Virion
| Morphology: | Spherical |
| Envelope: | Yes |
| Diameter (nm): | 120–160 |
| Length (nm): | |
| Structural components: | Core, capsid, envelope |
| Buoyant density (g/mL): | 1.23–1.24 |
| Buoyant density method: | CsCl |
| Lipid composition: | Envelope lipids are derived from cytoplasma membrane of host cell |
| Additional information: | Surface projections made by the spike (S) protein |
Alphacoronavirus-1 (TGEV). Fig. 1.
Transmission electron micrograph, negative staining of purified virus. Length of bar (nm): 100(Courtesy of Dr. A. Lavazza, Istituto Zooprofilattico di Lombardia ed Emilia Romagna, Italy)
Alpha-, Beta-, and Gamma coronavirus replication cycle. Fig. 2.
HE protein is present only in some Betacoronaviruses (Courtesy of Dr Viviana Tarallo, Department of Veterinary Public Health, Valenzano, Italy)
Genome organization of Alpha-, Beta-, and Gammacoronavirus prototypes (A) and transcription map of Murine coronavirus MHV (B). Fig. 3.
Numbers above bars ORFs, L leader, UTR untranslated region, Rep = replicase; (A)n poly A (Modified from Springer Index of Viruses, 1st edn. with permission)
Genome
| Nucleic acid: | RNA | |
| Strandedness: | ||
| Polarity: | ||
| Configuration: | ||
| Segment organization: | Segment no. 1 (kb): | 27.1–29.4 |
| One segment(s): | 27.1–29.4 (kb) total (calculated) | |
| G + C content (%): | 37.6–41.8 | |
| mRNA transcripts: | 7–10 | |
| Open reading frames: | 7–10 | |
| Additional information: | The genome contains a leader at the 5' end and a poly(A) tail; genes are arranged in the order 5'-replicase-S-E-M-N-3', with a variable number of other genes that are believed to be non-structural | |
Replication
| Entry mechanism: | Receptor-mediated endocytosis |
| Site of transcription: | Cytoplasm |
| Transcriptase: | Virus-encoded RNA-dependent RNA polymerase |
| Site of genome replication: | Cytoplasm |
| Replicase: | Virus-encoded RNA-dependent RNA polymerase |
| Replication intermediate: | Negative-strand RNA intermediate |
| Site of virion assembly: | Cytoplasm, the intermediate compartment |
| Egress mechanism: | Budding through the pre-Golgi and Golgi to the apical surfaces (TGEV) |
| Additional information: | Only the membrane (M) and envelope (E) proteins are required for the production of virus-like particles (VLPs) |
History
| Year of event | Event | References |
|---|---|---|
| 1946 | Transmissible gastroenteritis virus (TGEV) associated with enteritis in swine | Doyle and Hutchings (1946) |
| 1965 | Coronaviruses associated with common colds in humans | Tyrrell and Bynoe (1965) |
| 1975 | Radiolabeling (TGEV) clarifies fundamental coronavirus protein composition (S, N, M proteins) | Garwes and Pocock (1975) |
| 1975 | ICTV approves Coronaviridae family with one genus, Coronavirus | Tyrrell et al (1975) |
| 1980 | Demonstration that antibodies to feline enteric coronavirus enhance feline infectious peritonitis | Pedersen and Boyle (1980) |
| 1989 | Alternative model for transcription (TGEV): discontinuous transcription during negative strand synthesis | Sethna et al (1989) |
| 1982 | Amino peptidase N receptor for TGEV and HCoV-229E | Delmas et al (1992) |
| 1996 | ICTV recognises Coronaviridae as containing 2 genera: Coronavirus and Torovirus | Cavanagh et al (1997) |
| 1996 | ICTV recognises the order Nidovirales containing families Coronaviridae and Arteriviridae | Cavanagh et al (1997) |
| 1999 | Recombinant TGEV shows that S protein determines enteropathogenicity and virulence | Sanchez et al (1999) |
