study. Eur Respir J. 1993;6:14–18. [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  • 11.Oseasohn R, Skipper BE, Tempest B. Pneumonia in a Navajo community. Am Rev Respir Dis. 1978;117:1003–1009. doi: 10.1164/arrd.1978.117.6.1003. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  • 12.Austrian R. Surveillance of pneumococcal infection for field trials of polyvalent pneumococcal vaccines. National Institutes of Health; Bethesda, MD: 1980. [report DAB-VDP-12-84] [Google Scholar]
  • 13.Jokinen C, Heiskanen L, Juvonen H, Kallinen S, Karcola K, Korppi M. Incidence of community-acquired pneumonia in the population of four municipalities in Eastern Finland. Am J Epidemiol. 1993;137:977–988. doi: 10.1093/oxfordjournals.aje.a116770. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  • 14.Almirall J, Bolíbar I, Vidal J, Sauca G, Coll P, Niklasson B. Epidemiology of community-acquired pneumonia in adults: a population-based study. Eur Respir J. 2000;15:757–763. doi: 10.1034/j.1399-3003.2000.15d21.x. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  • 15.Marston BJ, Plouffe JF, File TM, Jr, Hackman BA, Salstrom SJ, Lipman HB. Incidence of community-acquired pneumonia requiring hospitalization: results of a population-based active surveillance study in Ohio. Arch Intern Med. 1997;157:1709–1718. [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  • 16.Pneumonia and influenza death rates - United States, 1979-1994. MMWR Morb Mortal Wkly Rep. 1995;44:535–537. [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  • 17.Marrie TJ. Community-acquired pneumonia. Clin Infect Dis. 1994;18:501–505. doi: 10.1093/clinids/18.4.501. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  • 18.Fine MJ, Smith MA, Carson CA, Mutha SS, Sankey SS, Weissfeld LA. Prognosis and outcomes of patients with community-acquired pneumonia: ameta-analysis. JAMA. 1996;275:134–141. [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  • 19.Saldías F, Mardónez J, Marchesse M, Viviani P, Farías G, Díaz A. Cuadro clínico y factores pronósticos en la neumonía adquirida en la comunidad en adultos hospitalizados. Rev Med Chil. 2002;130:1373–1382. [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  • 20.Menéndez R, Córdoba J, De la Cuadra P, Cremades MJ, López-Hontagas JL, Salavert M. Value of the polymerase chain reaction assay in noninvasive respiratory samples for diagnosis of community-acquired pneumonia. Am J Respir Crit Care Med. 1999;159:1868–1873. doi: 10.1164/ajrccm.159.6.9807070. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  • 21.Ruiz A, Falguera M, Nogués A, Rubio M. Is Streptococcus pneumoniae the leading cause of pneumonia of unknown etiology? A microbiologic study of lung aspirates in consecutive patients with community-acquired pneumonia. Am J Med. 1999;106:385–390. doi: 10.1016/s0002-9343(99)00050-9. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  • 22.Berntsson E, Lagergard T, Strannegard O, Trollfors B. Etiology of community-acquired pneumonia in outpatients. Eur J Clin Microbiol. 1986;5:446–447. doi: 10.1007/BF02075702. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  • 23.Langille DB, Yates L, Marrie TJ. Serological investigation of pneumonia as it presents to the physician's office. Can J Infect Dis. 1993;4:328–332. doi: 10.1155/1993/435350. [DOI] [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  • 24.Macfarlane JT, Colville A, Guion A, MacFarlane RM, Rose DH. Prospective study of aetiology and outcome of adult lower respiratory tract infections in the community. Lancet. 1993;341:511–514. doi: 10.1016/0140-6736(93)90275-l. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  • 25.Zalacain R, Talayero V, Achótegui J, Corral J, Barreña I, Sobradillo V. Neumonía adquirida en la comunidad. Fiabilidad de los criterios para decidir tratamiento ambulatorio. Arch Bronconeumol. 1997;33:74–79. doi: 10.1016/s0300-2896(15)30657-8. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  • 26.Foy HM, Cooney MK, McMahan R, Grayston JT. Viral and mycoplasmal pneumonia in a prepaid medical care group during an eightyear period. Am J Epidemol. 1973;97:93–102. doi: 10.1093/oxfordjournals.aje.a121493. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  • 27.Levy M, Dromer F, Brion N, Leturdu F, Carbon C. Community acquired pneumonia. Chest. 1988;92:43–48. doi: 10.1378/chest.93.1.43. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  • 28.Lim I, Shaw DR, Stanley DP, Lumb R, McLennan G. A prospective hospital study of the aetiology of community acquired pneumonia. Med J Aust. 1989;151:87–91. doi: 10.5694/j.1326-5377.1989.tb101168.x. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  • 29.Porath A, Schlaeffer F, Lieberman D. The epidemiology of community-acquired pneumonia among hospitalized adults. J Infect. 1997;34:41–48. doi: 10.1016/s0163-4453(97)80008-4. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  • 30.Bohte R, van Furth R, van den Brock PJ. Aetiology of community-acquired pneumonia: a prospective study among adults requiring admission to hospital. Thorax. 1995;50:543–547. doi: 10.1136/thx.50.5.543. [DOI] [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  • 31.Research Committee of the British Thoracic Society, Public Health Laboratory Service Community-acquired pneumonia in adults in British Hospitals in 1982-1983: a survey of aetiology, mortality, prognostic factors and outcome. Q J Med. 1987;62:195–220. [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  • 32.Luna CM, Famiglietti A, Absi R, Videla AJ, Nogueira FJ, Díaz Fuenzalida A. Community-acquired pneumonia: etiology, epidemiology and outcome at a teaching hospital in Argentina. Chest. 2000;118:1344–1355. doi: 10.1378/chest.118.5.1344. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  • 33.Blanquer J, Blanquer R, Borràs R, Nauffal P, Morales R, Menéndez I. Aetiology of community-acquired pneumonia in Valencia, Spain: amulticentre prospective study. Thorax. 1991;46:508–511. doi: 10.1136/thx.46.7.508. [DOI] [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  • 34.Lieberman D, Schlaeffer F, Bolden I, Lieberman D, Horowitz S, Friedman MG. Multiple pathogens in adult patients admitted with community-acquired pneumonia: a one year prospective study of 346 consecutive patients. Thorax. 1996;51:179–184. doi: 10.1136/thx.51.2.179. [DOI] [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  • 35.Rello J, Quintana E, Ausina V, Net A, Prats G. A three-year study of severe community-acquired pneumonia with emphasis on outcome. Chest. 1993;103:232–235. doi: 10.1378/chest.103.1.232. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  • 36.Moine P, Vercken JB, Chevret S, Chastang C, Gajdos P. Severe community-acquired pneumonia. Etiology, epidemiology, and prognosis factors. Chest. 1994;105:1487–1495. doi: 10.1378/chest.105.5.1487. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  • 37.Ruiz M, Ewig S, Torres A, Arancibia F, Marco F, Mensa J. Severe community-acquired pneumonia. Risk factors and follow-up epidemiology. Am J Respir Crit Care Med. 1999;160:923–929. doi: 10.1164/ajrccm.160.3.9901107. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  • 38.Olaechea P, Quintana JM, Gallardo MS, Insausti J, Maravi E, Álvarez B. A predictive model for the treatment approach to community-acquired pneumonia in patients needing ICU admission. Intensive Care Med. 1996;22:1294–1300. doi: 10.1007/BF01709541. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  • 39.Hirani N, Macfarlane JT. Impact of management guidelines on the outcome of severe community-acquired pneumonia. Thorax. 