Skip to main content
NCBI home page
Wiley - PMC COVID-19 Collection logoLink to Wiley - PMC COVID-19 Collection
. 2008 Feb 8;11(2):117–131. doi: 10.1162/jie.2007.1200

The Direct Material Inputs into Singapore's Development

Niels B Schulz †,✉
PMCID: PMC7166639  PMID: 32336907

Abstract

Because human population and socioeconomic activity are both increasingly concentrated in cities, an improved understanding of the environmental consequences of urbanization is needed. A 41‐year annual time series of direct material flows was compiled for Singapore, representing a case of fast, export‐driven industrialization. Results show that the spectacular economic growth of Singapore by a factor of 20 was associated with a similar expansion of domestic material consumption (DMC). DMC remained closely coupled to economic activity, increasing from below 4 tonnes per capita annually in 1962 to more than 50 tonnes annually in 2000. Despite economic structural changes and a growing service sector, no significant improvements in overall material productivity have been observed.

Keywords: domestic material consumption (DMC), globalization, industrial ecology, materials flow analysis (MFA), trade, urbanization

Reference

  1. Adriaanse, A. , Bringezu S., Jammond A., Moriguchi Y., Rogich D., and Schutz H. 1997. Resource flows: The material basis of industrial economies. Washing ton , DC : World Resource Institute. [Google Scholar]
  2. Ahmed, N. and Wykhoff A. 2003. Carbon diox ide emissions embodied in international trade of goods Directorate for Science, Technology and Industry Working Paper 2003/15. Paris : OECD; http://www.oecd.org/sti/working-papers. Ac cessed June 2005 [Google Scholar]
  3. Baccini, P. and Brunner P. H. 1991. The metabolism of the anthroposphere. Berlin : Springer‐Verlag. [Google Scholar]
  4. Bai, R. and Sutanto M. 2002. The practice and chal lenges of solid waste management in Singapore. Waste Management 22(5): 557–567. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  5. Bai, X. 2002. Industrial relocation in Asia: A sound en vironmental management strategy Environment 44(5): 8–19. [Google Scholar]
  6. Beaverstock, J. V. , Smith R. G., and Taylor P. J. 1999. A roster of world cities. Cities 16(6): 445–458. [Google Scholar]
  7. Berkhout, F. and Hertin J. 2004. De‐materializing and re‐materializing: Digital technologies and the en vironment. Futures 36: 903–920. [Google Scholar]
  8. Best Foot Forward Ltd. 2002. City limits—‐A re source flow and ecological footprint analysis of Greater London. Oxford , UK : Best Foot Forward; http://www.citylimitslondon.com. Ac cessed June 2005 [Google Scholar]
  9. Binswanger, M. 2001. Technological progress and sustainable development: What about the rebound effect Ecological Economics 36(1): 119–132. [Google Scholar]
  10. Bolund, P. and Hunhammar S. 1999. Ecosystem ser vices in urban areas. Ecological Economics 29(2): 293–301. [Google Scholar]
  11. Boydon, S. , Millar S., Newcombe K., and O'Neill B. 1981. The ecology of a city and its people, the case study of Hong Kong. Canberra : Australian National University Press. [Google Scholar]
  12. Castells, M. 1996. The rise of the network society. Oxford , UK : Blackwell. [Google Scholar]
  13. Daniels, P. L. 2002. Approaches for quantifying the metabolism of physical economies: A comparative survey. Journal of Industrial Ecology 6(1): 65–88. [Google Scholar]
  14. Decker, E. H. , Elliott S., Smith F. A., Blake D. R., and Rowland F. S. 2000. Energy and material flow through the urban ecosystem. Annual Review of Energy and the Environment 25(1): 685–740. [Google Scholar]
  15. Dhakal, S. 2004. Urban energy use and greenhouse gas emissions in Asian mega‐cities. Kitakyushu , Japan : Institute for Global Environmental Strategies (IGES). [Google Scholar]
  16. Douglas, I. 1983. The urban environment. London : Edward Arnold. [Google Scholar]
  17. Douglas, I. , Hodgson R., and Lawson N. 2002. Indus try, environment and health through 200 years in Manchester. Ecological Economics 41(2): 235–255. [Google Scholar]
  18. European Environmental Agency . 2003. Europe's env ronment: The third assessment. Environmental assessment Report 10. Copenhagen : EEA. [Google Scholar]
  19. Eurostat. 2001. Economy‐wide material flow accounts and derived indicators. A methodological guide. Luxem bourg : European Community. [Google Scholar]
  20. Eurostat. 2002. Material use in the European Union 1980–2000: Indicators and analysis Eurostat working paper series. Theme 2: Economy and finance. 2002 edition Luxembourg : European Community. [Google Scholar]