| 2000 | Engineering the largest RNA virus genome (TGEV) as an infectious bacterial artificial chromosome | Almazan et al (2000) |
| 2001 | Full-length c-DNA of HCoV-229E amplified in a vaccinia virus eukaryotic vector | Thiel et al (2001) |
| 2002 | First crystal structure of a coronaviral (TGEV) protein (main protease) | Anand et al (2002) |
| 2002 | Human coronavirus NL63 isolated in the Netherlands | van der Hoek et al (2004) |
| 2005 | Design of wide-spectrum inhibitors of coronavirus main protease | Yang et al (2005) |
| 2008 | CCoV recognised as most likely ancestor of TGEV | Lorusso et al (2008) |
| 2009 | ICTV recognises the family Coronaviridae as containing two subfamilies, Coronavirinae and Torovirinae, with the former including three genera | Carstens (2010) |
| 2009 | According to the new taxonomy, genus Coronavirus is replaced by genera Alpha-, Beta- and Gammacoronavirus, corresponding to the old antigenic groups | Carstens (2010) |
| 2009 | TGEV, CCoV, FCoV and related viruses are recognised as host variants of a unique species, Alphacoronavirus-1, prototype of the genus Alphacoronavirus | Carstens (2010) |
Genus Members
| Species name | Synonyms | Wild-type strains/isolates | Natural host range | Experimental host range | Membership status |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Alphacoronavirus-1 | Transmissible gastroenteritis virus/Porcine respiratory (TGEV/PRCoV); Canine coronavirus type I/type II (CCoV-I/CCoV-II); Feline coronavirus type I/type II (FCoV-I/FCoV-II); Flying squirrel coronavirus (FSCoV); Chinese bamboo rat coronavirus (CBRCoV); Lesser Indian civet coronavirus (LICCoV); Masked palm civet coronavirus (MPCCoV); Siberian weasel coronavirus (SWCoV); Yellow-bellied weasel coronavirus (YBWCoV); Raccoon dog coronavirus (RDCoV); Chinese ferret badger coronavirus DM95/2003 (CFBCoV-DM95/2003); Spotted hyena coronavirus | TGEV:Purdue, Miller; CCoV-I:Elmo/02; CCoV-II:I-71, CB/05, 341/05; FCoV-I:TN-446; FCoV-II: 79-1146 | Swine (TGEV); dogs (CCoV); cats (FCoV); carnivores | Type species | |
| Human coronavirus 229E (HCoV-229E) | VR- 740 | Humans | Approved member | ||
| Human coronavirus NL63 (HCoV-NL63) | SWE 10614/2004; Amsterdam 057; KR05-28; GRE 109/03 | Humans | Approved member | ||
| Miniopterus bat coronavirus 1 (Mi-BatCoV-1) | 61 | Bats (Miniopterus spp.) | Approved member | ||
| Miniopterus bat coronavirus HKU8 (Mi-BatCoV-HKU8) | AFCD77 | Bats (Miniopterus spp.) | Approved member | ||
| Porcine epidemic diarrea virus (PEDV) | CV777 | Swine (Sus scrofa) | approved member | ||
| Rhinolophus bat coronavirus HKU2 (Rh-BatCoV-HKU2) | GD/430/2006 | Bats | app`roved member | ||
| Scotophilus bat coronavirus 512 (Sc-BatCoV-512) | BtCoV/512/2005 | Bats (Scotophilus spp.) | Approved member | ||
| Ferret coronavirus (FrCoV) | Ferret enteric coronavirus; Ferret systemic coronavirus (FrECoV; FrSCoV) | enteric strain MSU-2; systemic strain MSU-1 | Ferrets (Mustela putorius furo) | Tentative member | |
| Harbor seal coronavirus 1 | HS1 | Pacific harbor seals (Phoca vitulina richardsii) | Tentative member | ||
| Mink coronavirus (MiCoV) | WD1127 | Mink (Mustela vison) | Tentative member |
Nucleotide Sequences
| Genomic region | Species | Strain | Nucleotides | Access number | References |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Complete genome | Alphacoronavirus-1 (TGEV) | Purdue-Madrid | 28,580 | AJ271965 | Almazan et al (2000) |
| Complete genome | HCoV-229E | 20,580 | AF304460 | Thiel et al (2001) | |
