Skip to main content
PMC home page
Wiley - PMC COVID-19 Collection logoLink to Wiley - PMC COVID-19 Collection
. 2008 Jul 31;14(1):71–88. doi: 10.1002/cplx.20246

Global biosecurity in a complex, dynamic world

Brenda A Wilson †
PMCID: PMC7162210  PMID: 32313416

Abstract

Biosecurity is emerging as a major global health priority for which innovative and unprecedented solutions are needed. Biosecurity is a challenging biocomplexity problem involving multifaceted processes such as interactions between humans and nonhuman biota, anthropogenic environmental and ecological factors, and socioeconomic and political pressures. Key to an effective biosecurity strategy will be fundamental understanding of evolutionary, anthropogenic and environmental driving forces at play in transmission and perpetuation of infectious diseases. Biosecurity solutions will depend on increased support of basic biomedical research and public education, enhanced healthcare preparedness, alternative strategies for ensuringsafety, and improved interagency cooperation regarding global health policy. © 2008 Wiley Periodicals, Inc. Complexity, 2008.

Keywords: biosecurity, emerging infectious diseases, global health, disease transmission, pathogen evolution

REFERENCES

  • 1.The Institute for Medicine of the National Academies, Report of the Committee on Emerging Microbial Threats to Health in the 21st Century on “Microbial threats to health: emergence, detection, and response”, http://books.nap.edu/openbook.php?isbn=030908864X. Accessed on 07/05/08.
  • 2. Lopez, A.D. ; Mathers, C.D. ; Ezzati, M. ; Jamison, D.T. ; Murray, C.J. Global and regional burden of disease and risk factors, 2001: Systematic analysis of population health data. Lancet 2006, 367, 1747–1757. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  • 3. Lopez, A.D. ; Mathers, C.D. Measuring the global burden of disease and epidemiological transitions: 2002–2030. Ann Trop Med Parasitol 2006, 100, 481–499. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  • 4. Minino, A.M. ; Heron, M.P. ; Smith, B.L. Deaths: Preliminary data for 2004. Natl Vital Stat Rep 2006, 54, 1–49. [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  • 5. Perez, D.R. ; Sorrell, E.M. ; Donis, R.O. Avian influenza: An omnipresent pandemic threat. Pediatr Infect Dis J 2005, 24, S208–S216; discussion S215. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  • 6. Altman, S. ; Bassler, B.L. ; Beckwith, J. ; Belfort, M. ; Berg, H.C. ; Bloom, B. ; Brenchley, J.E. ; Campbell, A. ; Collier, R.J. ; Connell, N. An open letter to Elias Zerhouni. Science 2005, 307, 1409–1410. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  • 7. Global Security Newswire , “Bioterror Threat Exaggerated, Scientist Says” Global Security Newswire, http://www.nti.org/d_newswire/issues/W_2008_5_23.html#8AE9E247. Accessed on 07/05/08.
  • 8.Nuclear Threat Initiative, World Wide Web URL: http://www.nti.org. Accessed on 07/05/08.
  • 9. Food and Drug Administration , http://www.cfsan.fda.gov/~dms/spinacqa.html. Accessed on 10/20/06.
  • 10. Robert E. Brackett. FDA's role in tracking and resolving the recent E. coli spinach outbreak. In: U.S. Senate Committee on Health, Education, Labor and Pensions; U.S. Senate, 2006. http://www.fda.gov/ola/2006/foodsafety1115.html. Accessed on 07/05/08.
  • 11. Hileman, B. Food safety system: Contaminated spinach prompts calls for major overhaul. C & EN News 2006, 84, 28–30. [Google Scholar]
  • 12. Balter, M. Emerging diseases. On the trail of Ebola and Marburg viruses. Science 2000, 290, 923–925. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  • 13. Westover, K.M. ;Hughes A.L. Molecular evolution of viral fusion and matrix protein genes and phylogenetic relationships among the Paramyxoviridae. Mol Phylogenet Evol 2001, 21, 128–134. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  • 14. Barrett, T. Morbillivirus infections, with special emphasis on morbilliviruses of carnivores. Vet Microbiol 1999, 69, 3–13. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  • 15. Manson, J.C. ; Cancellotti, E. ; Hart, P. ; Bishop, M.T. ; Barron, R.M. The transmissible spongiform encephalopathies: Emerging and declining epidemics. Biochem Soc Trans 2006, 34, 1155–1158. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  • 16. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention , http://www.cdc.gov/ncidod/dvrd/bse. Accessed on 07/05/08.