1997;52:17–21. doi: 10.1136/thx.52.1.17. [DOI] [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  • 40.Luna CM. Neumonía por Legionella, un hecho frecuente en Argentina. ¿Diferente epidemiología o marcador del subdesarrollo? Medicina (Buenos Aires) 1999;59:311–312. [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  • 41.Lopardo G, Sturba E, Martínez ML, Roel JE, Gamba A, Biondi H. Detección de infección aguda porL. pneumophila en pacientes con neumonía adquirida en la comunidad en la Ciudad de Buenos Aires. Medicina (Buenos Aires) 2002;62:145–148. [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  • 42.Cabello H, Cortés C, Ruiz M, Jover E, Segovia E, Luppi M. Neumonía adquirida en la comunidad. Reporte de 8 casos de neumonía grave por Legionella pneumophila serotipo 1 en Chile. Rev Med Chil. 2002;130:309–313. [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  • 43.Lobos T, Moreno R, Carstens M, Doménech A, Piemonte P, Juliet C. Seroprevalencia de la infección por Legionella pneumophila en adultos sanos de Santiago de Chile. Rev Med Chil. 1993;121:1123–1127. [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  • 44.Woodhead M. Pneumonia in the elderly. J Antimicrob Chemother. 1994;34(Suppl A):85–92. doi: 10.1093/jac/34.suppl_a.85. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  • 45.Marrie TJ. Pneumonia in the elderly. Curr Opin Pulm Med. 1996;2:192–197. doi: 10.1097/00063198-199605000-00006. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  • 46.Riquelme R, Torres A, El-Ebiary M, Puig de la Bellacasa J, Estruch R, Mensa J. Community-acquired pneumonia in the elderly. Clinical and nutritional aspects. Am J Respir Crit Care Med. 1997;156:1908–1914. doi: 10.1164/ajrccm.156.6.9702005. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  • 47.Ruiz M, Ewig S, Marcos MA, Martínez JA, Arancibia F, Mensa J. Etiology of community-acquired pneumonia: impact of age, comorbidity and severity. Am J Respir Crit Care Med. 1999;160:397–405. doi: 10.1164/ajrccm.160.2.9808045. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  • 48.Torres A, Dorca J, Zalacain R, Bello S, El-Ebiary M, Molinos L. Community-acquired pneumonia in chronic obstructive pulmonary disease. A Spanish multicenter study. Am J Respir Crit Care Dis. 1996;154:1456–1461. doi: 10.1164/ajrccm.154.5.8912764. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  • 49.Jong GM, Hsiue TR, Chen CR, Chang HY, Chen CW. Rapidly fatal outcome of bacteriemic Klebsiella pneumoniae pneumonia in alcoholics. Chest. 1995;107:214–217. doi: 10.1378/chest.107.1.214. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  • 50.Steinhoff D, Lode H, Ruckdeschel G, Heidrich B, Rolfs A, Fehrenbach FJ. Chlamydia pneumoniae as a cause of community-acquired pneumonia in hospitalized patients in Berlin. Clin Infect Dis. 1996;22:958–964. doi: 10.1093/clinids/22.6.958. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  • 51.Lobos T, Saldías F, Cartagena C, Jover E, Álvarez M, Moreno R. Chlamydia pneumoniae en pacientes con neumonías adquiridas en la comunidad en Santiago de Chile. Rev Med Chile. 1998;126:1483–1488. [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  • 52.File TM, Tan JS. Incidence, etiologic pathogens, and diagnostic testing of community-acquired pneumonia. Curr Opin Pulm Med. 1997;3:89–97. doi: 10.1097/00063198-199703000-00002. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  • 53.Wenzel RP. A new hantavirus infection in North America. N Engl J Med. 1994;330:1004–1005. doi: 10.1056/NEJM199404073301410. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  • 54.Lázaro ME, Resa AJ, Barclay CM, Calanni L, Samengo L, Padula PJ. Síndrome pulmonar por hantavirus en el sur andino argentino. Medicina (Buenos Aires) 2000;60:289–301. [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  • 55.Castillo C, Naranjo J, Sepúlveda A, Ossa G, Levy H. Hantavirus pulmonary syndrome due to Andes virus in Temuco, Chile: clinical experience with 16 adults. Chest. 2001;120:548–554. doi: 10.1378/chest.120.2.548. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  • 56.Tsang KW, Ho PL, Ooi GC, Yee WK, Wang T, Chang-Yeung M. A cluster of cases of severe acute respiratory syndrome in Hong Kong. N Engl J Med. 2003;348:1977–1985. doi: 10.1056/NEJMoa030666. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  • 57.Booth CM, Matukas LM, Tomlinson GA, Rachlis AR, Rose DB, Dwosh HA. Clinical features and short-term outcomes of 144 patients with SARS in the greater Toronto area. JAMA. 2003;289:2801–2809. doi: 10.1001/jama.289.21.JOC30885. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  • 58.Felmingham D, Gruneberg RN. The Alexander Project 1996-1997: latest susceptibility data from this international study of bacterial pathogens from community-acquired lower respiratory tract infections. J Antimicrob Chemother. 2000;45:191–203. doi: 10.1093/jac/45.2.191. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  • 59.Whitney CG, Farley MM, Hadler J. Increasing prevalence of multidrug-resistant Streptococcus pneumoniae in the United States. N Engl J Med. 2000;343:1917–1924. doi: 10.1056/NEJM200012283432603. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  • 60.Soler T, Salamanca L, Arbo G, Molina E. Susceptibilidad in vitro de cepas de Streptococcus pneumoniae aisladas de infecciones de las vías aéreas inferiores en el Instituto Nacional del Tórax (INT) Rev Med Chil. 2002;130:304–308. [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  • 61.Díaz A, Torres C, Flores L, García P, Saldías F. Neumonía neumocócica adquirida en la comunidad en adultos hospitalizados. Rev Med Chil. 2003;131:505–514. [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  • 62.Heffelfinger JD, Dowell SF, Jorgensen JH, Klugman KP, Mabry LR, Musher DM. Management of community-acquired pneumonia in the era of pneumococcal resistance: a report from the Drug-Resistant Streptococcus pneumoniae Therapeutic Working Group. Arch Intern Med. 2000;160:1399–1408. doi: 10.1001/archinte.160.10.1399. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  • 63.Ewig S, Ruiz M, Torres A, Marco F, Martínez JA, Sánchez M. Pneumonia acquired in the community trough drug-resistant Streptococcus pneumoniae. Am J Respir Crit Care Med. 1999;159:1835–1842. doi: 10.1164/ajrccm.159.6.9808049. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  • 64.Guzmán-Blanco M, Casellas JM, Sader HS. Bacterial resistance to antimicrobial agents in Latin America. The giant is awakening. Infect Dis Clin North Am. 2000;14:67–81. doi: 10.1016/s0891-5520(05)70218-x. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  • 65.Dever LL, Yassin HM. Related articles, links telithromycin: a new ketolide antimicrobial for treatment of respiratory tract infections. Expert Opin Investig Drugs. 2001;10:353–367. doi: 10.1517/13543784.10.2.353. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  • 66.Wise R, Honeybourne D. Pharmacokinetics and pharmacodynamics of fluoroquinolones in the respiratory tract. Eur Respir J. 1999;14:221–229. doi: 10.1034/j.1399-3003.1999.14a38.x. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  • 67.Miravitlles M. Moxifloxacin: an antibiotic designed for use in the community. Eur Respir Rev. 2000;10:161–169. [Google Scholar]
  • 68.Davidson R, Cavalcanti R, Brunton JL, Bast DJ, de Azavedo JCS, Kibsey P. Resistance to levofloxacin and failure to treatment of pneumococcal pneumonia. N Engl J Med. 2002;346:747–750. doi: 10.1056/NEJMoa012122. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  • 69.Kaplan SL, Mason EO., Jr Management of infections due to antibiotic-resistant Streptococcus pneumoniae. Clin Microbiol Rev. 1998;11:628. doi: 10.1128/cmr.11.4.628. [DOI] [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  • 70.Odenholt I, Lowdin E, Cars O. Pharmacodynamics of telithromycin in vitro against respiratory tract pathogens. Antimicrob Agents Chemother. 