| Complete genome | HCoV-NL63 | Amsterdam 057 | 27,550 | DQ445911 | Pyrc et al (2006) |
| Complete genome | Sc-BatCoV-512 | BtCoV/512/2005 | 28,203 | NC_009657 | Tang et al (2006) |
| Complete genome | PEDV | LZC | 28,042 | EF185992 | Cheng et al (2007), direct submission |
| Complete genome | Mi-BatCoV-HKU8 | AFCD77 | 28,773 | EU420139 | Chu et al (2008) |
| Complete genome | Alphacoronavirus-1 (FCoV-I) | FCoV-I Black | 29,256 | EU186072 | Tekes et al (2008) |
| Complete genome | Alphacoronavirus-1 (FCoV-II) | FCoV-II DF-2 | 28,632 | DQ286389 | Taboni et al (2007), direct submission |
| Complete genome | Alphacoronavirus-1 (CCoV-II) | CCoVII NTU336/F/2008 | 29,363 | GQ477367 | Chuang et al (2008), direct submission |
| genomic 3' end | Alphacoronavirus-1 (CCoV-II) | CCoV-II CB/05 | 8,745 | DQ112226 | Buonavoglia et al (2006) |
| Replicase (partial) | Mi-BatCoV-1 | 61 | 591 | AY864198 | Poon et al (2005) |
| Replicase (partial) | Alphacoronavirus-1 (CBRCoV) | Guangxi/B305/2005 | 275 | EF584902 | Dong et al (2007) |
| Replicase (partial) | Alphacoronavirus-1 (LICCoV) | Guangxi/D690/2005 | 486 | EF584903 | Dong et al (2007) |
| Replicase (partial) | Alphacoronavirus-1 (YBVCoV) | Guangxi/D726/2005 | 343 | EF584904 | Dong et al (2007) |
| Replicase (partial) | Alphacoronavirus-1 (MPCCoV) | Guangxi/D728/2005 | 486 | EF584905 | Dong et al (2007) |
| Replicase (partial) | Alphacoronavirus-1 (SWCoV) | Guangxi/D1000 | 486 | EF584906 | Dong et al (2007) |
| Replicase (partial) | FSCoV | Guangxi/E001/2006 | 486 | EF584907 | Dong et al (2007) |
| Complete genome | Rh-BatCoV-HKU2 | GD/430/2006 | 27,165 | EF203064 | Lau et al (2007) |
| Replicase (partial) | Alphacoronavirus-1 (RDCoV) | GZ43/2003 | 5,274 | EF192159 | Vijaykrishna et al (2007) |
| from ORF3 to E gene | Alphacoronavirus-1 (CCoV-I) | CCoV-I Elmo/02 | 2,145 | AY426983 | Lorusso et al (2008) |
| Complete genome | MiCoV | WD1127 | 28,941 | HM245925 | Spiro et al (2010), direct submission |
| genomic 3' end | FrCoV | enteric strain MSU-2 | 8,618 | GU338457 | Wise et al (2010) |
| Replicase (partial) | Alphacoronavirus-1 (CFBCoV-DM95/2003) | DM95/2003 | 5,274 | EF192160 | Vijaykrishna et al (2007) |
| Replicase (partial) | Harbor seal coronavirus 1 | HS1 | 208 | FJ766501 | Nollens et al (2010), direct submission |
| spike protein gene (partial) | Spotted hyena coronavirus | Es450a | 429 | DQ317972 | East et al (2004) |
Proteins
| Protein name | Protein name abbreviation | Number of amino acids | Molecular weight (kDa) | Time of expression | Accession numbers | Additional information |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Polyprotein 1ab (Replicase complex) | pp1ab | 6632–6896 | 740–800 | Throughout | NP_073549; YP_003766; ABQ57215; NP_598309; ABG47077; ACA52170; ADB28906; YP_003038530; CAB91143 | Encoded by two ORFs, 1a and 1b; pseudoknot involved in frameshifting; cleaved to several products, including an RNA-dependent RNA polymerase |
| Spike glycoprotein | S | 1222–1470 | 180–220 | Throughout | ABG89317; CAA80971; AAR11077; ABG89335; YP_003038553; YP_001552234 | Highly glycosylated; forms homotrimers; likely cleaved to S1 and S2 subunits in CCoV-I |
| Membrane protein | M | 221–267 | 23–35 | Throughout | ACN23167; ABU49663; ABQ57227; YP_001552239; ABG47081; YP_001718615; ABE97133; NP_073555; ADB28912; YP_003029902; ADD49352 | N-linked or O-linked glycans; triple-spanning |
