Skip to main content
PMC home page
Wiley - PMC COVID-19 Collection logoLink to Wiley - PMC COVID-19 Collection
. 2006 Aug 31;25(1):1–13. doi: 10.1002/cbf.1342

Emerging and re‐emerging viral infections in Europe

Agostino Pugliese 1,✉, Tiziana Beltramo 1, Donato Torre 2
PMCID: PMC7162003  PMID: 16944546

Abstract

Emerging viral infections are becoming a serious problem in Europe in the recent years. This is particularly true for severe acute respiratory syndrome (SARS), West Nile virus (WNV) disease, Toscana virus (TOSV) disease, and potentially for avian influenza virus (H5N1). In contrast, emergence or re‐emergence of severe viral infections, including tick borne encephalitis virus, and viral haemorrhagic fever caused by Hantavirus and dengue virus have been frequently reported in several European countries. Laboratory diagnosis of these viral infections based on viral isolation or detection by immune electron microscopy, immunoassay and polymerase chain reaction (PCR) has dramatically improved in the recent years, and SARS represents a good example of a diagnostic approach to emerging viral infections. Finally, old and new promising agents are in the pipeline of pharmaceutical companies to treat emerging viral infections. However only prevention based on large epidemiological studies, and research and development of new vaccines may be able to control and eventually eradicate these deadly viral infections. Copyright © 2006 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.

REFERENCES

  • 1. Pang T, Guindon GE. Globalization and risks to health. EMBO Reports 2004; 5: S11–S16. [DOI] [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  • 2. McMichael AJ. Environmental and social influences on emerging infectious diseases: past, present and future. Philos Trans R Soc London B Biol Sci 2004; 359: 1049–1058. [DOI] [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  • 3. Trampuz A, Prabhu RM, Smith TF, Baddour LM. Avian influenza: a new pandemic threat? Mayo Clin Proc 2004; 79: 523–530. [DOI] [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  • 4. Sutherst RW. Global change and human vulnerability to vector‐borne diseases. Clin Microbiol Rev 2004; 17: 136–173. [DOI] [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  • 5. Niaussat PM. 16th century: suffering and disease on the way to great discoveries; from Lisbon to the Moluccas and to Japan. Bull Soc Pathol Exot 1999; 95: 399–404. [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  • 6. Krilov LR. Emerging infectious disease issues in international adoptions: severe acute respiratory syndrome (SARS), avian influenza and measles. Curr Opin Infect Dis 2004; 17: 391–395. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  • 7. Snell NJ. Novel and re‐emerging respiratory infections. Expert Rev Anti Infect Ther 2004; 2: 405–412. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  • 8. Charrel RN, de Lamballerie X. West Nile virus, an emerging arbovirus. Presse Med 2004; 33: 1521–1526. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  • 9. Fooks AR, Brookes SM, Johnson N, McElhinney LM, Hutson AM. European bat lyssaviruses: an emerging zoonosis. Epidemiol Infect 2003; 13: 1029–1039. [DOI] [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  • 10. Galama JM. Emergent viral infections. Ned Tijdschr Geneeskd 2001; 145: 616–619. [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  • 11. Kuiken T, Fouchier R, Rimmelzwaan G, Osterhaus A. Emerging viral infections in a rapidly changing world. Curr Opin Biotechnol 2003; 14: 641–646. [DOI] [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  • 12. Gritsun TS, Lashkevich VA, Gould EA. Tick‐borne encephalitis. Antiviral Res 2003; 57: 129–146. (a). [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  • 13. Chastel C, Bailly‐Choumara H, Bach‐Hamba D, et al Tick‐transmitted arbovirus in Magreb. Bull Soc Pathol Exot 1995; 88: 81–85. [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  • 14. Maki DG. SARS revisited: the challenge of controlling emerging infectious diseases at the local, regional, federal, and global levels. Mayo Clin Proc 2004; 79: 1359–1366. [DOI] [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  • 15. Bossi P, Guihot A, Ansart S, Bricaire F. Severe acute respiratory syndrome: update. Rev Med Interne 2003; 24: 672–680. [DOI] [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  • 16. Tse GM, To KF, Chan PK, et al Pulmonary pathological features in coronavirus associated severe acute respiratory syndrome (SARS). J Clin Pathol 2004; 57: 260–265. [DOI] [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  • 17. Hung IF, Cheng VC, Wu AK, et al Viral loads in clinical specimens and SARS manifestations. Emerg Infect Dis 2004; 10: 1550–1557. [DOI] [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  • 18. Booth CM, Matukas LM, Tomlinson GA, et al Clinical features and short‐term outcomes of 144 patients with SARS in the greater Toronto area. JAMA 2003; 289: 2801–2809. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  • 19. Fowler RA, Lapinsky SE, Hallett D, et al Toronto SARS Critical Care Group. Critically ill patients with severe acute respiratory syndrome. JAMA 2003; 290: 367–373. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  • 20. Del Rey Calero J. Epidemiological perspectives on SARS and avian influenza. An R Acad Nac Med (Madr) 2004; 121: 289–304. [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  • 21. Martina BE, Haagmans BL, Kuiken T, et al Virology: SARS virus infection of cats and ferrets. Nature 2003; 425: 915. [DOI] [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  • 22. Xu HF, Wang M, Zhang ZB, et al An epidemiologic investigation on infection with severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus in wild animals traders in Guangzhou. Zhonghua Yu Fang Yi Xue Za Zi 2004; 38: 81–83. [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  • 23. Poon LL, Chu DK, Chan KH, et al Identification of a novel coronavirus in bats. J Virol 2005; 79: 2001–2009. [DOI] [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  • 24. Ooi GC, Khong PL, Muller NL, et al Severe acute respiratory syndrome: temporal lung changes at thin‐section CT in 30 patients. Radiology 2004; 230: 836–844. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  • 25. Sainz B, Jr , Mossel EC, Peters CJ, Garry RF. Interferon‐beta and interferon‐gamma synergistically inhibit the replication of severe acute respiratory syndrome‐associated coronavirus (SARS‐CoV). Virology 2004; 329: 11–17. [DOI] [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  • 26. Ali MB. Treating severe acute respiratory syndrome with hyperimmune globulins. Hong Kong Med J 2003; 9: 391–392. [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  • 27. Kuba K, Imai Y, Rao S, et al A crucial role of angiotensin converting enzyme 2 (ACE2) in SARS coronavirus‐induced lung injury. Nat Med 2005; 11: 875–879. [DOI] [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  • 28. Liang G, Chen Q, Xu J, et al Laboratory diagnosis of four recent sporadic cases of community‐acquired SARS, Guangdong Province, China. Emerg Infect Dis 2004; 10: 1774–81. [DOI] [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  • 29. Hsueh PR, Huang LM, Chen PJ, Kao CL, Yang PC. Chronological evolution of IgM, IgA, IgG and neutralisation antibodies after infection with SARS‐associated coronavirus. Clin Microbiol Infect 2004; 10: 1062–1066. [DOI] [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  • 30. Guan M, Chan KH, Peiris JS, et al Evaluation and validation of an enzyme‐linked immunosorbent assay and an immunochromatographic test for serological diagnosis of severe acute respiratory syndrome. Clin Diagn Lab Immunol 2004; 11: 699–703. [DOI] [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  • 31. Desenclos JC, van der Werf S, Bonmarin I, et al Introduction of SARS in France, March–April, 2003. Emerg Infect Dis 2004; 10: 195–200. [DOI] [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  • 32. Rickerts V, Wolf T, Rottmann C, et al Clinical presentation and management of the severe acute respiratory syndrome (SARS). Dtsch Med Wochenschr 2003; 128: 1109–1114. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  • 33. Petrosillo N, Puro V, Ippolito G. Border screening for SARS. MJA (Medical Journal of Australia) 2004; 180: 597–598. [DOI] [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  • 34. Brug J, Aro AR, Oenema A, De Zwart O, Richardus JH, Bishop GD. SARS risk perception, knowledge, precautions, and information sources, the Netherlands. Emerg Infect Dis 2004; 10: 1486–1489. [DOI] [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  • 35. Haas W, Krause G, Marcus U, Stark K, Ammon A, Burger R. “Emerging infectious diseases”. Dengue‐fever, West‐Nile fever, SARS, avian influenza, HIV. Internist (Berl) 2004; 45: 684–692. [DOI] [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  • 36. Chastel C. Emergence of new viruses in Asia: is climate change involved? Med Mal Infect 2004; 34: 499–505. [DOI] [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  • 37. Capua I, Alexander DJ. Avian influenza and human health. Acta Trop 2002; 83: 1–6. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  • 38. Daszak P, Tabor GM, Kilpatrick AM, Epstein J, Plowright R. Conservation medicine and a new agenda for emerging diseases. Ann NY Acad Sci 2004; 1026: 1–11. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  • 39. Kaye D, Pringle CR. Avian influenza viruses and their implication for human health. Clin Infect Dis 2005; 40: 108–112. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  • 40. Ungchusak K, Auewarakul P, Dowell SF, et al Probable person‐to‐person transmission of avian influenza A (H5N1). N Engl J Med 2005; 352: 333–340. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  • 41. Chen H, Deng G, Li Z, et al The evolution of H5N1 influenza viruses in ducks in southern China. Proc Natl Acad Sci USA 2004; 101: 10452–10457. [DOI] [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  • 42. Puthavathana P, Auiewarakul P, Charoenying PC, et al Molecular characterization of the complete genome of human influenza H5N1 virus isolates from Thailand. J Gen Virol 2005; 86: 423–433. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  • 43. Liu JH, Okazaki K, Shi WM, Kida H. Phylogenetic analysis of hemagglutinin and neuraminidase genes of H9N2 viruses isolated from migratory ducks. Virus Genes 2003; 27: 291–296. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  • 44. Bowes VA, Ritchie SJ, Byrne S, Sojonky K, Bidulka JJ, Robinson JH. Virus characterization, clinical presentation, and pathology associated with H7N3 avian influenza in British Columbia broiler breeder chickens in 2004. Avian Dis 2004; 49: 928–934. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  • 45. Koopmans M, Wilbrink B, Conyn M, et al Transmission of H7N7 avian influenza a virus to human beings during a large outbreak in commercial poultry farms in the Netherlands. Lancet 2004; 363: 587–593. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  • 46. Okazaki K, Takada A, Ito T, et al Precursor genes of future pandemic influenza viruses are perpetuated in ducks nesting in Siberia. Arch Virol 2000; 145: 885–893. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  • 47. Van Borm S, Thomas I, Hanquet G, et al Highly pathogenic H5N1 influenza virus in smuggled Thai eagles, Belgium. Emerg Infect Dis 2005; 11: 702–705. [DOI] [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  • 48. Timen A, van Vliet JA, Koopmans MP, van Steenbergen JE, Coutinho RA. Avian influenza H5N1 in Europe: little risk as yet to health in the Nether‐lands. Net Tijdschr Geneeskd 2005; 149: 2547–2549. [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  • 49. Alexander DJ. Report on avian influenza in the Eastern Hemisphere during 1997–2002. Avian Dis 2003; 47 (3S): 792–797. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  • 50. Marangon S, Capua I, Pozza G, Santucci U. Field experiences in the control of avian influenza outbreaks in densely populated poultry areas. Dev Biol (Basel) 2004; 119: 155–164. [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  • 51. Fouchier RA, Schneeberger PM, Rozendaal FW, et al Avian influenza A virus (H7N7) associated with human conjunctivitis and a fatal case of acute respiratory distress syndrome. Proc Natl Acad Sci USA 2004; 101: 1356–1361. [DOI] [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  • 52. Bush RM. Influenza as a model system for studying the cross‐species transfer and evolution of the SARS coronavirus. Philos Trans R Soc Lond Biol Sci 359: 1067–1073. [DOI] [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  • 53. Wong SS, Yuen KY. Avian influenza virus infections in humans. Chest 2006; 129: 156–168. [DOI] [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  • 54. Arostegi Karega N, Montes M, Perez‐Yarza EG, Sardon O, Vincente D, Cilla G. Clinical characteristics of children hospitalized for influenza virus infection. An Pediatr (Barc) 2005; 62: 5–12. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  • 55. Kauffman RS. Viral pneumonia In Respiratory infections: diagnosis and management. Pennington JE. (ed.). Raven Press: New York, 1983; 317–328. [Google Scholar]
