BUFFALO HUSBANDRY | Asia

Introduction

Tropical Asia is the homeland for almost 158 million of the population of 163 million domestic buffaloes (Bubalus bubalis) in the world (1999 estimate). Domestic buffaloes in Asia are of two types: the swamp type for draught in the eastern half of Asia and the river type for milk in the western half of Asia (see DAIRY ANIMALS | Water Buffalo). Once a sadly neglected farm species, the river type buffalo currently produces about 55 million tonnes of milk annually from some of the world's best buffalo breeds in India and Pakistan. They breed throughout the year, conceive at 250–275 kg body weight, calve for the first time at 3–5 years following a gestation period of 305–320 days, and produce two calves every 3 years. Lactating animals are fed mainly on straw, crop residues and mineral supplements such as urea–molasses–mineral block (UMMB). In most rural areas, animals are hand-milked twice daily with the calf present to stimulate milk letdown. Lactation is 200–300 days with first lactation milk yields of 1500–1800 kg. Breeding females are retained in the herd until about the ninth lactation (16 years of age) with reasonable economic returns. River buffaloes are vulnerable to most infectious and metabolic diseases affecting cattle. In India and Pakistan, milk is marketed through a network of milk cooperatives, which guarantee a stable price throughout the year for the farmer. Buffalo milk contains twice as much butterfat as cows' milk. Besides ghee, several other products are manufactured from buffalo milk, such as butter, cheese, full cream milk powder, skim milk powder and infant formulae. Thus, the domestic buffalo is emerging as an alternative source for the manufacture of dairy products worldwide.

Buffalo Species, Types and Population

The term ‘buffalo’ refers to three species in the family Bovidae. The African buffalo (Syncerus caffer) and the North American buffalo (Bison bison) have yet to be domesticated. On the contrary, the Asian buffalo (Bubalus bubalis) was domesticated around the same time in history as cattle for draught power, milk and meat. The domestic buffalo is also known as the ‘water buffalo’ because of its fondness of cooling itself in water (Figure 1).

Figure 1.

Wallowing behaviour of river buffalo.

These two buffalo types differ in their wallowing habits, chromosome numbers and physical features (Table 1). The river buffalo makes up nearly 75% of the buffalo population in Asia (Figure 2). The dairy breeds of river buffaloes in India are the Murrah, Nili-Ravi and Surti and in Pakistan the Nili-Ravi and Kundi.

Table 1.

Some characteristics of swamp and river buffaloes

Characteristic	Swamp buffalo	River buffalo
Location	Eastern half of Asia	Western half of Asia
Countries	Burma, China, Indonesia, Malaysia, Philippines, Thailand, Vietnam	India, Pakistan, Iran, Iraq, Nepal, Sri Lanka, Bangladesh
Horns	Grow outwards and curve in a semicircle but remain on the plane of the forehead	Grow downwards and backwards
Breed(s)	Single breed	Seven recognized breeds, e.g. Murrah, Nili-Ravi and Surti
Wallowing habits	Swamps	Clean running water, e.g. rivers or streams
Chromosome number (2n)	48	50
Purposes	Draft and meat	Milk and meat

Figure 2.

Distribution of domestic buffaloes in Asia. (Adapted from FAO, 1999.)

Breeding Management

Buffaloes, like cattle, are polyestrous, breeding throughout the year, but the calving pattern is influenced by rainfall, feed supply, ambient temperature and photoperiod. In India and Pakistan, most buffaloes calve between November and March.

Puberty

The buffalo attains puberty at a later age than cattle (see OESTRUS CYCLES | Puberty). On recommended levels of nutrition, most conceptions occur when the female weighs 250–275 kg. In the male viable sperm appear at about 24 months of age.

Oestrus Cycle

The oestrus cycle length is about 21 days with oestrus lasting 12 to 30 hours and ovulation occurring spontaneously after the end of oestrus (Table 2).

Table 2.