| Envelope protein | E | 75–82 | 9–12 | Throughout | ABU49662; ABG89314; ACJ63235; ACS44221; ACJ64179; ADI80524; ADD49351; ABQ57210; AAK38658; ABQ57234; YP_001351686; ABE97139; AAG48595 | Essential for virion assembly; E plus M forms virus-like particles |
| Nucleocapsid protein | N | 374–441 | 50–60 | Throughout | ABQ57236; ACA52175; ABG47082; ABE97141; ADI80526; ACK77286; ABB90485; ACJ64190; ABO88144; ADC53234; ADD49353; ADC34660 | Highly basic phosphoprotein; forms a helical nucleocapsid |
| Non-structural protein 3 | ns3 (gp3) | 207 | 28 | Throughout | AY426983 | Unique to CCoV-I (Geselavirus); gene located between S and 3a genes; N-glycosilated |
| Non-structural protein 3a | ns3a | 60–94 | 7.8 | Throughout | ACN79570; ABD97836; AAL89749; AAF02715; YP_003429311; ACJ64176; ABK79897 | Unique to Geselavirus; located between S and E genes; non essential for replication; may be truncated in some strains |
| Non-structural protein 3b | ns3b | 108–251 | 27.7–31 | Throughout | ACN79567; ABG89332; ABG89311; ABQ57225; ADC67067; ADI80514; ABE97131; ABM64812; ADD26775; ACT10973; AAR88621; YP_001718606 | ns3c in CCoV/FCoV; ns3 in HCoV-NL63/PEDV/bat Alphacoronaviruses; ns4 in HCoV-229E; non essential; may be truncated in some strains |
| CCoV/FCoV non-structural protein 3b | CCoV/FCoV ns3b | 71–73 | 7.8 | Throughout | ACT10972; YP_003029910; ACJ63244; AAR88614 | Unique to CCoV/FCoV (also known as ns3x); Non essential for replication; may be truncated in some strains |
| Non-structural protein 7 (7a) | ns7 (7a) | 78–105 | 9.1 | Throughout | ACJ63238; CAA62202; ABG89313; ABG89307 | Unique to Geselavirus; ns7a in FCoV/CCoV; non essential for replication; may be truncated in some strains |
| Non-structural protein 7b | ns7b | 162–213 | 14 | Throughout | ACJ63239; ACJ64183; CAA47250; CAA62193 | Unique to FCoV/CCoV (Geselavirus); non essential for replication; may be truncated in some strains |
| BatCoV-HKU8 non-structural protein 7 | BatCoV-HKU8 nsp7 | 248 | 28.5 | Throughout | ACA52176; YP_001718617 | Unique to Miniopterus bat coronavirus HKU8 |
| BatCoV-HKU2 non-structural protein 7 | BatCoV-HKU2 nsp7 | 99 | 11.8 | Throughout | ABQ57213; ABQ57221; ABQ57229; YP_001552241 | Unique to Rhinolophus bat coronavirus HKU2 |
Biology
| Species | Permissive cell lines | Tissue tropism | Cytopathic effects | Additional information |
|---|---|---|---|---|
| Alphacoronavirus-1 (TGEV) | ST, PK15, LLC-PK1 | Epithelium of enteric and respiratory tract | Cell lysis with little syncytia formation | Respiratory variants replicate poorly in gut |
| PEDV | Vero | Epithelium of the enteric and respiratory tract | Formation of large syncytia | High mortality produced by virulent strains |
| Alphacoronavirus-1 (FCoV) | NLFK, A72, fcwf-D, CRFK | Intestinal epithelium and lymph nodes | Cell rounding, focal detachment and lysis | Some strains of FCoV are more virulent; FCoV-I replicates at low efficiency in vitro |
| Alphacoronavirus-1 (FIPV) | NLFK, A72, fcwf-D, CRFK | Peritoneum, liver, lymphoid organs | Cell rounding, focal detachment and lysis | Antibody-dependent enhancement of infectivity |
| Alphacoronavirus-1 (CCoV) | CRFK, A72, ST | Epithelium of the intestines | Cell rounding, focal detachment and lysis | CCoV-I does not replicate in vitro; pantropic CCoV CB/05 infects internal organs |
| HCoV-229E | L132, MRC-5, IMHP | Upper respiratory tract | Some HCoV infect oligodendrocytes and neural cell | |
| HCoV-NL63 | LLC-MK2; Vero-B4; primary cultures of HAE | Upper and lower respiratory tract | Diffuse CPE with cell detachemnt and deterioration |
Diseases
