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. 2020 May 14;15(5):e0232527. doi: 10.1371/journal.pone.0232527

Comparative mitochondrial genome analysis of Dendrolimus houi (Lepidoptera: Lasiocampidae) and phylogenetic relationship among Lasiocampidae species

Xiaohong Han 1, Huan He 1, Haiyan Shen 1, Jinhan Tang 1, Wanying Dong 1, Yufei Shi 1, Songqing Wu 1,2, Feiping Zhang 1,2,*, Guanghong Liang 1,2,*
Editor: Ben J Mans3
PMCID: PMC7224488  PMID: 32407393

Abstract

Dendrolimus houi is one of the most common caterpillars infesting Gymnosperm trees, and widely distributed in several countries in Southeast Asia, and exists soley or coexists with several congeners and some Lasiocampidae species in various forest habitats. However, natural hybrids occasionally occur among some closely related species in the same habitat, and host preference, extreme climate stress, and geographic isolation probably lead to their uncertain taxonomic consensus. The mitochondrial DNA (mtDNA) of D. houi was extracted and sequenced by using high-throughput technology, and the mitogenome composition and characteristics were compared and analyzed of these species, then the phylogenetic relationship was constructed using the maximum likelihood method (ML) and the Bayesian method (BI) based on their 13 protein-coding genes (PCGs) dataset, which were combined and made available to download which were combined and made available to download among global Lasiocampidae species data. Mitogenome of D. houi was 15,373 bp in length, with 37 genes, including 13 PCGs, 22 tRNA genes (tRNAs) and 2 rRNA genes (rRNAs). The positions and sequences of genes were consistent with those of most known Lasiocampidae species. The nucleotide composition was highly A+T biased, accounting for ~80% of the whole mitogenome. All start codons of PCGs belonged to typical start codons ATN except for COI which used CGA, and most stop codons ended with standard TAA or TAG, while COI, COII, ND4 ended with incomplete T. Only tRNASer (AGN) lacked DHU arm, while the remainder formed a typical “clover-shaped” secondary structure. For Lasiocampidae species, their complete mitochondrial genomes ranged from 15,281 to 15,570 bp in length, and all first genes started from trnM in the same direction. And base composition was biased toward A and T. Finally, both two methods (ML and BI) separately revealed that the same phylogenetic relationship of D. spp. as ((((D. punctatus + D. tabulaeformis) + D. spectabilis) + D. superans) + (D. kikuchii of Hunan population + D. houi) as in previous research, but results were different in that D. kikuchii from a Yunnan population was included, indicating that different geographical populations of insects have differentiated. And the phylogenetic relationship among Lasiocampidae species was ((((Dendrolimus) + Kunugia) + Euthrix) + Trabala). This provides a better theoretical basis for Lasiocampidae evolution and classification for future research directions.

Introduction

Dendrolimus houi Lajonquiere (Lepidoptera: Lasiocampidae), being one of the most abundant phytophagous caterpillar in southern China and some countries in Southeast Asia, voraciously feeds on about 12 species of coniferous trees, including Cryptomeria fortunei, Pinus yunnanensis, Platycladus orientalis, P. kesiya var.langbianensis and Cupressus funebris, causing thousands hectares of dead or dying forests, and it tends to be continuously spreading rapidly [1]. Biologically, different geographical populations of D. houi have different life cycles, host preference and adaptation to local extreme climatic factors [2,3], which might lead to population differentiation or taxonomic controversy based on previous reasearches on D. kikuchii [4] and D. punctatus [5].

Moreover, insects in the family Lasiocampidae are some of the most serious phytophagous pests worldwide, causing the host withering and rapid death, having serious impact on the ecological environment during their outbreaks [6–15]. Examples include such D. pini infesting Scots pines in Europe [16], D. houi in Yunnan, Sichuan, Fujian and Zhejiang province [2,9–10], and D. punctatus at fifteen provinces in the south of China [11]. Other speices like D. tabulaeformis, D. kikuchii, D. spectabilis, Euthrix laeta and Trabala vishnou guttata often occur in China as well [8,11], and thus face the stress of multiple and complex host and environmental factors. Consequently, they could potentially evolve in two directions: firstly, some Dendrolimus species may inevitably share the same host species and tend to inhabit the same forest, which might lead to taxonomically mis-discrimination [9] and hybridization [8]. (For example, D. tabulaeformis and D. spectabilis are the subspecies of D. punctatus probably due to hybridization of these three species [11,12]). Or different populations of same species might differentiated and evolved into separate species as a result of long-term adaptation to different hosts and other climatic factors [2]. (For example, D. kikuchii and D. houi is thought to have evolved from ta commmon ancestor, and evolved separately into different species as revealed by phylogenetic analysis [9]). Transcriptome analysis of antenna still showed that they still have high similarity and close phylogenetic relationship, however, they have different sex pheromone components [13], indicating somehow interspecific reproductive isolation. However, how do we identify and evaluate their ecological function and phylogenetic relationship? Fortunately, many previous studies have focused on the taxonomic relationship of Lasiocampidae, especially the taxonomic relationship within genera [5–15], but there are still some species whose taxonomic status is controversial and without a complete consensus [5–15]. Currently, some taxonomic relationships focus on the comparison with Lepidoptera [16–19], however very few reports have focused on the phylogenetic relationship among Lasiocampidae genera, so the taxonomy remains unclear.