Reproductive parameters of buffalo and cattle

Parameter	River buffalo	Cattle
Sexual season	Polyoestrous	Polyoestrous
Age at puberty (months)	15–36	10–24
Oestrous cycle
Length (days)	18–22	14–29
Oestrus (h)	12–30	17–24
Gestation length (days)	305–320	278–293
Age at first calving (months)	36–56	24–36
Calving intervals (months)	15–21	12–14
Ejaculate volume (ml)	3–6	4–10
Sperm concentration (106 ml−1)	300–1500	800–2000
First service conception rate (frozen semen) (%)	10–50	45–75

Adapted from Jainudeen and Hafez (2000).

Unlike cattle, overt signs of oestrus are not pronounced (see OESTRUS CYCLES | Characteristics). In most smallholder farms, a male buffalo may not be available for oestrus detection. Homosexual behaviour or standing to be mounted by another female is observed only occasionally in the buffalo. As a result, most inseminations are based on less-reliable signs such as clear vulval discharge, restlessness, frequent urination, vocalization and reduction in milk (see MATING MANAGEMENT | Detection of Oestrus). Oestrus commences toward late evening with peak sexual activity at night.

Artificial Insemination

Since the early 1950s, artificial insemination (AI) has been practised in the river buffalo in the Indian subcontinent but its progress has been very slow because of the difficulty of detecting oestrus and low conception rates in smallholder farms.

Buffalo semen is routinely collected in AI centres with an artificial vagina, similar in design to that for cattle. Ejaculate volume and concentration of semen are lower in buffalo than cattle. Techniques of semen evaluation, processing and cryopreservation are as in cattle with minor modifications (see GAMETE AND EMBRYO TECHNOLOGY | Artificial Insemination).

AI centres in India and Pakistan provide an AI service with either chilled or frozen semen. In Pakistan, an AI network consisting of over 140 main and about 400 subcentres provides more than 3 million inseminations annually.

Most inseminations are usually performed between 12 and 24 h from the onset of oestrus. At this time, the cervix is sufficiently dilated for the deposition of semen in the uterine body with the same insemination equipment as for cattle.

Both India and Pakistan export frozen semen to upgrade or crossbreed indigenous buffaloes in Thailand, China and the Philippines.

Embryo Transfer Technology

Several countries are engaged in developing embryo transfer (ET) technology in the buffalo. The basic principles of ET technology in cattle are applicable to buffalo except that embryos are collected from the uterus on day 5 of the cycle instead on day 7 or 8 adopted in cattle (see GAMETE AND EMBRYO TECHNOLOGY | Multiple Ovulation and Embryo Transfer). Also the pregnancy rates have been less than 10% in Bulgaria and India, as compared with 50–70% in dairy cattle. Poor superovulatory response to gonadotrophins, low embryo recovery rates and the small number of calves born suggest that the technology is not ready for commercial application in the buffalo.

In vitro fertilization (IVF) of buffalo oocytes is an alternative to superovulation (see GAMETE AND EMBRYO TECHNOLOGY | In vitro Fertilization). Several laboratories have produced buffalo embryos by IVF. In 1997, the first IVF buffalo calf was born in India. Since oocytes can be collected at slaughter from high-producing buffaloes at the end of their lactation (see ‘Feeding the Lactating Buffalo’, below), IVF has potential applications in Pakistan and India.

Gestation

Gestation is longer in buffalo than cattle, varying from 305 to 320 days for the river buffalo and from 320 to 340 days for the swamp buffalo. Pregnancy is routinely diagnosed by rectal palpation of the uterus from about 40 to 45 days following insemination.

Parturition

The birth process is similar to that of cattle (see PREGNANCY | Parturition). The foetus is delivered in anterior presentation with fully extended limbs and foetal membranes are expelled 4–5 h later. Twinning is rare, and the incidence is less than 1 per 1000 births. Birth weights range from 26 to 35 kg with male calves weighing 2–3 kg more than female calves.

Postpartum Period

After calving, the first oestrus and ovulation occur at about 60 and 90 days respectively in well-managed herds. Postpartum anoestrus or failure to resume oestrous cycles after calving remains a major problem contributing to long calving intervals (see OESTRUS CYCLES | Postpartum Cyclicity).

Fertility

Conception rates based on the nonreturn rates to AI are inaccurate, because of the inherent difficulty of detecting oestrus (see above). Pregnancy rates, based on rectal palpation, usually range from 50% to 60% with chilled semen, 25% to 45% with frozen semen, and over 60% for hand matings.