  • 56. Brydak LB. Neurological complication of influenza infections. Przegl Epidemiol 2002; 56 (S1): 16–30. [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  • 57. Maisch B, Ristic AD, Portig I, Pankuweit S. Human viral cardiomyopathy. Front Biosci 2003; 8: s39–76. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  • 58. Whitney CG, Harper SA. Lower respiratory tract infections: prevention using vaccines. Infect Dis Clin North Am 2004; 18: 899–917. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  • 59. Yuen KY, Chan PK, Peiris M, et al Clinical features and rapid viral diagnosis of human disease associated with avian influenza A H5N1 virus. Lancet 1998; 351: 467–471. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  • 60. Tran TH, Nguyen TL, Nguyen TD, et al avian influenza A (H5N1) in 10 patients in Vietnam. N Engl J Med 2004; 350: 1179–1188. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  • 61. Amano Y, Cheng Q. Detection of influenza virus: traditional approaches and development of biosensors. Anal Bioanal Chem 2005; 381: 156–164. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  • 62. Bridges CB, Winquist AG, Fukuda K, Cox NJ, Singleton JA, Strikas RA. Advisory Committee on Immunization Practices. Prevention and control of influenza: recommendations of the Advisory Committee on Immunization Practices (ACIP). MMMWR Recomm Rep 2000; V 49 (RR‐3): 1–38. [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  • 63. Vindt Holm M, Gyldmark M, Holme Hansen E. Pharmacoeconomic assessment of oseltamivir in treating influenza—the case of otherwise healthy Danish adolescents and adults. Pharm World Sci 2004; 26: 339–345. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  • 64. De Jong MD, Tran TT, Truong HK, et al Oseltamivir resistance during treatment of influenza A (H5N1) infection. N Engl J Med 2005; 353: 2667–2672. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  • 65. Hayden F, Klimov A, Tashiro M, et al Neuraminidase inhibitor susceptibility network position statement: antiviral resistance in influenza A/H5N1 viruses. Antivir Ther 2005; 10: 873–877. [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  • 66. Center for Disease Control and prevention (CDC) . High levels of adamantane resistance among influenza A (H3N2) viruses and interim guidelines for use of antiviral agents—United States, 2005–2006 influenza season. MMWR Morb Mortal Wkly Rep 2006; 55: 44–46. [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  • 67. Gerdil C. The annual production cycle for influenza vaccine. Vaccine 2003; 21: 1776–1779. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  • 68. Rimmelzwaan GF, de Jong JC, Bartelds AI, Wilbrink B, Fouchier RA, Osterhaus AD. The 2003/2004 influenza season in the Netherlands with a limited epidemic of the virus variant A//Fujian, and vaccine composition for the 2004/2005 season. Ned Tijdschr Geneeskd 2004; 148: 1984–1988. [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  • 69. Van Kampen KR, Shi Z, Gao P, et al Safety and immunogenicity of adenovirus‐vectored nasal and epicutaneous influenza vaccines in humans. Vaccine 2005; 23: 1209–1236. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  • 70. Wiczynski J, Litwinska B. Human metapneumovirus‐new identified virus infecting human respiratory tract. Pregl Epidemiol 2004; 58: 325–333. [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  • 71. Takahashi M, Saegusa T, Umeya T, Mori M. Epidemic pleurodinia at a high school. Nippon Naika Gakkai Zasshi 2004; 93: 1180–1182. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  • 72. Chan YF, AbuBaker S. Recombinant human enterovirus 71 in hand, foot and mouth disease patients. Emerg Infect Dis 2004; 10: 1468–1470. [DOI] [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  • 73. Matthews L, Woolhouse M. New approaches to quantifying the spread of infection. Nat Rev Microbiol 2005; 3: 529–536. [DOI] [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  • 74. Hsiung GD, Wang JR. Enterovirus infections with special reference to enterovirus 71. J Microbiol Immunol Infect 2000; 33: 1–8. [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  • 75. Welch J, Maclaran K, Jordan T, Simmonds P. Frequency, viral loads, and serotype identification of enterovirus infections in Scottish blood donors. Transfusion 2003; 43: 1060–1066. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  • 76. Wang SM, Lei HY, Huang MC, et al Therapeutic efficacy of mileinone in the management of enterovirus 71‐induced pulmonary edema. Pediatr Pulmonol 2005; 39: 219–223. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  • 77. Faix DJ, Houng HS, Gaydos JC, et al Evaluation of a rapid quantitative diagnostic test for adenovirus type 4. Clin Infect Dis 2004; 38: 391–397. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  • 78. Charrel RN, Attoui H, Butenko AM, et al Tick‐borne virus diseases of human interest in Europe. Clin Microbiol Infect 2004; 10: 1040–1055. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  • 79. Kuhn JH, Seregin SV, Morzunov SP, et al Genetic analysis of the M RNA segment of Crimean‐Congo haemorrhagic fever virus strains involved in the recent outbreaks in Russia. Arch Virol 2004; 149: 2199–2213. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  • 80. Papa A, Christova I, Papadimitriou E, Antoniadis A. Crimean‐Congo haemorrhagic fever in Bulgaria. Emerg Infect Dis 2004; 10: 1465–1467. [DOI] [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  • 81. Lopez‐Velez R, Molina Moreno R. Climate change in Spain and risk of infectious and parasitic diseases transmitted by arthropods and rodents. Rev Esp Salud Publica 2005; 79: 177–190. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  • 82. Whitehouse CA. Crimean‐Congo hemorragic fever. Antiviral Res 2004; 64: 145–160. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  • 83. Busygin FF. Omsk haemorrhagic fever—current status of the problem. Vopr Virusol 2000; 45: 4–9. [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  • 84. Charrel RN, de Lamballerie X. The Alkhurma virus (family Flaviviridae, genus Flavivirus): an emerging pathogen responsible for hemorrhage fever in the Middle East. Med Trop (Mars) 2003; 63: 296–299. [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  • 85. Solomon T, Mallewa M. Dengue and other emerging flaviviruses. J Infect 2001; 42: 104–115. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  • 86. Gritsun TS, Nuttall PA, Gould EA. Tick‐borne flaviviruses. Adv Virus Res 2003; 61: 317–371. (b). [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  • 87. Clement J, Heyman P, McKenna P, Colon P, Avsic‐Zupanc T. The hantaviruses of Europe: from the bedside to the bench. Emerg Infect Dis 1997; 3: 205–211. [DOI] [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  • 88. Gegundez MI, Lledo L. Infection due to Hantavirus and other rodent—borne viruses. Enferm Infect Microbiol Clin 2005; 23: 492–500. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  • 89. Simmons JH, Riley LK. Hantaviruses: an overview. Comp Med 2002; 52: 97–110. [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  • 90. Papa A, Antoniadis A. Hantavirus infections in Greece—an update. Eur J Epidemiol 2001; 17: 189–194. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  • 91. Dekonenko AE, Tkachenko EA. Hantaviruses and hantavirus infections. Vopr Virusol 2004; 49: 40–44. [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  • 92. Sjolander KB, Golovljova I, Vasilenko V, Plyusnin A, Lundkvist A. Serological divergence of Dobrava and Saaremaa hantaviruses: evidence for two distinct serotypes. Epidemiol Infect 2002; 128: 99–103. [DOI] [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  • 93. Khan A, Khan AS. Hantaviruses: a tale of two hemispheres. Panminerva Med 2003; 45: 43–51. [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  • 94. Strady C, Jaussaud R, Remy G, Penalba C. Hantavirus infections. Presse Med 2005; 34: 391–399. [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  • 95. Van der Poel WH. “Emerging” viral zoonoses in native animals who can be the host in the Netherlands. Tijdschr Diergeneeskd 1999; 124: 3–11. [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  • 96. Nemirov K, Andersen HK, Leirs H, et al Saaremaa hantavirus in Denmark. J Clin Virol 2004; 30: 254–257. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  • 97. Olsson GE, Dalerum F, Honfeldt B, et al Human hantavirus infections, Sweden. Emerg Infect Dis 2003; 9: 1395–1401. [DOI] [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  • 98. Puljiz I, Kuzman I, Turcinov D, Markotic A, Celjuska E. Clinical and epidemiologic characteristics of haemorrhagic fever with renal syndrome in patients treated at the Dr. Fran Miihaljevic Clinic for Infectious Diseases in Zagreb. Acta Med Croatica 2003; 57: 347–353. [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  • 99. Mulic R, Ropac D, Gizdic Z, Sikic N. What is new in the epidemiologic characteristics of haemorrhagic fever with renal syndrome in Croatia? Acta Med Croatica 2003; 57: 399–405. [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  • 100. Klempa B, Stanko M, Labuda M, Ulrich R, Meisel H, Kruger DH. Central European Dobrava Hantavirus isolate from a striped field mouse (Apodemus agrarius). J Clin Microbiol 2005; 43: 2756–2763. [DOI] [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  • 101. Vapalahti O, Mustonen J, Lundkvist A, Henttonen H, Plysnin A, Vaheri A. Hantavirus infections in Europe. Lancet Infect Dis 2003; 3: 653–661. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  • 102. Ulrich R, Meisel H, Schutt M, et al Prevalence of hantavirus infections in Germany. Bundesgesundheitsblatt Gesundheitsforschung Gesundheitsschutz 2004; 47: 661–670. [DOI] [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  • 103. Garcia Nieto A, Medina Blanco G, Reinares Otriz de Villajos J. Emerging zoonoses linked to pets in the autonomous community of Madrid: design of a method for setting public health priorities, Spain. Rev Esp Salud Publica 2004; 78: 389–398. [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  • 104. Schmidt J, Meisel H, Hjelle B, Kruger DH, Ulrich R. Development and evaluation of serological assays for detection of human hantavirus infections caused by Sin Nombre virus. J Clin Virol 2005: 33: 247–253. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  • 105. Rosen L. Dengue in Greece in 1927 and 1928 and the pathogenesis of dengue haemorrhagic fever: new data and a different conclusion. Am J Trop Med Hyg 1986; 35: 642–653. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  • 106. Haas W, Krause G, Marcus U, Stark K, Ammon A, Burger R. «Emerging infectious diseases». Dengue‐fever, West‐Nile, SARS, avian influenza, HIV. Internist (Berl) 2004; 45: 684–692. [DOI] [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  • 107. Frank C, Schonenberg I, Krause G, Claus H, Ammon A, Stark K. Increase in imported dengue, Germany. 2001–2002. Emerg Infect Dis 2004; 10: 903–906. [DOI] [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  • 108. Rizzoli A, Rosa R, Mantelli B, et al Ixodes ricinus, transmitted diseases and reservoirs. Parassitologia. 2004; 46: 119–122. [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  • 109. Cinco M, Barbone F, Ciufolini MG, et al Seroprevalence of tick‐borne infections in forestry rangers from northeastern Italy. Clin Microbiol Infect 2004; 10: 1056–1061. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  • 110. Pugliese A, Beltramo T, Torre D. Seroprevalence study of Tick Borne Encephalitis, Borrelia burgdorferi, Dengue and Toscana virus in Turin Province. Cell Biochem Funct (in press). [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  • 111. Skarphedinsson S, Jensen PM, Kristiansen K. Survey in tick‐borne infections in Denmark. Emerg Infect Dis 2005; 11: 1055–1061. [DOI] [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  • 112. Haglund M, Vene S, Forsgren M, et al Characterization of human tick‐borne encephalitis virus from Sweden. J Med Virol 2003; 71: 610–621. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  • 113. Jaussaud R, Magy N, Strady A, Dupond JL, Deville JF. Tick‐borne encephalitis. Rev Med Interne 2001; 22: 542–548. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  • 114. Kondrusik M, Biedzinska T, Pancewicz S, et al Tick‐borne encephalitis (TBE) cases in Bialostocki and Podlaski regions in 1993–2002 years. Przegl Epidemiol 2004; 58: 273–280. [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  • 115. Kaiser R. Tick‐borne encephalitis (TBE) in Germany and clinical course of the disease. Int J Med Microbiol 2002; 291 (S.33): 58–61. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  • 116. Seligman SJ, Gould EA. Life flavivirus vaccines: reasons for caution. Lancet 2004; 363: 2073–2075. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  • 117. Sambri V, Marangoni A, Storni E, et al Tick borne zoonosis: selected clinical and diagnostic aspects. Parassitologia 2004; 46: 109–113. [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  • 118. Holbrook MR, Shope RE, Barrett AD. Use of recombinant E protein domain III‐based enzyme‐linked immunosorbent assays for differentiation of tick‐borne encephalitis serocomplex flaviviruses from mosquito‐borne flaviviruses. J Clin Microbiol 2004; 42: 4101–4110. [DOI] [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  • 119. Schwaiger M, Cassinotti P. Development of a quantitative real‐time RT‐PCR assay with internal control for the laboratory detection of tick borne encephalitis virus (TBEV) RNA. J Clin Virol 2003; 27: 136–145. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  • 120. Hubalek Z, Halouzka J. West Nile fever—a reemerging mosquito‐borne viral disease in Europe. Emerg Infect Dis 1999; 5: 643–650. [DOI] [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  • 121. Knudsen TB, Andersen O, Kronborg G. Death from the Nile crosses the Atlantic: the West Nile Fever story. Scand J Infect Dis 2003; 35: 820–825. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  • 122. Kramer LD, Bernard KA. West Nile virus in the western hemisphere. Curr Opin Infect Dis 2001; 14: 519–525 a. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  • 123. Cantile C, Di Guardo G, Eleni C, Arispici M. Clinical and neuropathological features of West Nile virus equine encephalomyelitis in Italy. Equine Vet J 2000; 32: 31–35. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  • 124. Kramer LD, Bernard KA. West Nile virus in birds and mammals. Ann NY Acad Sci 2001; 951: 84–93 b. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  • 125. Kuno G. Transmission of arboviruses without involvement of arthropod vectors. Acta Virologica 2001; 45: 139–150. [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  • 126. Hollinger FB, Kleinman S. Transfusion transmission of West Nile virus: a merging of historical and contemporary perspectives. Transfusion 2003; 43: 992–997. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  • 127. Weiskittel PD. West Nile virus infection in a renal transplant recipient. Nephrol Nurs J 2004; 31: 327–329. [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  • 128. Gea‐Banacloche J, Johnson RT, Bagic A, Butman JA, Murray PR, Agrawal AG. West Nile virus: pathogenesis and therapeutic options. Ann Intern Med 2004; 140: 545–553. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  • 129. Hayes CG. West Nile virus: Uganda. 1937, to New York City, 1999. Ann NY Acad Sci 2001; 951: 25–37. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  • 130. Marr JS, Calisher CH. Alexander the Great and West Nile virus encephalitis. Emerg Infect Dis 2003; 9: 1599–1603. [DOI] [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  • 131. Burton JM, Kern RZ, Halliday W, et al Neurological manifestations of West Nile virus infection. Can J Neurol Sci 2004; 31: 185–193. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  • 132. Brault AC, Langevin SA, Bowen RA, et al Differential virulence of West Nile strains for American crows. Emerg Infect Dis 2004; 10: 2161–2168. [DOI] [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  • 133. Cunha BA. Differential diagnosis of west Nile encephalitis. Curr Opin Infect Dis 2004; 17: 413–420. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  • 134. Charrel RN, de Lamballerie X. West Nile virus, an emerging arbovirus. Presse Med 2004; 33: 1521–1526. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  • 135. Everson K. West Nile virus up to 2005. CMAJ 2006; 174: 21. [DOI] [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  • 136. Lvov DK, Butenko AM, Gromashevsky VL, et al West Nile virus and other zoonotic viruses in Russia: examples of emerging–reemerging situations. Arch Virol Suppl 2004; 18: 85–96. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  • 137. Campbell GL, Ceianu CS, Savage HM. Epidemic West Nile encephalitis in Romania: waiting for history to repeat itself. Ann NY Acad Sci 2001; 951: 94–101. [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  • 138. Platonov AE, Shipulin GA, Shipulina OY, et al Outbreak of West Nile virus infection, Volgograd region, Russia, 1999. Emerg Infect Dis 2001; 7: 128–132. [DOI] [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  • 139. Durand JP, Simon F, Tolou H. West Nile virus: in France again, in humans and horses. Rev Prat 2004; 54: 703–710. [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  • 140. Dean JL, Palermo BJ. West Nile virus encephalitis. Curr Infect Dis Rep 2005; 7: 292–296. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  • 141. Hogrefe WR, Moore R, Lape‐Nixon M, Wagner M, Prince HE. Performance of immunoglobulin G (IgG) and IGM enzyme‐linked immunosorbent assays using a West Nile virus recombinant antigen (preM/E) for detection of West Nile virus‐and other flavivirus‐specific antibodies. J Clin Microbiol 2004; 42: 4641–4648. [DOI] [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  • 142. Van der Meulen KM, Pensaert MB, Nauwynck HJ. West Nile virus in the vertebrate world. Arch Virol 2005; 150: 637–657. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  • 143. Portolani M, Sabbatini AM, Beretti F, Gennari W, Tamassia MG, Pecorari M. Symptomatic infections by Toscana virus in the Modena province in the triennium 1999–2001. New Microbiol 2002; 25: 485–458. [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  • 144. Valassina M, Cusi MG, Valensin PE. A Mediterranean arbovirus: the Toscana virus. J Neurovirol 2003; 9: 577–583. a. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  • 145. Valassina M, Valentini M, Pugliese A, Valensin PE, Cusi MG. Serological survey of Toscana virus infections in a high‐risk population in Italy. Clin Diagn Lab Immunol 2003; 10: 483–484. b. [DOI] [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  • 146. Beersma MF, Grimbergen YA, Kroon FP, Veldkamp PJ. Meningitis caused by Toscana virus during a summer stay in Italy. Ned Tijdscr Geneeskd 2004; 148: 286–288. [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  • 147. Echevarria JM, de Ory F, Guisasola ME, et al Acute meningitis due to Toscana virus infection among patients from both the Spanish Mediterranean region and the region of Madrid. J Clin Virol 2003; 26: 79–84. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  • 148. Peyrefitte CN, Devetakov I, Pastorino B, et al Toscana virus and acute meningitis, France. Emerg Infect Dis 2005; 11: 778–780. [DOI] [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  • 149. Sanchez‐Seco MP, Echevarria JM, Hernandez L, Estevez D, Navarro‐Mari JM, Tenorio A. Detection and identification of Toscana and other phleboviruses by RT‐nested‐PCR assays with degenerated primers. J Med Virol 2003; 71: 140–149. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  • 150. Dionisio D, Esperti F, Vivarelli A, Valassina M. Epidemiological, clinical and laboratory aspects of sandfly fever. Curr Opin Infect Dis 2003; 16: 383–388. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  • 151. Vanlandingham DL, Davis BS, Lvov DK, et al Molecular characterization of California serogroup viruses isolated in Russia. Am J Trop Med Hyg 2002; 67: 306–309. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  • 152. Korobeinikova AS, Nafeev AA, Skvortsova TM. Specific markers for the detection of circulating of Tahyna, Inko and Batai viruses (Bunyaviridae, Bunyavirus) in humans, mosquitoes, ticks and cattle of the Ul'ianovsk region. Vopr Virusol 2003; 48: 45–46. [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  • 153. Pilaski J, Mackenstein H. Isolation of Tahyna virus from mosquitoes in 2 different European natural foci. Zentralbl Bakteriol Mikrobiol Hyg 1985; 180: 394–420. [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  • 154. Hubalek Z, Zeman P, Halouzka J, et al Antibodies against mosquito‐born viruses in human population of an area of Central Bohemia affected by the flood of 2002. Epidemiol Mikrobiol Immunol 2004; 53: 112–120. [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  • 155. Hubalek Z, Zeman P, Halouzka J, et al Mosquito‐borne viruses, Czech Republic, 2002. Emerg Infect Dis 2005; 11: 116–118. [DOI] [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  • 156. Thoelen I, Lemey P, Van Der Donck I, Beuselinck K, Lindberg AM, Van Ranst M. Molecular typing and epidemiology of enteroviruses identified from an outbreak of aseptic meningitis in Belgium during the summer of 2000. J Med Virol 2003; 70: 420–429. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  • 157. Kehle J, Roth B, Metzger C, Pfitzner A, Enders G. Molecular characterization of an Enterovirus 71 causing neurological disease in Germany. J Neurovirol 2003; 9: 126–128. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  • 158. Christensen E, Nordbo AG. Enterovirus infections diagnosed in middle Norway during the period 1992–2001. Tidsskr NorLaegeform 2003; 123: 3180–3183. [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  • 159. Bernit E, de Lamballerie X, Zandotti C, et al Prospective investigation of a large outbreak of meningitis due to Echovirus 30 during summer 2000 in Marseilles, France. Medicine (Baltimore). 2004; 83: 245–253. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]

Articles from Cell Biochemistry and Function are provided here courtesy of Wiley

RESOURCES