| Disease | Causative agent | Affected organisms | Disease characteristics | Transmission route/vector | Treatment | Geographic distribution |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Transmissible gastroenteritis | Alphacoronavirus-1 (TGEV) | Domestic and wild pigs | Diarrhoea, high mortality in newborns | Faecal-oral | Only symptomatic | Worldwide |
| Swine respiratory disease | Alphacoronavirus-1 (PRCoV, respiratory variant of TGEV) | Domestic and wild pigs | Sneezing, coughing, nasal discharge | Aerosol | Only symptomatic | Worldwide |
| Porcine epidemic diarrhoea | PEDV | Swine | Diarrhoea, high mortality in weaning pigs | Faecal-oral | Only symptomatic | Europe, Asia, not North America |
| Feline enteritis | Alphacoronavirus-1 (FCoV) | Cats | Diarrhoea | Faecal-oral | Only symptomatic | Worldwide |
| Feline infectious peritonitis | Alphacoronavirus-1 (FIPV) | Cats | Peritonitis, granulomatous inflammation in multiple organs | Not transmissible (in-vivo FCoV variant) | Only symptomatic | Worldwide |
| Canine enteritis | Alphacoronavirus-1 (CCoV) | Dogs | Diarrhoea, some mortality in young pups | Faecal-oral | Only symptomatic | Worldwide |
| Canine pantropic coronavirosis | Alphacoronavirus-1 (pantropic CCoV) | Dogs | Lymphopenia, diarrhoea, fever, depression, mortality | Unknown, maybe faecal-oral | Only symptomatic | Europe |
| Human common cold | HCoV-229E | Humans | Common cold (sneezing, coughing, nasal discharge) | Aerosol | Only symptomatic | Worldwide |
| Human respiratory disease | HCoV-NL63 | Humans | Fever, cough, coryza, sore throat, bronchiolitis, bronchitis, pneumonia and croup | Aerosol | Only symptomatic | Worldwide |
| Ferret epizootic catarrhal enteritis | FrCoV (FrECoV) | Ferrets | Diarrhoea | Faecal-oral | Only symptomatic | North America, Europe |
| Ferret systemic coronavirosis | FrCoV (FrSCoV) | Ferrets | FIP-like disease (dry form) | Unknown | Only symptomatic | North America, Europe |
| Mink epizootic catarrhal gastroenteritis | MiCoV | Mink | Diarrhoea, mortality | Faecal-oral | Only symptomatic | North America, Europe |
Diagnosis
| Method | Species | Sample material | Detection target | References |
|---|---|---|---|---|
| Monoclonal time-resolved fluoroimmunoassay | HCoV-229E | respiratory samples | Viral antigens | Hierholzer et al (1994) |
| nested PCR amplification of the spike protein gene | HCoV-229E | Respiratory samples | Viral RNA | Myint et al (1994) |
| L132 cell culture and indirect immunofluorescence assay with monoclonal antibodies | HCoV-229E | Respiratory samples | Viral antigens | Sizun et al (1998) |
| RT-PCR amplification of the nucleocapsid protein gene | HCoV-NL63 | Respiratory samples | Viral RNA | Moes et al (2005) |
| RT-PCR amplification of the spike protein gene | HCoV-NL63 | Respiratory samples | Viral RNA | Bastien et al (2005) |
| Direct immunofluorescence assay and HuH7 cell culture | HCoV-229E | Respiratory samples | Viral antigens | Freymuth et al (2006) |
| Microarray using standard amplification and hybridization techniques | HCoV-229E | Respiratory samples | Viral RNA | Lodes et al (2007) |
| RT-PCR amplification of the nucleocapsid protein gene | HCoV-229E | Respiratory samples | Viral RNA | Dominguez et al (2009) |
| Nested PCR amplification of the nucleocapsid protein gene | HCoV-229E, HCoV-NL63 | Respiratory samples | Viral RNA | Gaunt et al (2010) |
| Multiplex real-time RT-PCR amplification of the nucleocapsid protein gene | HCoV-229E, HCoV-NL63 | Respiratory samples | Viral RNA | Gaunt et al (2010) |