  • 17. Bradley, R. ; Collee, J.G. ; Liberski, P.P. Variant CJD (vCJD) and bovine spongiform encephalopathy (BSE): 10 and 20 years on: Part 1. Folia Neuropathol 2006, 44, 93–101. [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  • 18. Collee, J.G. ; Bradley, R. ; Liberski, P.P. Variant CJD (vCJD) and bovine spongiform encephalopathy (BSE): 10 and 20 years on: Part 2. Folia Neuropathol 2006, 44, 102–110. [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  • 19. Ricketts, M.N. Public health and the BSE epidemic. Curr Top Microbiol Immunol 2004, 284, 99–119. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  • 20. Prempeh, H. ; Smith, R. ; Muller, B. Foot and mouth disease: The human consequences. The health consequences are slight, the economic ones huge. BMJ 2001, 322, 565–566. [DOI] [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  • 21. Campbell, D. ;Lee R. Carnage by Computer: The blackboard economics of the 2001 foot and mouth epidemic. Soc Leg Stud 2003, 12, 425–459. [Google Scholar]
  • 22.Foot‐and‐Mouth Disease, http://www.foot-and-mouth-disease.com. Accessed on 07/05/08.
  • 23. World Health Organization , http://www.oie.int/eng/maladies/fiches/a_A010.htm. Accessed on 07/05/08.
  • 24. Blaustein, R.J. Kudzu's invasion into Southern United States life and culture In: The Great Reshuffling: Human Dimensions of Invasive Species, McNeeley J.A., Ed.; International Union for Conservation of Nature and Natural Resources; 2001. The World Conservation Union: 55–62. [Google Scholar]
  • 25. Hoots, D. ; Baldwin, J. Kudzu: The Vine to Love or Hate. Kodak, TN: Suntop Press, 1996. [Google Scholar]
  • 26. Miller, J.H. Controlling exotic plants in your forest. Forest Landowner 1999, 58, 60–64. [Google Scholar]
  • 27. Fenner, F. ; Fantini, B. Biological Control of Vertebrate Pests: The History of Myxomatosis, an Experiment in Evolution. Cambridge, U.K.: Oxford University Press; 1999. [Google Scholar]
  • 28. Hahn, B.H. ; Shaw, G.M. ; De Cock, K.M. ; Sharp, P.M. AIDS as a zoonosis: Scientific and public health implications. Science 2000, 287, 607–614. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  • 29. Rambaut, A. ; Posada, D. ; Crandall, K.A. ; Holmes, E.C. The causes and consequences of HIV evolution. Nat Rev Genet 2004, 5, 52–61. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  • 30. Hutchinson, J.F. The biology and evolution of HIV. Annu Rev Anthropol 2001, 30, 85–108. [Google Scholar]
  • 31. Gottlieb, S. AIDS deaths fall by nearly one half. BMJ 1998, 317, 1032. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  • 32. Anderson, R.N. ; Smith, B.L. Deaths: Leading causes for 2001. Natl Vital Stat Rep 2003, 52, 1–85. [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  • 33. O'Brien, T.R. ; Padian, N.S. ; Hodge, T. ; Goedert, J.J. ; O'Brien, S.J. ; Carrington, M. CCR‐5 genotype and sexual transmission of HIV‐1. AIDS 1998, 12, 444–445. [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  • 34. Samson, M. ; Libert, F. ; Doranz, B.J. ; Rucker, J. ; Liesnard, C. ; Farber, C.M. ; Saragosti, S. ; Lapoumeroulie, C. ; Cognaux, J. ; Forceille, C. Resistance to HIV‐1 infection in caucasian individuals bearing mutant alleles of the CCR‐5 chemokine receptor gene. Nature 1996, 382, 722–725. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  • 35. Stebbing, J. ; Hatzimichael, E. ; Bower, M. ; Winston, A. The rationale and development of new drugs to treat HIV infection. Med Chem 2005, 1, 635–642. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  • 36. Grundmann, H. ; Aires‐de‐Sousa, M. ; Boyce, J. ; Tiemersma, E. Emergence and resurgence of meticillin‐resistant Staphylococcus aureus as a public‐health threat. Lancet 2006, 368, 874–885. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  • 37. Wilson, B.A. Changing paradigms in combating antibiotic‐resistant bacteria. BIOforum Int 2002, 6, 312–314. [Google Scholar]
