Abstract
The bovine respiratory disease complex continues to be an economically important syndrome in an era when immunologic control is likely to become increasingly important. Recent studies have yielded a better understanding of the interaction, at the molecular level, of various pathogens with the bovine immune system. Improved challenge models for important viral pathogens such as bovine viral diarrhea virus and bovine respiratory syncytial virus have provided evidence of the efficacy of immune responses stimulated by vaccination. This article highlights recent advances in understanding of the role of the immune response in the pathogenesis and prophylaxis of bovine respiratory disease complex.
References
- 1.Ackermann M.R., Bogden K.A., Fiorance A.F. Induction of CD18-mediated passage of neutrophils by Pasteurella haemolytica in pulmonary bronchi and bonchioles. Infect Immun. 1999;67:659–663. doi: 10.1128/iai.67.2.659-663.1999. [DOI] [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
- 2.Adair B.M., Bradford H.E., McNulty M.S. Cytotoxic interactions between bovine parainfluenza type 3 virus and bovine alveolar macrophages. Vet Immunol Immunopa- thol. 1999;67:285–294. doi: 10.1016/s0165-2427(98)00230-x. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
- 3.Adler B., Bulach D., Chung J. Candidate vaccine antigens and genes in Pasteurella multocida. J Biotechnol. 1999;90:732–733. doi: 10.1016/s0168-1656(99)00111-x. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
- 4.Ambagala T.C., Ambagala A.P., Srikumaran S. The leukotoxin of Pasteurella haemolytica binds to beta2 integrins on bovine leukocytes. FEMS Microbiol Lett. 1999;179:161–167. doi: 10.1111/j.1574-6968.1999.tb08722.x. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
- 5.Ames T.R. Dairy calf pneumonia: Bovine respiratory syncytial virus. Vet Clin North Am Food Anim Pract. 1997;13:367–391. doi: 10.1016/S0749-0720(15)30303-0. [DOI] [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
- 6.Andrews G.A., Kennedy G.A. Respiratory diagnostic pathology. Vet Clin North Am Food Anim Pract. 1997;13:515–547. doi: 10.1016/s0749-0720(15)30312-1. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
- 7.Ayroud M., Popp J.D., VanderKop M.A. Characterization of acute interstitial pneumonia in cattle in southern Alberta feedyards. Can Vet J. 2000;41:547–554. [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
- 8.Baker J.C., Ellis J.A., Clark E.G. Bovine respiratory syncytial virus. Vet Clin North Am Food Anim Pract. 1997;13:425–454. doi: 10.1016/s0749-0720(15)30307-8. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
- 9.Bingham H.R., Morley P.S., Wittum T.E. Synergistic effects of concurrent challenge with bovine respiratory syncytial virus and 3-methylindóle in calves. Am J Vet Res. 1999;60:563–570. [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
- 10.Booker C.W., Guichon P.T., Jim G.K. Seroepidemiology of undifferentiated fever in feedlot calves in western Canada. Can Vet J. 1999;40:40–48. [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
- 11.Brodersen B.W., Kelling C.L. Alteration of leukocyte populations in calves concurrently infected with bovine respiratory syncytial virus and bovine viral diarrhea virus. Viral Immunol. 1999;12:323–334. doi: 10.1089/vim.1999.12.323. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
- 12.Bryson D.G., Adair B.M., McNulty M.S. Studies on the efficacy of intranasal vaccination for prevention of experimentally induced parainfluenza type 3 virus pneumonia in calves. Vet Ree. 1999;145:33–39. doi: 10.1136/vr.145.2.33. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
- 13.Carman S., van Dreumel T., Ridpath J. Severe acute bovine viral diarrhea in Ontario, 1993-1995. J Vet Diagn Invest. 1998;10:27–35. doi: 10.1177/104063879801000106. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
- 14.Castrucci G., Frigeri F., Osbum B.I. Further investigations on the efficacy of a nonspecific defence inducer evaluated in calves exposed to infectious bovine rhinotra- cheitis virus. Comp Immunol Microbiol Infect Dis. 1999;21:155–163. doi: 10.1016/s0147-9571(97)00014-3. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
- 15.Caswell J.L., Middleton D.M., Sorden S.D. Expression of the neutrophil chemoattrac- tant interleukin-8 in the lesions of bovine pneumonic pasteurellosis. Vet Pathol. 1998;35:124131. doi: 10.1177/030098589803500206. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
