The timing is right: Evolution of AIDS-causing HIV strains is consistent with history of chloroquine use

Dear Sir,

Consistent with my hypothesis [1], chloroquine has been shown to act against both HIV/AIDS [2] and coronavirus/SARS [3]. Anti-viral activity creates an ecological stress that will cause evolution toward resistance in these non-targeted viruses just as in the case of the targeted malaria organism [4]. Exposure to chloroquine has undoubtedly caused evolution of these viruses. Korber et al. [5] projected that the common ancestor of the disease-causing strains of HIV likely existed in humans for an undetermined time (presumably without casing disease) and began its evolution into disease-causing strains circa 1931 (1915–1941, 95% confidence interval). Although the absolute timing has been disputed, Korber’s figures [5] suggest that the evolution of HIV was in two spurts (i.e., not random over time and not one unique event). The major families (HIV-1A, B/D, C, J, H and F) all appear to have been founded near the beginning of the evolution. There was then a lull in evolution (i.e., mutations continued to occur at about 10⁻³ per bp per year [5], but there was no selection of new strains). After the lull, almost all the families (A, B, C, D and F) split into numerous sub-strains starting at about the same time (circa 1955) and continuing. 4-Aminoquinoline anti-malarials were first synthesized in 1934. The pattern as well as the timing of selected HIV strains [5] are consistent with the testing of 4-aminoquinoline anti-malarials in the Congo (1935–1940), suspension of use (1940–1955), followed by widespread and continuous use of chloroquine (1955–1990). The WHO launched a world-wide malaria eradication program in 1955. In sub-Saharan Africa, eradication of mosquitoes with DDT was considered impractical, but chloroquine was used at high levels [4].