  • 38. Wilson, B.A. ; Salyers, A.A. Ecology and physiology of infectious bacteria–Implications for biotechnology. Curr Opin Biotechnol 2002, 13, 267–274. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  • 39. Teuber, M. Veterinary use and antibiotic resistance. Curr Opin Microbiol 2001, 4, 493–499. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  • 40. Shoemaker, N.B. ; Vlamakis, H. ; Hayes, K. ; Salyers, A.A. Evidence for extensive resistance gene transfer among Bacteroides spp. and among Bacteroides and other genera in the human colon. Appl Environ Microbiol 2001, 67, 561–568. [DOI] [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  • 41. Tomioka, H. Current status of some antituberculosis drugs and the development of new antituberculous agents with special reference to their in vitro and in vivo antimicrobial activities. Curr Pharm Des 2006, 12, 4047–4070. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  • 42. Toungoussova, O.S. ; Bjune, G. ; Caugant, D.A. Epidemic of tuberculosis in the former Soviet Union: Social and biological reasons. Tuberculosis (Edinb) 2006, 86, 1–10. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  • 43. Laughon, B.E. New tuberculosis drugs in development. Curr Top Med Chem 2007, 7, 463–473. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  • 44. Swanson, M.S. ; Hammer, B.K. Legionella pneumophila pathogesesis: A fateful journey from amoebae to macrophages. Annu Rev Microbiol 2000, 54, 567–613. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  • 45. Seenivasan, M.H. ; Yu, V.L. ; Muder, R.R. Legionnaires' disease in long‐term care facilities: Overview and proposed solutions. J Am Geriatr Soc 2005, 53, 875–880. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  • 46. CDC . Outbreaks of gastroenteritis associated with noroviruses on cruise ships – United States, 2002. Morbidity and Mortality Weekly Report 2002, 51, 1112–1115. [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  • 47. CDC . Norwalk‐like virus: Public health consequences and outbreak management. Morbidity and Mortality Weekly Report 2001, 50, RR‐9. [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  • 48. CDC . Norovirus outbreak among evacuees from hurricane Katrina – Houston, Texas, September 2005. Morbidity and Mortality Weekly Report 2005, 54, 1016–1018. [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  • 49. Staples, J.E. ; Kubota, K.A. ; Chalcraft, L.G. ; Mead, P.S. ; Petersen, J.M. Epidemiologic and molecular analysis of human tularemia, United States, 1964–2004. Emerg Infect Dis 2006, 12, 1113–1118. [DOI] [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  • 50. Feldman, K.A. ; Enscore, R.E. ; Lathrop, S.L. ; Matyas, B.T. ; McGuill, M. ; Schriefer, M.E. ; Stiles‐Enos, D. ; Dennis, D.T. ; Petersen, L.R. ; Hayes, E.B. An outbreak of primary pneumonic tularemia on Martha's Vineyard. N Engl J Med 2001, 345, 1601–1606. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  • 51. Frias‐Lopez, J. ; Bonheyo, G.T. ; Jin, Q. ; Fouke, B.W. Cyanobacteria associated with coral black band disease in Caribbean and Indo‐Pacific Reefs. Appl Environ Microbiol 2003, 69, 2409–2413. [DOI] [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  • 52. Frias‐Lopez, J. ; Zerkle, A.L. ; Bonheyo, G.T. ; Fouke, B.W. Partitioning of bacterial communities between seawater and healthy, black band diseased, and dead coral surfaces. Appl Environ Microbiol 2002, 68, 2214–2228. [DOI] [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  • 53. CDC : Multistate outbreak of monkeypox – Illinois, Indiana, and Wisconsin, 2003. Morbidity and Mortality Weekly Report 2003, 52, 537–540. [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  • 54. CDC . Update: Multistate outbreak of monkeypox – Illinois, Indiana, Kansas, Missouri, Ohio, and Wisconsin, 2003. Morbidity and Mortality Weekly Report 2003, 52, 561–564, 642–646. [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  • 55. Reed, K.D. ; Melski, J.W. ; Graham, M.B. ; Regnery, R.L. ; Sotir, M.J. ; Wegner, M.V. ; Kazmierczak, J.J. ; Stratman, E.J. ; Li, Y. ; Fairley, J.A. The detection of monkeypox in humans in the Western Hemisphere. N Engl J Med 2004, 350, 342–350. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  • 56. Guarner, J. ; Johnson, B.J. ; Paddock, C.D. ; Shieh, W.J. ; Goldsmith, C.S. ; Reynolds, M.G. ; Damon, I.K. ; Regnery, R.L. ; Zaki, S.R. Monkeypox transmission and pathogenesis in prairie dogs. Emerg Infect Dis 2004, 10, 426–431. [DOI] [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  • 57. Heymann, D.L. ; Szczeniowski, M. ; Esteves, K. Re‐emergence of monkeypox in Africa: A review of the past six years. Br Med Bull 1998, 54, 693–702. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  • 58. Hutin, Y.J. ; Williams, R.J. ; Malfait, P. ; Pebody, R. ; Loparev, V.N. ; Ropp, S.L. ; Rodriguez, M. ; Knight, J.C. ; Tshioko, F.K. ; Khan, A.S. Outbreak of human monkeypox, Democratic Republic of Congo, 1996 to 1997. Emerg Infect Dis 2001, 7, 434–438. [DOI] [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  • 59. CDC . Monkeypox Factsheet – Embargoed African rodents and monkeypox virus available at http://www.cdc.gov/ncidod/monkeypox/. Accessed on 07/05/08.
  • 60. Sack, D.A. ; Sack, R.B. ; Nair, G.B. ; Siddique, A.K. Cholera Lancet 2004, 363, 223–233. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  • 61. Tickner, J. ; Gouveia‐Vigeant, T. The 1991 cholera epidemic in Peru: Not a case of precaution gone awry. Risk Anal 2005, 25, 495–502. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  • 62. Griffith, D.C. ; Kelly‐Hope, L.A. ; Miller, M.A. Review of reported cholera outbreaks worldwide, 1995–2005. Am J Trop Med Hyg 2006, 75, 973–977. [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  • 63. Sack, D.A. ; Sack, R.B. ; Chaignat, C.L. Getting serious about cholera. N Engl J Med 2006, 355, 649–651. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  • 64. Faruque, S.M. ; Sack, D.A. ; Sack, R.B. ; Colwell, R.R. ; Takeda, Y. ;Nair G.B. Emergence and evolution of Vibrio cholerae O139. Proc Natl Acad Sci USA 2003, 100, 1304–1309. [DOI] [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  • 65. Faruque, S.M. ; Naser, I.B. ; Islam, M.J. ; Faruque, A.S. ; Ghosh, A.N. ; Nair, G.B. ; Sack, D.A. ; Mekalanos, J.J. Seasonal epidemics of cholera inversely correlate with the prevalence of environmental cholera phages. Proc Natl Acad Sci USA 2005, 102, 1702–1707. [DOI] [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  • 66. Huq, A. ; Sack, R.B. ; Nizam, A. ; Longini, I.M. ; Nair, G.B. ; Ali, A. ; Morris, J.G.,Jr. ; Khan, M.N. ; Siddique, A.K. ; Yunus, M. Critical factors influencing the occurrence of Vibrio cholerae in the environment of Bangladesh. Appl Environ Microbiol 2005, 71, 4645–4654. [DOI] [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  • 67. Pascual, M. ; Bouma, M.J. ; Dobson, A.P. Cholera and climate: Revisiting the quantitative evidence. Microbes Infect 2002, 4, 237–245. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  • 68. Faruque, S.M. ; Islam, M.J. ; Ahmad, Q.S. ; Faruque, A.S. ; Sack, D.A. ; Nair, G.B. ; Mekalanos, J.J. Self‐limiting nature of seasonal cholera epidemics: Role of host‐mediated amplification of phage. Proc Natl Acad Sci USA 2005, 102, 6119–6124. [DOI] [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  • 69. Merrell, D.S. ; Butler, S.M. ; Qadri, F. ; Dolganov, N.A. ; Alam, A. ; Cohen, M.B. ; Calderwood, S.B. ; Schoolnik, G.K. ; Camilli, A. Host‐induced epidemic spread of the cholera bacterium. Nature 2002, 417, 642–645. [DOI] [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  • 70. Tsai, T.F. ; Popovici, F. ; Cernescu, C. ; Campbell, G.L. ; Nedelcu, N.I. West Nile encephalitis epidemic in southeastern Romania. Lancet 1998, 352, 767–771. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  • 71. U.S. Geological Survey , http://diseasemaps.usgs.gov/wnv_us_human.html. Accessed on 07/05/08.
