Abstract
Background
Critical care transfers between hospitals are time critical high-risk episodes for unstable patients who often require urgent lifesaving intervention. This study aimed to establish the scale, nature and safety of current transfer practice in the South West Critical Care Network (SWCCN) in England.
Methods
The SWCCN database contains prospectively collected data in accordance with national guidelines. It was interrogated for all adult (>15 years of age) patients from January 2012 to November 2017.
Results
A total of 1124 inter-hospital transfers were recorded, with the majority (935, 83.2%) made for specialist treatment. The transferring team included a doctor in 998 (88.8%) and nurse in 935 (93.7%) transfers. In 204 (18.1%) transfers, delays occurred, with the commonest cause being availability of transport. Critical incidents occurred in 77 (6.9%).
Conclusions
This is the first published data on the transfer activity of a UK adult critical care network. It demonstrates that current ad-hoc provision is not meeting the longstanding expectations of national guidelines in terms of training, clinical experience and timeliness. The authors hope that this study may inform national conversation regarding the development of National Health Service commissioned inter-hospital transfer services for adult patients in England.
Keywords: Critical care, transportation of patients, patient transfer, retrieval, inter-hospital transfer
Introduction
Critical care transfers between hospitals are frequently time critical, high-risk episodes of care for unstable patients who require urgent lifesaving intervention.1 Concerns regarding the safety of these transfers have been expressed for many years2–6 and variability in service provision exists despite the publication of national recommendations.1,7–11 There is no recent published data that provide an accurate estimate of the scale of critical care transfers in England per annum, but historical data estimated 10,000 in Great Britain in 198812 and over 11,000 in 1994.13 Increasing centralisation of specialist services14 in the National Health Service (NHS) and the establishment of major trauma networks15 in the United Kingdom (UK) are likely to have accelerated demand for both emergency transfers to access specialist resources and subsequent repatriation to the referring hospital for ongoing care.1,15
In the UK, the approach to inter-hospital transfer services varies across the devolved nations. Dedicated transport teams undertake adult critical care transfers in Scotland and Wales,16,17 and paediatric transfers across the UK.18 However, adult critical care transfers in England are performed on an ad-hoc basis utilising a range of in- and pre-hospital resources and personnel.1,3,12,13 Multiple studies over several decades have highlighted operational and training inadequacies with this current ad hoc system.1,12,13,19 Serious event incidence rates during critical care transfer are reported between 12.5% and 62% of transfers.2–6 Technical failure, such as monitor, gas supply or vehicle problems are reported in 12.5–45%.2–6,20 Aiming to address these issues, the Intensive Care Society (ICS) published Guidelines for the Transport of the Critically Ill Adult (3rd Edition 2011).1 These guidelines provide clear recommendations on the necessary training, equipment, documentation, audit and governance to undertake critical care transfers1 in accordance with international guidance.7–9 In England, the responsibility for implementing these standards is devolved to regional Critical Care Networks and the ICS guidelines recommend that ‘critical care networks should consider whether the development and use of dedicated transport teams is appropriate to best meet the transport needs of their patient population’.1
This study aimed to utilise critical care transfer documentation across an English Critical Care Network to establish the scale, nature and safety of current critical care transfer practice and evaluate the need for the provision of a dedicated specialist transport service.
Methods
The South West Critical Care Network (SWCCN) covers a large mixed urban and rural geographical area of England, within which a resident population of 5.5 million21 is served by 14 acute hospitals, including a tertiary centre for medicine and surgery and two major trauma centres, along with a number of smaller NHS and private institutions.22,23
The SWCCN has prospectively collected a standardised dataset on all network inter-hospital transfers since 2012. Information collected is in accordance with the recommendations of national guidelines1 and includes demographics, clinical condition, reasons for transfer, condition during transfer and critical incidents encountered. Data are entered into a single database for audit and quality improvement purposes.
The SWCCN database was interrogated for all adult (>15 years of age) critical care transfers from the dates of 3 January 2012 and 24 November 2017. Data were anonymised and statistical analysis performed using Stata Version 14 (StataCorp). We used the Chi-square and Kruskal–Wallis tests to examine for statistical significance of categorical and non-normal continuous data, respectively. This study was registered with the University Hospitals Bristol NHS Foundation Trust Clinical Effectiveness Committee.
For the purposes of this study, time critical transfers were defined as those patients who required immediate specialist surgery or critical care at regional centres.
Results
Patient characteristics and indications for critical care inter-hospital transfer
During the study period of 3 January 2012 to 24 November 2017, 1124 inter-hospital transfers of critically ill adult patients were documented on the SWCCN database, representing a mean of 19 transfers per month. Patient age ranged from 16 to 92 years (median 57, IQR 27 years) and 656 (58.4%) were male. Table 1 provides an overview of the indications for critical care transfer.