| Vero cell culture and direct immunofluorescence assay | PEDV | Faeces, intestine | Viral antigens | Kim and Chae (1999) |
| Monoclonal antibody-based immunohistochemistry | PEDV | Formalin-fixed paraffin-embedded gut sections | Viral antigens | Kim, et al (1999) |
| Duplex RT-PCR amplification of the spike protein gene | Alphacoronavirus-1 (TGEV), PEDV | Faeces | Viral RNA | Kim et al (2001) |
| ELISA | PEDV | Faeces | Viral antigens | Rodák et al (2005) |
| Multiplex RT-PCR amplification of the spike protein gene | Alphacoronavirus-1 (TGEV), PEDV | Faeces | Viral RNA | Song et al (2006) |
| Double antibody sandwich enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay | PEDV | Faeces | Viral antigens | Sozzi et al (2010) |
| ST cell culture and immunofluorescence assay | Alphacoronavirus-1 (TGEV) | Faeces, intestine; respiratory samples (PRCoV) | Viral antigens | McClurkin and Norman (1966) |
| Immunoelectron microsopy | Alphacoronavirus-1 (TGEV) | Faeces, intestinal content | particle morphology | Saif et al (1977) |
| Immunofluorescence assay | Alphacoronavirus-1 (TGEV) | Intestinal sections | Viral antigens | Solorzano et al (1978) |
| Sandwich ELISA | Alphacoronavirus-1 (TGEV) | Faeces, intestinal content | Viral antigens | Bernard et al (1986) |
| Immunogold silver staining | Alphacoronavirus-1 (TGEV) | Formalin-fixed paraffin-embedded gut sections | Viral antigens | Larochelle and Magar (1993) |
| Immunohistochemistry | Alphacoronavirus-1 (TGEV) | Formalin-fixed paraffin-embedded gut sections | Viral antigens | Shoup et al (1996) |
| Nested PCR amplification of the spike protein gene discriminating TGEV from PRCoV | Alphacoronavirus-1 (TGEV, PRCoV) | Faeces, intestinal content | faeces, intestinal content, respiratory samples | Kim et al (2000) |
| Real-time RT-PCR assay with LUX primer targeting the spike protein gene | Alphacoronavirus-1 (TGEV) | Faeces, intestinal content | Viral RNA | Chen et al (2004) |
| Internally-controlled real-time TaqMan RT-PCR assay targeting the spike protein gene | Alphacoronavirus-1 (TGEV) | Faeces, intestinal content | Viral RNA | Vemulapalli et al (2009) |
| A-72 cell culture and immunofluorescence assay | Alphacoronavirus-1 (CCoV) | Faeces, intestinal content | Viral antigens | Keenan et al (1976) |
| Electron microscopy | Alphacoronavirus-1 (CCoV) | Faeces, intestibal content | particle morphology | Appel et al (1979) |
| Sandwich ELISA | Alphacoronavirus-1 (CCoV) | Faeces, intestinal content | Viral antigens | Tuchiya et al (1991) |
| Nested PCR amplification of the membrane protein gene | Alphacoronavirus-1 (CCoV) | Faeces, intestinal content | Viral RNA | Pratelli et al (1999) |
| Real-time RT-PCR amplification of the membrane protein gene | Alphacoronavirus-1 (CCoV) | Faeces, intestinal content | Viral RNA | Decaro et al (2004) |
| Genotype-specific real-time RT-PCR amplifications of the membrane protein gene discriminating CCoV-I and CCoV-II | Alphacoronavirus-1 (CCoV) | Faeces, intestinal content | Viral RNA | Decaro et al (2005) |
| Indirect immunofluorescence assay | Alphacoronavirus-1 (FIPV) | Serum | anti-viral antibodies | Pedersen (1976) |
| Immunfluorescence assay | Alphacoronavirus-1 (FCoV, FIPV) | Intestine (FCoV), internal organs (FIPV) | Viral antigens | Hoshino and Scott (1980) |
| Electron microscopy | Alphacoronavirus-1 (FCoV, FIPV) | Faeces, intestine (FCoV), internal organs (FIPV) | particle morphology | Hoshino and Scott (1980) |