2001;45:23–29. doi: 10.1128/AAC.45.1.23-29.2001. [DOI] [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  • 71.Hagberg L, Torres A, van Rensburg D, Leroy B, Rangaraju M, Ruuth E. Efficacy and tolerability of once-daily telithromycin compared with high-dose amoxicillin for treatment of community-acquired pneumonia. Infection. 2002;30:378–386. doi: 10.1007/s15010-002-2096-z. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  • 72.Felmingham D. Evolving resistance patterns in community-acquired respiratory tract pathogens: first results from the PROTEKT Global Surveillance Study. J Infect. 2002;44(Suppl A):3–10. [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  • 73.López H, Sader H, Amábile C, Pedreira W, Muñoz Bellido JL, García Rodríguez JA, Grupo MSP-LA. Actividad in vitro de moxifloxacino frente a patógenos respiratorios en Iberoamérica. Rev Esp Quimioterap. 2002;15:325–334. [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  • 74.Fine MJ, Auble TE, Yealy DM, Hanusa BA, Weissfeeld LA, Singer DE. A prediction rule to identify low-risk patients with community-acquired pneumonia. N Engl J Med. 1997;336:243–250. doi: 10.1056/NEJM199701233360402. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  • 75.Farr BM, Sloman AJ, Fisch MJ. Predicting death in patients hospitalized for community-acquired pneumonia. Ann Intern Med. 1991;115:428–436. doi: 10.7326/0003-4819-115-6-428. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  • 76.Fein AM, Feinsilver SH, Niederman MS, Fiel S, Pai PB. When the pneumonia doesn't get better. Clin Chest Med. 1987;8:529–541. [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  • 77.Luna CM, Calmaggi A, Caberloto O, Gentile J, Valentín R, Ciruzzi J. Neumonía adquirida en la comunidad. Guía práctica de manejo elaborada por un comité intersociedades. Medicina (Buenos Aires) 2003;63:319–343. [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  • 78.Feinsilver SH, Fein AM, Niederman MS, Schultz DE, Faegemburg DH. Utility of fiberoptic bronchoscopy in nonresolving pneumonia. Chest. 1990;98:1322–1326. doi: 10.1378/chest.98.6.1322. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  • 79.Ortqvist A, Kalin M, Lejdeborn L, Lundberg B. Diagnostic fiberoptic bronchoscopy and protected brush culture in patients with community-acquired pneumonia. Chest. 1990;97:576–582. doi: 10.1378/chest.97.3.576. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  • 80.Eisenberg GM, Flippin HF, Israel HL, Strandness DE, Jr, Weiss W. Delayed resolution of pneumonias. Med Clin North Am. 1956;40:1291–1303. doi: 10.1016/s0025-7125(16)34506-0. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  • 81.Craig WA. Pharmacokinetic/pharmacodynamic parameters: rationale for antibacterial dosing of mice and men. Clin Infect Dis. 1998;26:1–12. doi: 10.1086/516284. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  • 82.Ramírez JA. Switch therapy in community-acquired pneumonia. Diagn Microbiol Infect Dis. 1995;22:219–223. doi: 10.1016/0732-8893(95)00088-r. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  • 83.Nuorti JP, Butler JC, Farley MM, Harrison LH, McGeer A, Kolczak MS. Cigarette smoking and invasive pneumococcal disease. N Engl J Med. 2000;342:681–689. doi: 10.1056/NEJM200003093421002. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  • 84.Nichol KL, Baken L, Nelson A. Relation between influenza vaccination and outpatient visits, hospitalization, and mortality in elderly persons with chronic lung disease. Ann Intern Med. 1999;130:397–403. doi: 10.7326/0003-4819-130-5-199903020-00003. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  • 85.World Health Organization Pneumococcal vaccines. Weekly Epidemiological Report. 1999;74:177–184. [Google Scholar]
  • 86.Centers for Disease Control and Prevention Prevention of pneumococcal disease. Recommendations of the Advisory Committee of Immunization Practices (ACIP) MMWR Morb Mortal Wkly Rep. 1997;46:1–24. [Google Scholar]

Articles from Archivos De Bronconeumologia are provided here courtesy of Elsevier

RESOURCES