Table 1.
Indications for critical care transfer.
| Indication for critical care transfer | Number of patients (%) |
|---|---|
| Specialist treatment | 935 (83.2%) |
| Specialist surgery | 619 (66.2%) |
| Neurosurgery | 323 (52.2%) |
| Trauma surgery | 187 (30.2%) |
| Cardiothoracic surgery | 58 (9.4%) |
| Vascular surgery | 15 (2.4%) |
| Gastrointestinal/liver surgery | 15 (2.4%) |
| Other surgery | 21 (3.4%) |
| Specialist medicine | 234 (25.0%) |
| Cardiology | 75 (32.1%) |
| Neurology | 45 (19.2%) |
| Gastrointestinal/liver | 41 (17.5%) |
| Renal | 27 (11.5%) |
| Respiratory | 11 (4.7%) |
| Other medicine | 35 (15.0%) |
| Burns | 13 (1.4%) |
| Not specified / other | 69 (7.4%) |
| Repatriation | 118 (10.5%) |
| Critical care capacity | 49 (4.4%) |
| Missing data | 22 (2.0%) |
| All transfers | 1124 (100%) |
Most patient transfers originated in intensive care units (510, 45.4%) and emergency departments (487, 43.3%), with few originating on hospital wards (44, 3.9%), operating theatres (26, 2.3%) or from other areas (7, 0.6%); data were missing for 50 (4.5%) transfers.
Seven hundred forty-three (66.1%) patients were mechanically ventilated, with a greater proportion of those requiring specialist treatment being mechanically ventilated compared with the repatriation group (636, 68.0% vs. 60, 50.9%; p < 0.001). However, a larger proportion of patients being repatriated had tracheostomies compared with those requiring specialist treatment (34, 28.8% vs. 12, 1.3%; p < 0.001). Of those transferred for specialist treatment, 728 (77.9%) were time critical transfers requiring immediate specialist surgery or critical care at regional centres. A greater proportion of the time critical patients were mechanically ventilated compared with those who required non-time critical specialist treatment (520, 71.4% vs. 116, 56.0%; p < 0.001).
Timing of transfers
Transfers occurred throughout the 24-h period (Table 2 and Figure 1) with peaks in the middle and end of the working day. There was a wide range of time between hospital admission and transfer (0–108 days), although the median time was one day (IQR 0 to 3 days). These times varied depending upon the reason for transfer, with those requiring specialist treatment having a median time of 0 days (range 0–95), repatriation patients having a median of 13 days (range 0–108 days) and patients transferred for capacity reasons 0 days (range 0–21).
Table 2.
Timings of critical care transfers.
| Start of critical care transfer | Specialist treatment |
Repatriation (n = 118) | Capacity (n = 49) | |
|---|---|---|---|---|
| Time critical (n = 728) | Non-time critical (n = 207) | |||
| In hours* (08:00–17:59) | 256 (35.2%) | 111 (53.6%) | 87 (73.7%) | 9 (18.4%) |
| Out of hours* (18:00–07:59) | 335 (46.0%) | 55 (26.6%) | 15 (12.7%) | 34 (69.4%) |
| Missing data | 137 (18.8%) | 41 (19.8%) | 16 (13.6%) | 6 (12.2%) |
p < 0.001 for differences between transfer indication groups.
Figure 1.
Types of transfer by time of day.
Critical care escorts
The transfer team for 998 (88.8%) patients included a doctor and for 710 (63.2%) a nurse, in addition to the ambulance crew (Table 3); 99.8% (996/998) of escorting doctors and 71.8% (510/710) of escorting nurses had received training in the transfer of critically ill patients; 93.7% (935/998) of escorting doctors had an anaesthesia or intensive care medicine background and the majority of nurses were of intensive care background (450, 63.4%). Table 3 gives an overview of escorting doctors’ and nurses’ training, grouped by transfer indication.
Table 3.