A buffalo usually produces, on average, two calves every 3 years. However, in well-managed herds, calving intervals of 14 to 15 months have been achieved.

Several Southeast Asian countries have embarked upon crossbreeding the indigenous swamp to the river buffalo. The F₁ crossbreds (river × swamp) possess an intermediate karyotype of 2n  = 49. Unlike other mammalian hybrids possessing chromosome complements differing from their parents, both male and female hybrids are fertile.

Reproductive Management

As mentioned previously, seasonal calving patterns in buffaloes have been attributed to ambient temperature, photoperiod and feed supply. In India and Pakistan, buffaloes calving in summer or autumn resume ovarian cyclicity earlier than those calving in winter or spring. Perhaps decreasing day length and cooler ambient temperatures favour cyclicity.

In the past, ‘silent oestrus’ – ovulation not preceded by oestrus – was believed to be a major problem in buffalo breeding but recent hormonal studies have revealed that it is due to the farmer's inability to detect oestrus.

Improvements in nutrition could increase growth rates and hasten the onset of puberty. Similarly, early weaning, induction of oestrus with prostaglandin or intravaginal progesterone-releasing devices and better nutrition have hastened the resumption of early postpartum ovarian activity and reduced the calving to conception intervals. Induction of oestrus with synthetic analogues of prostaglandin F_2α and fixed-time insemination with frozen semen may prove useful in restricting mating seasons so that calving occurs when water and green feed are abundant.

Male buffaloes show marked seasonal fluctuations in libido and semen quality, which may be overcome by providing cooling facilities during the hot season. In addition, females could be inseminated with semen collected and cryopreserved during the cooler months.

Most reproductive management programmes adopted for cattle can be effectively applied for the buffalo but the commercial and smallholder farmers have not realized the benefits of such programmes.

Feeding Management

Many Asian countries have limited feed resources for feeding their buffaloes. The available resources are essentially tropical pastures (both green and mature), straws and crop residue, which are generally low in protein (see DEVELOPING COUNTRIES, COW MANAGEMENT | Asia).

Feeding the Calf

Two systems are practised for rearing buffalo calves. In smallholder farms, calves are allowed to suckle their dams both for milk letdown and to suck 1–2 l of milk. As they grow older, suckling time is gradually reduced and replaced by grass and small quantities of concentrate. Beyond 4–6 weeks of age, the calf is used only for milk letdown. In commercial farms, calves are weaned at birth and managed as for dairy calves (see REPLACEMENT MANAGEMENT, CATTLE | Preruminant Diets and Weaning Practices). Often male calves are neglected and die of starvation.

Feeding the Lactating Buffalo

Feeding systems of buffaloes for milk can be broadly classified as (1) extensive, (2) semi-intensive, and (3) the intensive system. The second system is most common, with animals tethered in the farmer's backyard and fed mainly on cut fodder and crop residues. Lactating animals receive 0.5 kg concentrate mixture per litre of milk produced.

Large herds of high-producing buffaloes are located near big cities in India and Pakistan. These animals, purchased from the villages immediately after calving, are transported to cities where they are confined in large holding areas and fed with dry fodder and large quantities of discarded bread and other preparations made of flour. ‘Dry’ animals are sent to the abattoir since it is uneconomical to transport them back to their original villages.

Nutritional Requirements

The energy and protein requirements have been established for maintenance and milk production for the river buffalo (Table 3). There is no physiological need for concentrate feed to maintain butterfat content that is about twice as much as cows' milk. Feeding concentrates increases milk fat content as high as 15%, since the buffalo releases unwanted fat into the milk and stores only a minimum in body tissues.

Table 3.

Metabolizable energy and digestible crude protein requirements for maintenance and milk production of the river buffalo

Parameter	River buffalo
Metabolizable energy
Dry and lactating buffalo (kcal kg−1 W0.75)	97.8 to 188.8
Milk production (kcal kg−1 W0.75 4% fat-corrected milk)	1171 to 1863
Digestible crude protein
Dry and lactating animals (g kg−1 W0.75)	1.28 to 3.48
Milk production (g 100 g−1 of protein in milk)	126.6 to 166.34

Adapted from Mudgal (1988) and Ranjhan (1998).