- 16.Caswell J.L., Middleton D.M., Gordon J.R. Production and functional characterization of recombinant bovine interleukin-8 as a specific neutrophil activator and chemoattrac- tant. Vet Immunol Immunopathol. 1999;67:327–340. doi: 10.1016/s0165-2427(99)00007-0. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
- 17.Chin A.C., Morck D.W., Merrill J.K. Anti-inflammatory benefits of tilmicosin in calves with Pasteurella haemolytica-iniected lungs. Am J Vet Res. 1998;59:765–771. [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
- 18.Collins J.K., Jensen R., Smith G.H. Association of bovine respiratory syncytial virus with atypical interstitial pneumonia. Am J Vet Res. 1988;49:1045–1049. [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
- 19.Cortese V.S., West L.H., Hassard L.E. Clinical and immunologic responses of vaccinated and unvaccinated calves to infection with a virulent type II isolate of bovine viral diarrhea virus. J Am Vet Med Assoc. 1998;213:1312–1319. [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
- 20.Cummins J.M., Guthrie D., Hutcheson D.P. Natural human interferon-alpha administered orally as a treatment of bovine respiratory disease complex. J Interferon Cytokine Res. 1999;19:907–910. doi: 10.1089/107999099313442. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
- 21.Dean H.J., Lehy R. Cross-protective efficacy of a bovine viral diarrhea virus (BVDV) type 1 vaccine against BVDV type 2 challenge. Vaccine. 1999;17:1117–1124. doi: 10.1016/s0264-410x(98)00329-6. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
- 22.Ellis J.A., West K.H., Cortese V.S. Lesions and distribution of viral antigen following an experimental infection of young seronegative calves with a virulent bovine virus diarrhea virus-type II. Can J Vet Res. 1998;62:161–169. [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
- 23.Ellis J.A., West K.H., Konoby C. The efficacy of an inactivated respiratory syncytial virus vaccine in experimentally infected calves. J Am Vet Med Assoc. 2001;218:1973–1980. doi: 10.2460/javma.2001.218.1973. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
- 24.Gershwin L.J., Gunter R.A., Anderson M.L. Bovine respiratory syncytial virus- specific IgE is associated with interleukin-2 and -4 and interferon-gamma expression in pulmonary lymph of experimentally infected calves. Am J Vet Res. 2000;61:291–298. doi: 10.2460/ajvr.2000.61.291. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
- 25.Gershwin L.J., Schlegle E.S., Gunther R.A. A bovine model of vaccine enhanced respiratory syncytial virus pathophysiology. Vaccine. 1998;16:1225–1236. doi: 10.1016/s0264-410x(98)80123-0. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
- 26.Haines D.M., Martin K.M., Clark E.G. The immunohistochemical detection of high prevalence of Mycoplasma bovis and bovine viral diarrhea virus in tissues of feedlot cattle with chronic unresponsive respiratory disease and/or arthritis. Can Vet J. 2001 [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
- 27.Hasoksuz M., Lathrop S.L., Gadfield K.L. Isolation of bovine respiratory coronavi- ruses from feedlot cattle and comparison of their biological and antigenic properties with bovine enteric corona viruses. Am J Vet Res. 1999;60:1227–1233. [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
- 28.Howard C.J. Comparison of bovine IgGl, IgG2 and IgM for ability to promote killing of Mycoplasma bovis by bovine alveolar macrophages and neutrophils. Vet Immunol Immunopathol. 1984;6:321–326. doi: 10.1016/0165-2427(84)90057-6. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
- 29.Howard C.J., Parsons K.R., Thomas L.H. Systemic and local immune responses of gnotobi- otic calves to respiratory infection with Mycoplasma bovis. Vet Immunol Immunopathol. 1986;11:291–300. doi: 10.1016/0165-2427(86)90008-5. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
- 30.Howard C.J., Stott E.J., Thomas L.H. Protection against respiratory disease in calves induced by vaccines containing respiratory syncytial virus, parainfluenza type 3 virus. Mycoplasma bovis and M. dispar. Vet Ree. 1987;121:372–376. doi: 10.1136/vr.121.16.372. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
- 31.Howard C.J., Thomas L.H., Parsons K.R. Immune response of cattle to respiratory my coplasmas. Vet Immunol Immunopathol. 1987;17:401–412. doi: 10.1016/0165-2427(87)90157-7. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
- 32.Howard C.J., Clarke M.C., Sopp P. Immunity to bovine virus diarrhoea virus in calves: The role of different T-cell subpopulations analysed by specific depletion in vivo with monoclonal antibodies. Vet Immunol Immunopathol. 1992;32:303–314. doi: 10.1016/0165-2427(92)90052-r. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