Technically, mitochondrial genes and genomes have been generally adopted as an informative molecular marker for diverse evolutionary research of animals [5–21], and the complete and nearly complete mitogenome from hundreds of insect species has currently been determined. Generally, the length of most animal mitogenomes is 15.4–18.3 Kb [16]. It is usually a highly compact and covalently bonded closed-ring molecule composed of 37 genes, including 13 PCGs, 22 tRNAs, 2 rRNAs and a non-coding control region (D-loop region) [15–20]. In addition, animal mtDNA displays maternally inheritance, and mitogenomes have a very compact gene arrangement, high coding efficiency and overlap among some genes. Furthermore, there are no gene recombinations, translocations or inversion mutations in the genetic process. Therefore, mitogenomes have been widely used in the classification, identification, interspecific molecular evolution, population genetic and phylogenetic evolution relationships [16–23].

In this study, we obtained the complete mitogenome of D. houi and downloaded the available mtDNA data of nine species (four genera in Lasiocampidae) from the public database, containing some other congenetic species of D. spp., Kunugia undans, E. laeta and T. vishnou guttata to compare mitogenome composition and structure. Then, we reconstructed phylogenetic tree and analyzed phylogenetic relationship between D. houi and other Lasiocampidae species.

Materials and methods

Ethics statement

There is no endangered or protected species involved in this study, no specific permissions were required for this serious and widespread forest pest, feeding on leaves of Cryptomeria fortunei and causing thousands hectares of dying and dead forests. Additionally, this study is sponsored and permitted by NSFC (National Natural Science Foundation of China). We confirm that the locations are not privately owned or otherwise protected.

Samples collection mitochondria DNA extraction

Samples of D. houi were collected in Yongtai, Fuzhou, Fujian Province, China. Mitochondrial DNA of D. houi was extracted from muscle tissue using the GENMED Mitochondrial DNA Extraction kit (Genmed Scientifics Inc., Arlington, MA, USA). Muscle tissue of D. houi was crushed under ice bath condition following instruction of Extraction kit. The quality of DNA was assessed using NanoDrop2000, qubit3.0, and 1% agarose gel electrophoresis.

Sequencing and assembling of the mitochondrial genome

After DNA isolation, 1 μg of purified DNA was fragmented and used to construct short-insert libraries (430 bp) according to the manufacturer's instructions (Illumina, Hercules, CA, USA), and then sequenced on the Illumina Hiseq 4000 platform [24]. In order to obtain high quality clean reads, the raw reads were filtered to remove adaptors, the reads containing unknown nucleotide “N” over 10% and the duplicated sequences. Then, the clean reads were assembled into contigs using SOAPdenovo2.04 [25].

Gene annotation and analysis

13 PCGs of D. houi mitogenome were annotated by utilizing the online program ORF, while 2 rRNAs and 22 tRNAs were annotated using the online software MITOS2 Web Server (http://mitos2.bioinf.uni-leipzig.de/index.py). The unpredicted tRNA genes used tRNAscan-SE [26] to predict secondary structure. We determined the location of each gene, and corrected the annotation based on data from the reported related species mitogenomes. Then, the genome was aligned with the Nr (non-redundant protein sequence), Swiss-Prot (a manually annotated, non-redundant protein sequence), COG (clusters of orthologous groups of proteins), GO (gene ontology) and KEGG (kyoto encyclopedia of genes and genomes) databases by BLAST v2.2.31 with a cut-off e-valve of 10−5 [2].