Utilization of Crop Residues

Several physiological and physical factors contribute to the buffalo's ability to utilize poor quality roughage and crop residues. Among these factors are the large rumen volume, high rate of salivation, slower rate of passage of digesta through the reticulo-rumen, slow rumen motility and higher cellular activity.

The dry matter intake and digestibility of roughage can be improved by supplementing with a mixture of urea and molasses. The mixture is available as a block lick (UMMB). This block supplies fermentable energy, bypass protein, and macro- and microminerals to make the rumen microflora and fauna more efficient in digesting roughages. Buffaloes fed these supplements show better body condition, shorter calving intervals and higher milk yields.

Milk Harvesting and Storage

The annual production of buffalo milk in the Asian–Pacific region exceeds 55 million tonnes (see Table 4) with India and Pakistan contributing more than over 50 million tonnes (Figure 3). Almost all the milk is produced in smallholder farms.

Table 4.

The domestic buffalo's contribution to milk and meat production in Asia

Country	Numbers (×106)	Milk (Mt × 106)	Meat (Mt × 106)
River type
Bangladesh	0.854	0.022	0.004
India	92.090	35.340	1.403
Iran	0.465	0.169	0.011
Iraq	0.065	0.190	0.001
Nepal	3.419	0.729	0.117
Pakistan	21.213	16.456	0.603
Sri Lanka	0.721	0.067	0.005
Swamp type
Cambodia	0.694	—	0.013
Chinaa	20.818	2.300	0.242
Indonesia	3.145	—	0.053
Laos	1.286	—	0.016
Malaysia	0.150	0.010	0.004
Myanmar	2.379	0.104	0.020
Philippines	3.006	0.018	0.051
Thailand	4.200	—	0.061
Vietnam	3.000	0.031	0.105
Total Asia	158.032	55.356	2.713
Total World	163.134	57.353	2.933

Adapted from FAO (1999).

^aChina has a population of about 150 000 crossbred buffaloes (river × swamp buffalo).

Figure 3.

Major producers of buffalo milk in Asia (Mt × 10⁶). (Adapted from FAO, 1999.)

Milking Technique

Milk letdown is slower in buffalo than in cattle. The presence of the calf initiates the milk letdown reflex. In most smallholder farms, animals are hand-milked with the calf to stimulate milk letdown, whereas in big herds in India and Pakistan they are machine-milked as for cattle. Normally buffaloes are milked twice a day.

Milk Yield

The lactation length is about 300 days in the Murrah breed and about 320 days in the Nili-Ravi breed. Milk yields range from 1500 to 1800 kg for the first lactation with a steady increase to a peak in the fourth lactation, and are then maintained at peak levels until the ninth lactation. Thus, a buffalo could be retained in the herd up to about the ninth lactation (16 years of age) with reasonable economic returns.

With selective breeding, improved management and the establishment of more dairy herds, milk yields are increasing. The individual 3000 l-per-lactation female, considered a record 30 years ago, is now common. There are many that yield 4000 l in a lactation of 300 days – some have even attained 5000 l.

Most Asians consume buffalo milk in liquid form. Surplus milk is processed into butter, ghee, condensed milk, curd and cheese (see MILK FAT PRODUCTS | Anhydrous Milk Fat – Butteroil, Ghee). Dairy products that are usually made from cows' milk are also produced from buffalo milk in modern dairy plants. The dairy industry has grown from small creameries to large dairy plants supported by thousands of small farmers who supply between 5 and 10 l of milk per day.

Milk Marketing

The rapid expansion of the buffalo dairy industry in the past two decades can be attributed to the Cooperative Milk Marketing model, first developed in Gujarat, India (Table 5), then adopted by other states in India and Pakistan. In this model, the smallholder farmer is guaranteed a stable price for milk throughout the year, eliminating the middleman from the profits. In addition, these cooperatives provide loans to farmers to purchase superior animals, sell animal feed and provide a routine veterinary and AI service. Their extension programmes help producers to increase production and reduce costs.