| Immunohistochemistry | Alphacoronavirus-1 (FIPV) | Internal organs | Viral antigens | Boyle et al (1984) |
| CrFK cell culture and immunofluorescence assay | FCoV. FIPV | Faeces, intestine (FCoV); internal organs (FIPV) | Viral antigens | McKeirnan et al (1987) |
| RT-PCR amplification of the spike protein gene | Alphacoronavirus-1 (FCoV, FIPV) | Faeces, intestine (FCoV); internal organs (FIPV) | Viral RNA | Li and Scott (1994) |
| RT-PCR amplification of the 3'-untranslated region | Alphacoronavirus-1 (FCoV, FIPV) | Faeces, intestine (FCoV); internal oragns (FIPV) | Viral RNA | Herrewegh et al (1995) |
| Real-time RT-PCR amplification of the 3'-untranslated region | Alphacoronavirus-1 (FCoV, FIPV) | Faeces, intestine (FCoV); internal organs (FIPV) | Viral RNA | Gut et al (1999) |
| RT-PCR amplification of the subgenomic mRNA of the membrane protein gene | Alphacoronavirus-1 (FIPV) | Blood | Viral mRNA | Simons et al (2005) |
Vaccine Strains
| Strain | Attenuation process | Additional information | References |
|---|---|---|---|
| Alphacoronavirus-1 TGEV vaccine-Diamond | Passage in ST cells | MLV; limited efficacy | Moxley et al. (1989) |
| Alphacoronavirus-1 TGEV vaccine-Ambico | Passage at low pH in presence of enzymes | Oral MLV; limited efficacy | Lai et al (1991) |
| Alphacoronavirus-1 TGEV Nouzilly | Passage in cell culturess | Resists to proteases and acidity; limited efficacy | Aynaud et al (1991) |
| Alphacoronavirus-1 CCoV vaccine Insavc-1 | Passage in cell culture | MLV; limited efficacy; post-vaccination adverse reactions reported | Horsburgh et al (1992) |
| Alphacoronavirus-1 CCoV vaccine TN449 | Inactivated vaccine | Limited efficacy | Fulker et al (1995) |
| Alphacoronavirus-1 CCoV feline enteric coronavirus vaccine | Inactivated vaccine | Heterologous vaccine prepared with FECV; limited efficacy | Gill et al (1998) |
| Alphacoronavirus-1 FIPV temperature-sensitive vaccine strain DF2 | Passage in cell culture | Temperature-sensitive MLV; limited efficacy | Addie et al (2009) |
Vector Constructs
| Vector name | Backbone strain | Application | Insertion capacity (kb) | Additional information | References |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| vHCoV-inf-1 and vHCoV-inf-2 | HCoV-229E | Expression | 27.3 | Recombinant vaccinia virus containing the full-length genome of HCoV-229E | Thiel et al (2001) |
| TGEV M33 and M39 | Alphacoronavirus-1 TGEV PUR46-MAD | Expression | 5 | Helper dependent expression system | Izeta et al (1999) |
| pBAC-TGEV(FL) | Alphacoronavirus-1 TGEV PUR46-MAD | Reverse genetics | 28.7 | Infectious bacterial artificial chromosome | Almazán et al (2000) |
| icTGEV | Alphacoronavirus-1 TGEV Purdue | Reverse genetics | 28.5 | Full-length genome infectious clone constructed through ligation of six inserts | Yount et al (2000) |
| pBRDI1 | Alphacoronavirus-1 FCoV-II 79-1146 | Reverse genetics | 9–10 | Used for targeted RNA recombination to obtain chimeric FIPV | Haijema et al (2003) |
| vrecFCoV | Alphacoronavirus-1 FCoV-I Black | Reverse genetics | 26.3 | Recombinant vaccinia virus containing the full-length genome of FCoV | Tekes et al (2008) |
| icNL63 | HCoV-NL63 | Reverse genetics | 27.7 | Full-length genome infectious clone constructed through ligation of five inserts | Donaldson et al (2008) |
Footnotes
‡This chapter was reprinted from the first edition of the Springer Index of Viruses. Taxonomy and classification of the virus species described in this chapter may have changed.
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