Transfer team composition and training.
| Specialist treatment |
Repatriation | Capacity | p | ||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Time critical | Non-time critical | ||||
| Doctor escort n (%) | 678 (93.1%) | 161 (77.8%) | 100 (84.8%) | 47 (95.9%) | <0.001 |
| Transfer trained | 676 (99.7%) | 161 (100%) | 100 (100%) | 47 (100%) | 0.92 |
| Doctors’ career levels | |||||
| Foundation programme | 22 (3.2%) | 6 (3.7%) | 0 (0.0%) | 2 (4.3%) | <0.001 |
| Core trainee | 140 (20.7%) | 50 (31.1%) | 14 (14.0%) | 14 (29.8%) | |
| Speciality doctor | 79 (11.7%) | 19 (11.8%) | 2 (2.0%) | 5 (10.6%) | |
| Registrar or advanced trainee | 335 (49.4%) | 68 (42.2%) | 76 (76.0%) | 23 (48.9%) | |
| Consultant | 42 (6.2%) | 11 (6.8%) | 3 (3.0%) | 2 (4.3%) | |
| Missing data | 60 (8.9%) | 7 (4.4%) | 5 (5.0%) | 1 (2.1%) | |
| Nurse escort | 410 (56.3%) | 166 (80.2%) | 106 (89.8%) | 19 (38.8%) | <0.001 |
| Transfer trained | 302 (73.7%) | 123 (74.1%) | 63 (59.4%) | 15 (79.0%) | 0.07 |
Duration of critical care transfer and delays
Time points to calculate transfer intervals were documented relatively infrequently. Table 4 shows time intervals from referral to arrival at receiving hospital as well as duration of the ambulance journey, for those transfers where relevant data were available. In 204 (18.1%) transfers, the transferring team perceived a delay and recorded a reason for this. The majority (75, 36.8%) were due to delay or unavailability of transport followed by clinical problems with the patient (62, 30.1%) and lack of bed availability in the receiving hospital (25, 12.3%). Transfers were also delayed by availability of personnel, administrative reasons, lack of equipment and severe weather; see Table 4 for an overview of transfer delays.
Table 4.
Time from transfer request to arrival at destination, duration of ambulance journey and frequency and reason for delays of transfers.
| Time intervals (where documented) | Specialist treatment |
Repatriation | Capacity | p | |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Time critical | Non-time critical | ||||
| Transfer request to leaving hospital (median, IQR) | 105 min (72–155) n = 234 | 140 min (81–240) n = 75 | 270 min (122–390) n = 31 | 95 min (45–138) n = 23 | <0.001 |
| Ambulance journey (median, IQR) | 60 min (45–75) n = 343 | 65 min (50–105) n = 103 | 81 min (60–100) n = 51 | 55 min (35–105) n = 31 | <0.001 |
| Transfer request to arrival in destination hospital (median, IQR) | 159 min (120–220) n = 238 | 215 min (145–329) n = 76 | 355 min (245–460) n = 31 | 120 min (79–220) n = 23 | <0.001 |
| Documented reasons for delayed transfers | 139/728 (19.1%) | 33/207 (15.9%) | 21/118 (17.8%) | 11/49 (22.5%) | 0.35 |
| Transport availability | 45 (32.4%) | 5 (15.2%) | 16 (76.2%) | 9 (81.8%) | 0.06 |
| Patient preparation | 44 (31.7%) | 16 (48.1%) | 1 (4.8%) | 1 (9.1%) | |
| Lack of bed at receiving unit | 18 (13.0%) | 5 (15.2) | 2 (9.6) | 0 (0.0%) | |
| Transfer personnel or equipment | 10 (7.2%) | 0 (0.0%) | 1 (4.8%) | 0 (0.0%) | |
| Unspecified/other | 22 (15.8%) | 7 (21.2%) | 1 (4.8%) | 1 (9.1%) | |
Critical incidents
Seventy-seven critical incidents (6.9% of all transfers) were recorded during the 1124 transfers. Incidents were classified into three domains – patient (including cardiac arrest, loss of intravenous or intra-arterial access, hypo- and hypertension, airway and ventilation problems and pupil dilatation), technical (including failure of equipment, gas supply and transfer trolley) and logistical (including vehicle problems and difficulty with access to the receiving hospital or unit). While the majority of incidents were patient-specific (46, 59.7%), around a third (26, 33.7%) concerned technical problems and five (6.5%) were logistical. The commonest patient-related incidents were hypo- or hypertension (20, 26.0%) and pupil dilatation in the context of neurological event or injury (12, 15.6%), while the commonest technical incidents concerned monitor (10, 13.0%) and syringe pump (8, 10.4%) failure. All logistical problems occurred during the transfer of time critical patients and these included vehicle breakdown and inability to access the receiving hospital on arrival. No patients died during transfer. Table 5 displays critical incidents stratified by transfer indication.
Table 5.