Comparative mitogenome analyses of lasiocampidae

We downloaded available mtDNA data of nine species (four genera in Lasiocampidae) from the public database, containing D. punctatus (DP) NC_027156.1, D. tabulaeformis (DT) NC_027157.1, D. spectabilis (DSP) KJ913816.1, D. superans (DSU) NC_039841.1, D. kikuchii (DK1) NC_036347.1, D. kikuchii (DK2) MF100138.1, K. undans (KU) KX822016.1, E. laeta (EL) NC_031507.1 and T. vishnou guttata (TVG) KU884483.1) (Table 1). To obtain the information of gene loss, duplication, rearrangement, and horizontal transfer in Lasiocampidae, multiple genome alignments were conducted using Mauve software [27]. The base composition, codon usage and relative synonymous codon usage (RSCU) frequency within these 10 species of mitogenomes were analyzed by MEGA 7.0 software. The formula for calculating the composition skew in mitogenomes was as follows, AT-skew = (A-T) / (A+T), GC-skew = (G-C) / (G+C).

Table 1. Comparative analysis of mitogenomes and phylogenetic relationship of Lasiocampidae species information.

Family Genus Species Size( bp) GenBank accession no. Sample sources
Lasiocampidae Dendrolimus Dendrolimus punctatus (DP) 15,411 NC_027156.1 -
Dendrolimus tabulaeformis (DT) 15,411 NC_027157.1 -
Dendrolimus spectabilis (DSP) 15,410 KJ913816.1 Taian, Shandong
Dendrolimus superans (DSU) 15,417 NC_039841.1 -
Dendrolimus kikuchii (DK1) 15,422 NC_036347.1 Puer, Yunnnan
Dendrolimus kikuchii (DK2) 15,385 MF100138.1 Zhuzhou, Hunan
Dendrolimus houi (DH) 15,373 This study Fuzhou, Fujian
Kunugia Kunugia undans (KU) 15,570 KX822016.1 -
Euthrix Euthrix laeta (EL) 15,368 NC_031507.1 Jiujiang, Jiangxi
Trabala Trabala vishnou guttata (TVG) 15,281 KU884483.1 Jiujiang, Jiangxi
Bombycidae Bombyx Bombyx mori (BM) 15,635 AB083339.1 -
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Phylogenetic analysis

The dataset of 13 PCGs, from these ten species plus Bombyx mori as the reference outgroup, were used to reconstructed the phylogenetic tree. Sequences blast was conducted by MAFFT of Translator X online server, the empty spaces and fuzzy sites were removed by GBlocks, and the single genes were combined to obtain the mitochondrial gene datasets, then an optimal evolution model was calculated by Modeltest 3.7 for the subsequent phylogenetic analysis. We also used RAXML 7.2.6 [28] to build a ML tree (bootstrap value is 1000), and BI analysis was carried out by using Mr Bayes 3.2.2 [29] (Markov chains were run for 1×105 generations, sampling every 100 generations) to construct the phylogenetic tree of Lasiocampidae.

Results

Genome structure and nucleotides composition of D. houi

The complete mitogenome of D. houi was 15,373 bp in length (Fig 1), which contained 37 genes (13 PCGs, 22 tRNAs, 2 rRNAs) and a non-coding control region (A+T-rich region) related to replication and transcription. The gene sequences were similar to that of some known related species. Among them, 23 genes were located in J-strand, including 9 PCGs (COI-COIII, ATP6, ATP8, ND2, ND3, ND6, CYTB) and 14 tRNAs, while the remaining 14 genes were located in the N-strand.

Fig 1. Mitochondrial genomic structure of D. houi.

Fig 1

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The genes in the mitogenome were closely arranged with overlapping and interval phenomena. Typically, there were 7 overlapping regions with total length of 25 bp, and the longest overlapping region was 8 bp, while there were 23 intergenic spacers with a total length of 372 bp, with the longest one 60 bp between COI and tRNATyr, followed by another one with 57 bp between tRNAHis and ND5. Six regions did not have overlaps or intervals (S1 Table), and the mitogenome structure of D. houi was basically similar to those of most species within Lasiocampidae.

The number of A, T, G and C in the mitogenome within D. houi were 6,321 (41.12%), 5,954 (38.73%), 1,175 (7.64%) and 1,923 (12.51%) respectively, and the content of A was the highest while G was lowest; A+T accounted for 79.85%, while G+C was 20.15%; AT skewness was 0.0299 and GC skewness was -0.2417 (S2 Table). Furthermore, the A+T content at codon site 2 of PCGs (79.70%) was slightly higher than that at the first site (79.43%), while the A+T content at site 3 was the highest (80.43%). The non-coding region was especially A+T -rich, with the total content was as high as 91.85%. AT skewness was negative, which indicated that the content of T was higher than A.