- 33.Horadagoda N.U., Knox K.M., Gibbs H.A. Acute phase proteins in cattle: Discrimination between acute and chronic inflammation. Vet Ree. 1999;144:437–441. doi: 10.1136/vr.144.16.437. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
- 34.Hsuan S.L., Karman M.S., Jeyaseelan S. Pasteurella haemolytica leukotoxin and endotoxin induced cytokine gene expression in bovine alveolar macrophages requires NF-kappaB activation and calcium elevation. Microb Pathog. 1999;26:263–273. doi: 10.1006/mpat.1998.0271. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
- 35.Kapil S. Basar aba RJ: Infectious bovine rhinotracheitis, parainfluenza-3, and respiratory coronavirus. Vet Clin North Am Food Anim Pract. 1997;13:455–469. doi: 10.1016/S0749-0720(15)30308-X. [DOI] [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
- 36.Keles I., Woldehiwet Z., Murray R.D. In vitro studies on mechanisms of immunosuppression associated with bovine respiratory syncytial virus. J Comp Pathol. 1998;118:337–345. doi: 10.1016/s0021-9975(07)80009-0. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
- 37.Keles I., Woldehiwet Z., Murray R.D. The effects of bovine respiratory syncytial virus on phagocytic and antigen-presenting capacity of peripheral blood monocytes and monocytic cell lines from lambs and calves. J Comp Pathol. 1998;118:347–357. doi: 10.1016/s0021-9975(07)80010-7. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
- 38.Kusiluka L.J., Ojeniyi B., Friis N.F. Increasing prevalence of Mycoplasma bovis in Danish cattle. Acta Vet Scand. 2000;41:139–146. doi: 10.1186/BF03549645. [DOI] [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
- 39.Lathrop S.L., Wittum T.E., Brock K.V. Association between infection of the respiratory tract attributable to bovine coronavirus and health and growth performance of cattle in feedlots. Am J Vet Res. 2000;61:1062–1066. doi: 10.2460/ajvr.2000.61.1062. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
- 40.Lathrop S.L., Wittum T.E., Loerch S.C. Antibody titers against bovine coronavirus and shedding of the virus via the respiratory tract in feedlot cattle. Am J Vet Res. 2000;61:1057–1061. doi: 10.2460/ajvr.2000.61.1057. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
- 41.Li J., Clinkenbeard K.D., Ritchey J.W. Bovine CD8 identified as a species specific receptor for Pasteurella haemolytica leukotoxin. Vet Microbiol. 1999;67:91–97. doi: 10.1016/s0378-1135(99)00040-1. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
- 42.Lui L., Lehmkuhl H.D., Kaeberle M.L. Synergistic effects of bovine respiratory syncytial virus and non-cytopathic bovine viral diarrhea virus infection on selected bovine alveolar macrophage functions. Can J Vet Res. 1999;63:41–48. [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
- 43.Martin S.W., Nagy E., Shewen P.E. The association of titers to bovine coronavirus with treatment for bovine respiratory disease and weight gain in feedlot calves. Can J Vet Res. 1998;62:257–261. [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
- 44.McBride J.W., Wozniak E.J., Brewer A.W. Evidence of Pasteurella haemolytica linked immune complex disease in natural and experimental models. Microb Pathog. 1999;26:183193. doi: 10.1006/mpat.1998.0266. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
- 45.Mclnnes E., Collins R.A., Taylor G. Cytokine expression in pulmonary and peripheral blood mononuclear cells from calves infected with bovine respiratory syncytial virus. Res Vet Sci. 1998;64:163–166. doi: 10.1016/s0034-5288(98)90013-3. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
- 46.Mclnnes E., Sopp P. Howard Cf, et al: Phenotypic analysis of local cellular responses in calves infected with bovine respiratory syncytial virus. Immunology. 1999;96:396–403. doi: 10.1046/j.1365-2567.1999.00714.x. [DOI] [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
- 47.Morsey M.A., Van-Kessel A.G., Mori Y. Cytokine profiles following interaction between bovine alveolar macrophages and Pasteurella haemolytica. Microb Pathog. 1999;26:325–331. doi: 10.1006/mpat.1999.0274. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
- 48.Mosier D.A. Bacterial pneumonia. Vet Clin North Am Food Artim Pract. 1997;13:483–493. doi: 10.1016/s0749-0720(15)30310-8. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
- 49.Pandher K., Murphy G.L., Confer A.W. Identification of immunogenic, surface-exposed outer membrane proteins of Pasteurella haemolytica serotype 1. Vet Microbiol. 1999;65:215226. doi: 10.1016/s0378-1135(98)00293-4. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