  21. Folke, C. , Jansson Å., Larsson J., and Costanza R. 1997. Ecosystem appropriation by cities. Ambio 26(3): 167–172. [Google Scholar]
  22. GGDCCB (Groningen Growth and Development Centre and the Conference Board) . 2005. Total economy database. Groningen : Growth and De‐velopment Centre and the Conference Board; http://www.ggdc.net. Accessed January 2005 [Google Scholar]
  23. Giljum, S. 2004. Trade, materials flows, and economic development in the South. Journal of Industrial Ecology 8(1–2): 241–261. [Google Scholar]
  24. Goree, M. , Kleijn R., and van der Voet E. 2000. Materiaalstromen door Amsterdam [Material flows through Amsterdam]. Amsterdam : Milieudienst Amsterdam, Dossiernr. [Google Scholar]
  25. Gravgard Pedersen, O. and De Haan M. 2006. The sys tem of environmental and economic accounts—‐2003 and the economic relevance of physical flow account . Journal of Industrial Ecology 10(1–2): 19–42. [Google Scholar]
  26. Hashimoto, S. and Moriguchi Y. 2004. Proposal of six indicators of material cycles for describing so ciety's metabolism: From viewpoint of material flow analysis. Resources Conservation and Recycling 40(3): 185–200. [Google Scholar]
  27. Huang, S.‐L. and Chen C.‐W. 2005. Theory of ur ban energetics and mechanisms of urban devel opment. Ecological Modelling 189(1–2): 49–71. [Google Scholar]
  28. Huff, W. G. 1995. The developmental state, govern ment, and Singapore's economic development since 1960. World Development. 23(8): 1421–1438. [Google Scholar]
  29. Hui, J. 1995. Environmental policy and green planning In Environment and the city—‐Sharing Singapore's experience and future challenges, edited by Ling O. G. Singapore : Times Academic Press. [Google Scholar]
  30. Kleijn, R. 2001a. Adding it all up. The sense and non sense of bulk MFA. Journal of Industrial Ecology 4(2): 7–8. [Google Scholar]
  31. Kleijn, R. 2001b. The trivial central paradigm of MFA Journal of Industrial Ecology 3(2–3): 8–10. [Google Scholar]
  32. Kog, Y. C. 2006. Environmental management and con flict zin Southeast Asia—‐Land reclamation and its political impact Institute of Defense and Strate gic Studies working paper series 101. Singapore : Nanyang Technological University. [Google Scholar]
  33. Krugman, P. 1994. The myth of Asia's miracle. Foreign Affairs 73(6): 62–78. [Google Scholar]
  34. Lange, G. M. 2003. Policy applications of environmental accounting. Environmental economic series 88. Washington , DC : The World Bank. [Google Scholar]
  35. Liu, J. J. , Wang R., and Yang J. 2005. Metabolism and driving forces of Chinese urban household consumption. Population and Environment 26(4): 325–341. [Google Scholar]
  36. Marcotullio, P. J. , Williams E., and Marshall J. D. 2005. Faster, sooner, and more simultaneously: How re cent road and air transportation CO2 emission trends in developing countries differ from historic trends in the United States. The Journal of Envi ronment Development 14(1): 125–148. [Google Scholar]
  37. Matthews, E. , Amann C., Bringezu S., Fischer‐Kowalski M., Huttler W., Kleijn R., Moriguchi Y., Ottke C., Rodenburg E., Rogich D., Schandl H., Schutz H., van der Voet E., and Weisz H. 2000. The weight of nations: Material outflows from industrial economies. Washington , DC : World Resource Institute. [Google Scholar]
  38. McGranahan, G. and Satterthwaite D. 2003. Urban centers: An assessment of sustainability. Annual Review of Environment and Resources 28: 243–274. [Google Scholar]
  39. McGranahan, G. , Marcotullio P., Bai X., Balk D., Braga T., Douglas I., Elmqvist T., Rees W., Sat terthwaite D., Songsore J., Zlotnik H., Eades J., and Ezcurra E. 2006. Urban systems In Ecosystems and human well‐being: Current state and trends, Volume 1, Washington , DC : Island Press. [Google Scholar]
  40. Moriguchi, Y. 2003. Material flow data book—‐World re source flows around Japan. Tsukuba , Japan : Center for Global Environmental Research (CGER). [Google Scholar]
  41. Munasinghe, M. and Shearer W. 1995. Defining and measuring sustainability—‐The biogeophysical foundations. Washington , DC : The World Bank/Tokyo: UNU. [Google Scholar]
  42. Munksgaard, J. , Wier M., Lenzen M., and Dey C. 2005. Using input‐output analysis to measure the envi ronmental pressure of consumption at different spatial levels. Journal of Industrial Ecology 9(1–2): 169–185. [Google Scholar]
  43. Newcombe, K. , Kalma J. D., and Aston A. R. 1978. The metabolism of a city: The case of Hong Kong. Ambio 7(1): 1–15. [Google Scholar]
  44. Odum, E. P. 1971. Fundamentals of ecology. Philadel phia : Saunders. [Google Scholar]
  45. OECD (Organisation for Economic Cooperation and Development) . 2001. OECD environmental indicators 2001 towards sustainable development. Paris : OECD. [Google Scholar]