The PCGs sequence was 11,091 bp, accounting for 72.15% of the complete mitogenome. A, T, G, C bases were 3,749 (33.8%), 4,924 (44.4%), 1,239 (11.17%), 1,179 (10.63%), respectively. The A+T content was 78.20%, which was 1.65% lower than that of the whole mitogenome. The complementary G+C content accounted for 21.80%, which was different from the whole mitogenome, with the highest T content and the lowest C content. AT skewness was -0.1356, GC skewness was 0.0248. A total of 4,617 codons (excluding stop codon) were encoded by 13 PCGs within the mitogenome. The most frequently encoded amino acids were Leu (13.26%), Ile (10.83%), Asn (10.66%), Phe (9.75%), and Lys (9.18%) respectively. The frequency of relative synonymous codons showed that the mitogenome of D. houi had obvious bias towards A and T, for example when it encoded the same amino acid, it was preferred to use UUU(Phe), UUA(Leu), AUU(Ile), AUA(Met), GUA(Val), UCU(Ser), CCU(Pro), ACU(Thr), GCA(Ala), UAU(Tyr), CAU(His), CAA(Gln), AAU(Asn), AAA(Lys), GAU(Asp), GAA(Glu), UGU(Cys), UGG(Trp), AGA(Arg), GCA(Gly). Most bases within each codon were composed of A and U, and the RSCU values of each codon varied significantly, which indicated that the codon frequency was biased in the mitogenome of D. houi (S1 Fig).

Mitogenome of D. houi contained 22 tRNA genes with total length 1,475 bp, and the sequences lengths were between 64–71 bp. Twenty-two secondary structures of tRNA genes were basically similar to those of other species of Lepidoptera, and twenty-one of them had typical clover structures consisting of amino acid receiving arms, DHU arm, anticodon arm, variable ring and TΨC arm. Only tRNASer (AGN) could not form a complete structure due to absence of dihydrouridine (DHU) arm. Based on the predicted 22 tRNA secondary structures, there were also nonstandard T-C, G-T and T-T in additional to mismatches except for the standard A-T and G-C matches (S2 Fig). Two rRNAs (rRNAL and rRNAS) of mitogenome between tRNALeu (CUN) and control region (CR) were encoded by L-strand and separated by tRNAVal gene. The length of rRNAL was 1,365 bp, A+T content was 83.51%, AT skewness value was -0.0470. The length of rRNAS was 776 bp, A+T content was 85.70%, AT skewness value was 0.0345.

The A+T -rich region was the main non-coding region of mitogenomes, located between rRNAS and tRNAMet genes, with a total length of 319 bp. The A+T content was 91.85%, which was significantly higher than other genes of the mitogenome (S2 Table). There were also typical structural features of Lepidopteran mitogenomes in the CR. The results also showed that there was a 14 bp poly-T stretch with motif ATAGA that was 15,075–15,093 bp downstream of rRNAS gen, and 4 microsatellite-like repeat sequences containing AT, AAT and AAT in this region. Additionally, there were also multiple poly-T stretch in this region (S3 Fig) except for the poly-T stretch at the beginning of replication.

Comparative analysis of mitogenomes of lasiocampidae species

Complete genome alignment using Mauve software was done for 10 species of Lasiocampidae (Dendrolimus spp., 1 Kunugia, 1 Euthrix and 1 Trabala) (Table 1, Fig 2). Generally, most of the genes within these ten species maintain a consistent position and direction, and no rearrangement or inversion events were found in the locally-collinear blocks (LCBs). Interestingly, there were two specific tRNAArg (Fig 3A) within the mitogemone of K. undans, which was absent among Lasiocampidae (Fig 3B).

Fig 2. Mauve (multiple alignment of sequence with rearrangements) alignment of mitogenomes of ten species.

Fig 2

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The D. houi mitogenome was shown at the top as the reference genome. Within each of the alignments, local collinear blocks are represented by blocks of the same color connected by lines.

Fig 3. Arrangement of mtDNA genes in Lasiocampidae species.

Fig 3

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A: Arrangement of Kunugia undans mtDNA, B: Arrangement of Lasiocampidae mtDNA.

The complete mitochondrial genomes of Lasiocampidae ranged from 15,281 to 15,570 bp in length, TVG was 15,281 bp and KU was 15,570 bp (Table 2). The first genes of these species all started from trnM, and had same direction. Moreover, there was base composition bias toward A and T in these mitogenomes. The A+T content of these mitogenomes ranged from 78.64% to 80.87%, KU was 78.64% and TVG was 80.87% (Table 3).