  • 72. Lanciotti, R.S. ; Roehrig, J.T. ; Deubel, V. ; Smith, J. ; Parker, M. ; Steele, K. ; Crise, B. ; Volpe, K.E. ; Crabtree, M.B. ; Scherret, J.H. Origin of the West Nile virus responsible for an outbreak of encephalitis in the northeastern United States. Science 1999, 286, 2333–2337. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  • 73. CDC . Outbreak of acute illness – Southwestern United States, 1993. Morbidity and Mortality Weekly Report 1993, 42, 421–424. [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  • 74. CDC . Update: Hantavirus Disease – United States, 1993. Morbidity and Mortality Weekly Report 1993, 42, 612–614. [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  • 75. Chapman, L.E. ; Khabbaz, R.F. Etiology and epidemiology of the four corners hantavirus outbreak. Infect Agents Dis 1994, 3, 234–244. [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  • 76. Bremner, J.A. Hantavirus infections and outbreaks in 1993. Commun Dis Rep CDR Rev 1994, 4, R5–R9. [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  • 77. Williams, E.S. Chronic wasting disease. Vet Pathol 2005, 42, 530–549. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  • 78. Hamir, A.N. ; Kunkle, R.A. ; Cutlip, R.C. ; Miller, J.M. ; O'Rourke, K.I. ; Williams, E.S. ; Miller, M.W. ; Stack, M.J. ; Chaplin, M.J. ; Richt, J.A. Experimental transmission of chronic wasting disease agent from mule deer to cattle by the intracerebral route. J Vet Diagn Invest 2005, 17, 276–281. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  • 79. Moore, R.A. ; Vorberg, I. ; Priola, S.A. Species barriers in prion diseases–brief review. Arch Virol Suppl 2005, 19, 187–202. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  • 80. Belshe, R.B. The origins of pandemic influenza–lessons from the 1918 virus. N Engl J Med 2005, 353, 2209–2211. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  • 81. Beigel, J.H. ; Farrar, J. ; Han, A.M. ; Hayden, F.G. ; Hyer, R. ; de Jong, M.D. ; Lochindarat, S. ; Nguyen, T.K. ; Nguyen, T.H. ; Tran, T.H. Avian influenza A (H5N1) infection in humans. N Engl J Med 2005, 353, 1374–1385. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  • 82. Ungchusak, K. ; Auewarakul, P. ; Dowell, S.F. ; Kitphati, R. ; Auwanit, W. ; Puthavathana, P. ; Uiprasertkul, M. ; Boonnak, K. ; Pittayawonganon, C. ; Cox, N.J. Probable person‐to‐person transmission of avian influenza A (H5N1). N Engl J Med 2005, 352, 333–340. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  • 83. Brankston, G. ; Gitterman, L. ; Hirji, Z. ; Lemieux, C. ; Gardam, M. Transmission of influenza A in human beings. Lancet Infect Dis 2007, 7, 257–265. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  • 84. Shoham, D. Review: Molecular evolution and the feasibility of an avian influenza virus becoming a pandemic strain – A conceptual shift. Virus Genes 2006, 33, 127–132. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  • 85. Cinti, S. Pandemic influenza: are we ready? Disaster Manag Response 2005, 3, 61–67. [DOI] [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  • 86.U.S. National Research Council and the Institute for Medicine of the National Academies, Report of the Committee on Advances in Technology and the Prevention of their Application to Next Generation Biowarfare Threats on “Globalization, Biosecurity, and the Future of the Life Sciences”, http://books.nap.edu/catalog.php?record_id=11567. Accessed on 07/05/2008.
  • 87. U.S. Department of Health and Human Services, National Institutes of Health , http://www.nih.gov/news/fundingresearchareas.htm. 2007. Accessed on 07/05/08.
  • 88. World Health Organization , Global Outbreak Alert and Response Network (GOARN), http://www.who.int/csr/sars/goarn/en/. Accessed on 07/05/08.
  • 89. World Health Organization , Global Early Warning System for Major Animal Diseases, including Zoonosis (GLEWS), http://www.who.int/zoonoses/outbreaks/en/. Accessed on 07/05/08.