Critical incidents recorded during transfer.
| Specialist treatment |
Repatriation (n = 118) | Capacity (n = 49) | p | ||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Time critical (n = 728) | Non-time critical (n = 207) | ||||
| Patient-specific incidents | 39 (5.4%) | 7 (3.4%) | 0 (0.0%) | 0 (0.0%) | 0.13 |
| Technical incidents | 18 (2.5%) | 4 (1.9%) | 4 (3.4%) | 0 (0.0%) | |
| Logistical incidents | 5 (0.7%) | 0 (0.0%) | 0 (0.0%) | 0 (0.0%) | |
| All critical incidents | 62 (8.5%) | 11 (5.3%) | 4 (3.4%) | 0 (0.0%) | 0.05 |
Discussion
This study represents the first published data on the critical care transfer activity of a UK adult critical care network. It demonstrates that inter-hospital critical care transfers of adult patients in a region of 5.5 million people occur at least every other day. Despite published national guidelines,1 a considerable proportion of transfers are still undertaken by untrained and/or inexperienced doctors and nurses. We describe delays from transfer request to leaving the referring hospital of 105 min (median) in time critical patients, and critical incidents occur in at least 1 in 14 transfers. The majority of critical care transfers are time critical and occur soon after admission to hospital. As such, this demand represents a frequent, unpredictable and high-risk workload that in the Critical Care Network studied is not currently being met by a timely, experienced and safe response consistent with national guidelines.
In the United Kingdom, the Association of Anaesthetists of Great Britain and Ireland (AAGBI)10,11 and the ICS1 have published clear guidelines on critical care transfer. All of these guidelines recommend that hospital departments and critical care networks establish clinical governance procedures, that transfers are documented, critical incidents recorded and investigated and that standards of care should be the same as those delivered on the ICU. A postal survey of intensive care units examining inter-hospital transfers in 2003 and found that 25% of patients were escorted by senior house officers (maximum five years’ postgraduate training),24 comparable to a similar study in 1997 (20%)19 and our finding of 22.3% of transferring doctors with less than four years postgraduate experience. This represents a group of relatively inexperienced staff transferring critically ill patients despite their acuity and potential for deterioration and unfortunately often reflects availability of staff within the hospital and also the difficult balance between maintaining the services of the transferring hospital while also ensuring safety of the transferred patient. Interestingly, despite multiple national guidelines that all agree on the importance of specific transfer training, no intensive care society or similar organisation has instigated a national training scheme for inter-hospital transport.3 Previous studies have demonstrated that 52–91% of transfer critical incidents (technical and patient related) are preventable with adequate preparation and training, such as undertaken by specialist retrieval teams.3,4
The time elapsed between transfer request and leaving the referring hospital amounted to a median of 105 min even when patients required time critical transfer. This delay was multifactorial and included transport vehicle availability, patient preparation and bed availability at the receiving hospital. System improvements that have been instituted in other regions to minimise transport delay include dedicated transport platforms16,17 and network collaboration to streamline the transfer pathway with resultant 98-min reductions in total transfer time.25
Interestingly the 6.9% critical incident rate seen in this study is relatively low in comparison with previous published studies which report patient-related incidents, such as cardiovascular instability, respiratory complications or neurological deterioration, in 6–31% of transfers2–4 with around one in four resulting in patient harm.6 Consistent with previous studies, we consider the documented rate of critical incidents in this study to represent an underestimate of actual rates of critical incidents.26 The extensively described reasons for the under-reporting of medical critical incidents, including fear of adverse consequences, process and reporting systems, are particularly applicable to the unsupervised and impromptu nature of current critical transfer practice.27 An additional and related consideration in analysing this data is that, although completion of transfer documentation is regarded as a standard of care in the Critical Care Network, it is likely that factors including emergency clinical priorities, difficulties in locating transfer documentation and failure to submit completed paperwork may make the database an underestimate of actual transfer activity in the region.
This study demonstrates that current ad-hoc provision of critical care transfer is not currently meeting the longstanding expectations of national guidelines in terms of training, clinical experience and timeliness. The data from an English Critical Care Network presented in this study may inform national conversation regarding the development of National Health Service (NHS) commissioned inter-hospital transfer services for adult patients in England. Critically ill patients are transferred by specialist retrieval teams in countries such as the Netherlands, Australia and New Zealand3 and the UK precedent has already been set by the establishment of similar services in Scotland and Wales.16,17 Moreover, all neonatal and the overwhelming majority of paediatric transfers in England are performed by dedicated transport teams which are NHS commissioned, adequately resourced, led by senior consultant and nursing staff and working to high standards within strict clinical governance procedures. These data suggest that this standard should be provided for any patient in the United Kingdom, regardless of age, geographical location, or time of day.
Acknowledgements
We thank Sarah Miller and Ian Scammell from the South West Critical Care Network for assisting with database interrogation and thank the South West Critical Care Network for allowing us to access their database.
Declaration of conflicting interests
The author(s) declared no potential conflicts of interest with respect to the research, authorship, and/or publication of this article.
Funding
The author(s) received no financial support for the research, authorship, and/or publication of this article.
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