Table 5.

Some statistics of the buffalo dairy industry in Gujarat, India (1999–2000)

Members: district cooperative milk producers' union	12
Number of producer members	2 11 755
Number of village societies	10 411
Daily milk handling capacity (l × 106)	6.7
Total milk collection (1999–2000) (l × 106)	1 586
Average daily milk collection (l × 106)	43.46
Milk drying capacity (tonnes day−1)	450
Feed manufacturing capacity (tonnes day−1)	1 450
Sales turnover (US$ million)	500

Source: Gujarat Cooperative Milk Marketing Federation, Anand, India.

Composition and Nutritive Value

Few differences exist between buffalo and cattle in the nutritive value of milk and milk products (see MILK | Introduction). However, the lower water and higher fat contents make buffalo milk better suited for the manufacture of fat-based and solids-not-fat-based milk products, such as butter, ghee and milk powder (Table 6). Calcium, iron and phosphorus in milk are higher in buffalo than in cow. The lower cholesterol content in buffalo milk should make it more popular than cows' milk with the health-conscious public.

Table 6.

Composition of milk of river buffalo and cow

Constituent	Buffalo milk	Cows' milk
Water (g l−1)	820	870
Total solids (g l−1)	172	125
Lactose (g l−1)	55	46
Proteins (g l−1)	44	33
Fat (g l−1)	75	36
Cholesterol (mg g−1)	0.65	3.14

Adapted from Rajorhia (1988) and Ganguli (1992).

Unlike the cow, the buffalo converts the yellow pigment β-carotene into vitamin A, which is colourless, and is passed on to milk. Therefore, buffalo milk is distinctively whiter than cows' milk; the latter is not only pale creamish-yellow but also the milk fat is golden yellow.

Proteins of buffalo milk, particularly the whey proteins, are more resistant to heat denaturation than those of cows' milk. Dried milk products prepared from buffalo milk exhibit higher levels of undenatured proteins when processed under similar conditions.

Ultra-high temperature (UHT) treated buffalo milk and cream are intrinsically whiter and more viscous than their cows' milk counterparts, because greater levels of calcium and phosphorus are converted into the colloidal form.

Milk Products

Ghee accounts for about 45% of the total milk produced in India. Ghee is clarified butterfat and contains about 99% of milk fat. Ghee from buffalo milk has no colour, unlike ghee from cattle, which is golden yellow due to the presence of carotenoids as stated earlier. Ghee is the only source of animal fat in the vegetarian diet of the human population in India.

Cheese made from buffalo milk displays typical body and textural characteristics. For the manufacture of Mozzarella cheese, buffalo milk is preferred to cows' milk (see BUFFALO HUSBANDRY | Mediterranean Region). Certain traditional cheese varieties, such as paneer in India or pickled cheeses from the Middle East countries, are best made from buffalo milk.

Amul is a cooperative factory in Gujarat which produces a range of milk products exclusively manufactured from buffalo milk. The products include butter, full cream milk powder, skim milk powder, ghee, infant formulae, cheese, chocolates, ice cream and nutramul. Amul products are exported to the United States, New Zealand and the Gulf States. The sales figures for Amul's butter have increased from 1000 tonnes year⁻¹ in 1966 to over 25 000 tonnes year⁻¹ in 1997.

Health Management

Contrary to the popular belief that domestic buffaloes thrive in the harsh, humid conditions in the tropics, they are susceptible to thermal stress, infectious diseases and disorders similar to those of cattle.

Thermal Stress

With less than one-tenth the density of sweat glands compared to cattle, the domestic buffalo's ability to sweat and lose heat through evaporative cooling is significantly diminished. In addition, their dark body coat promotes heat absorption from the direct rays of the sun whereas the thick epidermal layer prevents heat dissipation through conduction and radiation. Thus, the domestic buffalo is more sensitive than cattle to direct solar radiation and high ambient temperatures during the summer months.

Thermal stress may lead to higher calf mortality, lower milk yields and slow growth, and can depress signs of oestrus (see STRESS, HEAT, IN DAIRY CATTLE | Effects on Milk Production and Composition; STRESS, HEAT, IN DAIRY CATTLE | Effects on Reproduction). Thermal stress can be reduced by providing cooling facilities such as shade and wallows, and by sprinkling water on to the skin during the hotter part of the day and feeding roughage during the night.