- 50.Potgeiter L.N.D. Bovine respiratory disease caused by bovine viral diarrhea virus. Vet Clin North Am Food Anim Pract. 1997;13:471–481. doi: 10.1016/s0749-0720(15)30309-1. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
- 51.Potter A.A., Schryvers A.B., Ogunnariwo J.A. Protective capacity of the Pasteurella haemolytica transferrin-binding proteins TbpA and TbpB in cattle. Microb Pathog. 1999;27:197–206. doi: 10.1006/mpat.1999.0297. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
- 52.Radi Z.A., Register K.B., Lee E.K. In situ expression of intercellular adhesion molecule-1 (ICAM-1) mRNA in calves with acute Pasteurella haemolytica pneumonia. Vet Pathol. 1999;36:437–444. doi: 10.1354/vp.36-5-437. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
- 53.Rhodes S.G., Cocksedge J.M., Collins R.A. Differential cytokine responses of CD4 + and CD8 + T cells to bovine viral diarrhoea virus in cattle. J Gen Virol. 1999;80:1673–1679. doi: 10.1099/0022-1317-80-7-1673. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
- 54.Sachse K., Helbig J.H., Lysnansky I. Eptiope mapping of immunogenic and adhesive structures in repetitive domains of Mycoplasma bovis variable surface lipoproteins. Infect Immun. 2000;68:680–687. doi: 10.1128/iai.68.2.680-687.2000. [DOI] [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
- 55.Schrijver R.S., Hensen E.J., Langedijk J.P. Antibody responses against epitopes on the F protein of bovine respiratory syncytial virus differ in infected or vaccinated cattle. Arch Virol. 1997;142:2195–2210. doi: 10.1007/s007050050235. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
- 56.Sorden S.D., Kerr R.W., Janzen E.D. Interstitial pneumonia in feedlot cattle: Concurrent lesions and lack of immunohistochemical evidence for bovine respiratory syncytial virus infection. J Vet Diagn Invest. 2000;12:510–517. doi: 10.1177/104063870001200604. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
- 57.Storz J., Purdy C.W., Lin X. Isolation of respiratory bovine Coronavirus, other cytocidal viruses and Pasteurella spp from cattle involved in two natural outbreaks of shipping fever. J Am Vet Med Assoc. 1999;216:1599–1604. doi: 10.2460/javma.2000.216.1599. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
- 58.Thomas L.H., Cook R.S., Wyld S.G. Passive protection of gnotobiotic calves using monoclonal antibodies directed at different eptiopes on the fusion protein of bovine respiratory syncytial virus. J Infect Dis. 1998;177:874–880. doi: 10.1086/515234. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
- 59.Tizard I. WB Saunders; Philadelphia: 2000. Innate immunity: Inflammation. In Veterinary Immunology: An Introduction. pp 36–46. [Google Scholar]
- 60.Tizard I. WB Saunders; Philadelphia: 2000. Immunity at body surfaces, In Veterinary Immunology: An Introduction. pp 222–234. [Google Scholar]
- 61.Tizard I. WB Saunders; Philadelphia: 2000. Vaccination and vaccines, In Veterinary Immunology: An Introduction. pp 235–252. [Google Scholar]
- 62.West K.H., Petrie L., Haines D.M. The effect of formalin inactivated vaccine on respiratory disease associated with bovine respiratory syncytial virus. Vaccine. 1999;17:809–820. doi: 10.1016/s0264-410x(98)00265-5. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
- 63.West K.H., Petrie L., Konoby C. The efficacy of modified-live bovine respiratory syncytial virus vaccines in experimentally infected cattle. Vaccine. 1999;18:907–919. doi: 10.1016/s0264-410x(99)00324-2. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
- 64.Woolums A.R., Anderson M.L., Gunter R.A. Evaluation of severe disease induced by aerosol inoculation of calves with bovine respiratory syncytial virus. Am J Vet Res. 1999;60:473–480. [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
- 65.Woolums A.R., Singer R.S., Boyle G.A. Interferon gamma production during bovine respiratory syncytial virus (BRSV) infection is diminished in calves vaccinated with formalin-inactivated vaccine. Vaccine. 1999;17:1293–1297. doi: 10.1016/s0264-410x(98)00379-x. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
- 66.van Drunen Littel-van den Hurk S., Braun R.P., Lewis P.J. Intradermal immunization with bovine herpesvirus-1 DNA vaccine induces protective immunity in cattle. J Gen Virol. 1998;79:831–839. doi: 10.1099/0022-1317-79-4-831. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
- 67.Zakhartchouk A.N., Pyne C., Mutwiri G.K. Mucosal immunization of calves with recombinant bovine adenovirus-3: Induction of protective immunity to bovine herpesvirus-1. J Gen Virol. 1999;80:1263–1269. doi: 10.1099/0022-1317-80-5-1263. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]