  • 90. World Health Organization , International Health Regulations ( 2005), http://www.who.int/csr/ihr/en/. Accessed on 07/05/08.
  • 91. Potter, A.A. ; Klashinsky, S. ; Li, Y. ; Frey, E. ; Townsend, H. ; Rogan, D. ; Erickson, G. ; Hinkley, S. ; Klopfenstein, T. ; Moxley, R.A. Decreased shedding of Escherichia coli O157:H7 by cattle following vaccination with type III secreted proteins. Vaccine 2004, 22, 362–369. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  • 92. Colwell, R.R. ; Huq, A. ; Islam, M.S. ; Aziz, K.M. ; Yunus, M. ; Khan, N.H. ; Mahmud, A. ; Sack, R.B. ; Nair, G.B. ; Chakraborty, J. Reduction of cholera in Bangladeshi villages by simple filtration. Proc Natl Acad Sci USA 2003, 100, 1051–1055. [DOI] [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  • 93. CDC . Evolution of HIV/AIDS prevention programs – United States, 1981–2006. Morbidity and Mortality Weekly Report 2006, 55, 597–603. [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  • 94. CDC . Trends in HIV/AIDS diagnoses–33 states, 2001–2004. Morbidity and Mortality Weekly Report 2005, 54, 1149–1153. [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  • 95. CDC . Racial/ethnic disparities in diagnoses of HIV/AIDS–33 states, 2001–2004. Morbidity and Mortality Weekly Report 2006, 55, 121–125. [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  • 96. CDC . HIV prevalence, unrecognized infectin, and HIV testing among men who have sex with men – five US cities, June 2004–April 2005. Morbidity and Mortality Weekly Report 2005, 54, 597–601. [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  • 97. Bartlett, J.A. ; Fath, M.J. ; Demasi, R. ; Hermes, A. ; Quinn, J. ; Mondou, E. ;Rousseau F. An updated systematic overview of triple combination therapy in antiretroviral‐naive HIV‐infected adults. AIDS 2006, 20, 2051–2064. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  • 98. Ducati, R.G. ; Ruffino‐Netto, A. ; Basso, L.A. ; Santos, D.S. The resumption of consumption – A review on tuberculosis. Mem Inst Oswaldo Cruz 2006, 101, 697–714. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  • 99. Volmink, J ; Garner, P. Interventions for promoting adherence to tuberculosis management. Cochrane Database Syst Rev 2000, CD000010. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  • 100. Gorman, C. Staying healthy. Playing chicken with our antibiotics. Overtreatment is creating dangerously resistent germs. Time 2002, 159, 98–101. [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  • 101. Enserink, M. Bioterrorism. Researchers question obsession with Cipro. Science 2001, 294, 759–761. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  • 102. CDC . FoodNet, Foodborne Diseases Active Surveillance Network, http://www.cdc.gov/foodnet/. Accessed on 07/05/08.
  • 103. Korczynski, M.S. The integration of process analytical technologies, concurrent validation, and parametric release programs in aseptic processing: Parenteral Drug Association. PDA J Pharm Sci Technol 2004, 58, 181–191. [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  • 104. Kvenberg, J.E. ; Schwalm, D.J. Use of microbial data for hazard analysis and critical control point verification–Food and Drug Administration perspective. J Food Prot 2000, 63, 810–814. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  • 105. Food Emergency Response Network – FERN Cooperative Agreement , http://www.fsis.usda.gov/About_FSIS/Cooperative_Agreements_FERN_2005/index.asp. Accessed on 07/05/08.
  • 106.U.S. Food and Drug Administration Center for Food Safety and Applied Nutrition, CARVER + Shock Software Tool for Food Defense and Terrorism, http://www.fda.gov/consumer/updates/carvershock061107.html. Accessed on 07/05/2008.
  • 107. Osterholm, M.T. ; Norgan, A.P. The role of irradiation in food safety. N Engl J Med 2004, 350, 1898–1901. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  • 108. Thayer, D.W. Irradiation of food–helping to ensure food safety. N Engl J Med 2004, 350, 1811–1812. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  • 109. Parnes, R.B. ; Lichtenstein, A.H. Food irradiation: A safe and useful technology. Nutr Clin Care 2004, 7, 149–155. [PubMed] [Google Scholar]

Articles from Complexity are provided here courtesy of Wiley

RESOURCES