Infectious Diseases

River buffaloes are susceptible to most diseases affecting cattle (Table 7). Compared with cattle, buffaloes show greater resistance to foot-and-mouth disease and brucellosis but have a higher incidence of parasitic diseases because of their wallowing habits.

Table 7.

Common diseases and disorders of the domestic buffalo in Asia

Aetiology	Disease or disorder
Viral	Rinderpest; foot and mouth disease; malignant catarrhal fever
Bacterial	Haemorrhagic septicaemia (Pasteurella multocida); Johne disease (Mycobacterium paratuberculosis); tuberculosis (Mycobacterium bovis); mastitis (Staphylococcus and Streptococcus spp.; Escherichia coli; Corynebacterium pyogenes)
Parasitic	Haemoprotozoa: Anaplasma, Babesia, Theirleria, Trypanosoma and Schistosomia species
	Gastointestinal nematodes: Haemonchus contortus; Toxocara vitulorum; liver fluke (Fasciola gigantica, F. hepatica)
	Ectoparasites: tick infestation (Boophilus microplus, B. annulata); mange (Sarcoptis scabiei; Psoroptes spp.)
Metabolic disorders	Hypocalcaemia (milk fever); hypoglycaemia (ketosis); hypomagnesaemia; hypophosphataemia; selenium toxicity; bracken fern poisoning
Abortion, retention of foetal membranes, repeat breeding	Brucellosis (Brucella abortus); vibriosis (Campylobacter fetus); trichomoniasis (Trichomonas foetus); leptospirosis (Leptospirosis pomona and L. hardjo)
Vaginal, uterine and ovarian disorders	Prepartum vaginal prolapse, postpartum uterine prolapse; puerperal metritis, endometritis; cystic ovaries; delayed resumption of ovarian cycles

Adapted from Adlakha and Sharma (1992).

The dairy buffalo is as susceptible to mastitis as the dairy cow. Bacteria causing mastitis, their treatment and control are similar to those for cattle (see MASTITIS PATHOGENS | Contagious Pathogens; MASTITIS PATHOGENS | Environmental Pathogens).

There is a high incidence of calf mortality caused by Toxocara vitulorum, virulent strains of Escherichia coli, rota and corona viruses. Larvae of To. vitulorum are transmitted from the dam to the calf through the milk during the first month of life.

Puerperal metritis and retained foetal membranes occur in the buffalo. The high incidence of metritis and other genital infections has been partly attributed to the unhygienic practice of dilating the vagina with either inserting objects or blowing air for stimulating milk letdown.

Metabolic Disorders

High milk-producing river buffaloes are as susceptible to metabolic disorders as dairy cows. Apparently, the aetiology is similar because affected buffaloes respond to therapy and control as for dairy cows.

See also:

BUFFALO HUSBANDRY | Mediterranean Region; DAIRY ANIMALS | Water Buffalo; DEVELOPING COUNTRIES, COW MANAGEMENT | Asia; GAMETE AND EMBRYO TECHNOLOGY | Artificial Insemination; GAMETE AND EMBRYO TECHNOLOGY | Multiple Ovulation and Embryo Transfer; GAMETE AND EMBRYO TECHNOLOGY | In vitro Fertilization; MASTITIS PATHOGENS | Contagious Pathogens; MASTITIS PATHOGENS | Environmental Pathogens; MATING MANAGEMENT | Detection of Oestrus; MILK | Introduction; MILK FAT PRODUCTS | Anhydrous Milk Fat – Butteroil, Ghee; OESTRUS CYCLES | Puberty; OESTRUS CYCLES | Characteristics; OESTRUS CYCLES | Postpartum Cyclicity; PREGNANCY | Parturition; REPLACEMENT MANAGEMENT, CATTLE | Preruminant Diets and Weaning Practices; STRESS, HEAT, IN DAIRY CATTLE | Effects on Milk Production and Composition; STRESS, HEAT, IN DAIRY CATTLE | Effects on Reproduction.