  46. OECD/IEA (Organisation for Economic Cooperation and Development/International Energy Agency). Various years Energy balances of non‐OECD coun tries. Paris : IEA Publications. [Google Scholar]
  47. O'Rourke, D. and S. Connolly . 2003. Just oil? The distribution of environmental and social impacts of oil production and consumption. Annual Review of Environment and Resources 28: 587–617. [Google Scholar]
  48. Peebles, G. and Wilson P. 2002. Economic growth and development in Singapore, past and future. Chel tenham , UK : Edward Elgar. [Google Scholar]
  49. Ramos‐Martin, J. , Giampietro M., and Mayumi K. Forthcoming. On China's exosomatic energy metabolism: An application of multi‐scale integrated analysis of societal metabolism (MSIASM). Ecological Economics .
  50. Rock, M. T. 2002. Pollution control in East Asia: Lessons from newly industrializing economies. Washington , DC : Resources for the Future. [Google Scholar]
  51. Rothman, D. S. 1998. Environmental Kuznets curves—‐Real progress or passing the buck? A case for con sumption based approaches. Ecological Economics 25(2): 177–194. [Google Scholar]
  52. Schandl, H. and Schulz N. B. 2002. Changes in United Kingdom's natural relations in terms of society's metabolism and land use from 1850 to the present day. Ecological Economics 41(2): 203–221. [Google Scholar]
  53. Schulz, N. 2005. Contributions of material and energy flow accounting to urban ecosystem analysis: Case study Singapore United Nations University, Institute of Advanced Studies working paper 136. Yoko hama : UNU; http://www.ias.unu.edu/publications/iaswp.cfm. Accessed March 2006 [Google Scholar]
  54. Smith, K. R. and Ezzati M. 2005. How environmental health risks change with development: The epidemiological risk transition revisited. Annual Review of Environment and Resources 30: 291–333. [Google Scholar]
  55. Stern, D. 2004. The rise and fall of the environmental Kuznets curve. World Development 32(8): 1419–1439. [Google Scholar]
  56. Suh, S. , Lenzen M., Treloar G. J., Hondo H., Hor‐vath A., Huppes G., Jolliet O., Klann U., Kre‐witt W., Moriguchi Y., Munksgaard J., and Norris G. 2004. System boundary selection in life‐cycle in ventories using hybrid approaches. Environmental Science and Technology 38(3): 657–664. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  57. Tarr, J. R. and Ayres R. U. 1990. The Hudson‐Raritan Basin In The Earth as transformed by human ac tion, edited by Turner B. L. et al. Cambridge , UK : Cambridge University Press. [Google Scholar]
  58. Tukker, A. , Cohen M. J., de Zoysa U., Hertwich E., Hofstetter P., Inaba A., Lorek S., and Sto E. 2006. The Oslo declaration of sustainable consumption. Journal of Industrial Ecology 10(1–2): 9–14. [Google Scholar]
  59. UNDESA (United Nations Department of Eco nomic and Social Affairs) . 2002. World population prospects: The 2001 revision, data tables and highlights. UNDESA publication sales no. (ESA/P/WP.173). New York : UN. [Google Scholar]
  60. UNDESA . 2003. Integrated environmental and economic accounting 2003, studies in methods Handbook of National Accounting, draft, circulated for information. Publication sales no. (ST/ESA/ STAT/SER.F/61/REV.1). New York : UN; http://unstats.un.org/unsd/envAccounting/ seea2003.pdf. Accessed June 2005 [Google Scholar]
  61. Wackernagel, M. and Rees W. 1995. Our ecologi‐cal footprint: Reducing human impact on the Earth. Gabriola Island , BC : New Society Publishers. [Google Scholar]
  62. Weber, A. F. 1969. The growth of cities in the nineteenth century: A study in statistics. New York : Cornell University Press. [Google Scholar]
  63. Williams, E. , Ayres R. U., and Heller M. 2002. The 1.7 kilogram microchip: Energy and material use in the production of semiconductor devices. En vironmental Science and Technology 36(24): 5504–5510. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  64. Wolman, A. 1965. The metabolism of cities. Scientific American 213(3): 179–190. [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  65. Wong, T. C. and Yap A. L.‐H. 2004. Four decades of transformation, land use in Singapore 1960–2000. Singapore : Marshall Cavendish. [Google Scholar]
  66. Intl. World Bank . 1992. World Development Report 1992—‐Development and the environment. Oxford , UK : Oxford University Press. [Google Scholar]
  67. Young, A. 1995. The tyranny of numbers: Confronting the statistical realities of the East Asian growth experience. The Quarterly Journal of Economics 110(3): 641–680. [Google Scholar]

Articles from Journal of Industrial Ecology are provided here courtesy of Wiley

RESOURCES