Table 2. Genome organization of ten species.

Gene D DP DT DSP DSU DK1 DK2 DH KU EL TVG
tRNAMet F 1–67 (-) 1–67 (-) 1–67 (-) 1–68 (-) 1–67 (-) 1–67 (-) 1–67 (-) 1–68 (-) 1–68 (-) 1–64 (-)
tRNAIle F 71–134 (3) 71–134 (3) 71–134 (3) 72–135 (3) 71–134 (3) 71–134 (3) 69–132 (1) 72–135 (3) 72–135 (3) 70–133 (5)
tRNAGln R 132–200 (-3) 132–200 (-3) 132–200 (-3) 133–201 (-3) 132–200 (-3) 132–200 (-3) 130–198 (-3) 136–205 (0) 133–201 (-3) 131–199 (-3)
ND2 F 259–1266 (58) 259–1266 (58) 259–1266 (58) 256–1266 (54) 259–1266 (58) 250–1263 (49) 230–1264 (31) 263–1276 (57) 272–1276 (70) 254–1261 (54)
tRNATrp F 1265–1333 (-2) 1265–1333 (-2) 1265–1333 (-2) 1265–1336 (-2) 1265–1333 (-2) 1263–1333 (-1) 1263–1332 (-2) 1275–1344 (-2) 1275–1342 (-2) 1260–1327 (-2)
tRNACys R 1326–1391 (-8) 1326–1391 (-8) 1326–1391 (-8) 1329–1394 (-8) 1326–1391 (-8) 1334–1391 (0) 1325–1391 (-8) 1337–1402 (-8) 1335–1400 (-8) 1320–1385 (-8)
tRNATyr R 1392–1459 (0) 1392–1459 (0) 1392–1459 (0) 1395–1460 (0) 1392–1459 (0) 1392–1459 (0) 1393–1463 (1) 1412–1479 (9) 1418–1483 (17) 1386–1448 (0)
COI F 1487–3017 (27) 1494–3024 (34) 1485–3015 (25) 1493–3023 (32) 1494–3024 (34) 1500–3030 (-10) 1524–3026 (60) 1500–3057 (20) 1490–3020 (6) 1464–2994 (15)
tRNALeu(UUN) F 3018–3084 (0) 3025–3091 (0) 3016–3082 (0) 3024–3090 (0) 3025–3091 (0) 3031–3097 (0) 3022–3088 (-5) 3058–3125 (0) 3021–3087 (0) 2995–3061 (0)
COII F 3085–3766 (0) 3092–3773 (0) 3083–3764 (0) 3091–3772 (0) 3092–3773 (0) 3098–3779 (0) 3089–3772 (0) 3125–3806 (-1) 3088–3769 (0) 3062–3743 (0)
tRNALys F 3767–3837 (0) 3774–3844 (0) 3765–3835 (0) 3773–3843 (0) 3774–3844 (0) 3780–3850 (0) 3774–3844 (1) 3807–3877 (0) 3770–3840 (0) 3744–3814 (0)
tRNAAsp F 3841–3908 (3) 3848–3915 (3) 3839–3906 (3) 3847–3914 (3) 3848–3915 (3) 3851–3918 (0) 3846–3912 (1) 3879–3947 (1) 3846–3912 (5) 3815–3879 (0)
ATP8 F 3909–4070 (0) 3916–4074 (0) 3907–4065 (0) 3915–4076 (0) 3916–4074 (0) 3919–4080 (0) 3913–4074 (0) 3948–4109 (0) 3913–4077 (0) 3880–4044 (0)
ATP6 F 4064–4741 (-7) 4068–4745 (-7) 4059–4736 (-7) 4070–4747 (-7) 4068–4745 (-7) 4074–4751 (-7) 4071–4745 (-4) 4103–4780 (-7) 4071–4748 (-7) 4038–4715 (-7)
COIII F 4757–5545 (15) 4761–5549 (15) 4748–5536 (11) 4760–5548 (12) 4761–5549 (15) 4758–5546 (6) 4762–5550 (16) 4787–5575 (6) 4753–5541 (4) 4735–5523 (19)
tRNAGly F 5548–5613 (2) 5552–5617 (2) 5539–5604 (2) 5551–5616 (2) 5552–5617 (2) 5549–5615 (2) 5553–5618 (2) 5578–5644 (2) 5544–5609 (2) 5526–5591 (2)
ND3 F 5614–5967 (0) 5618–5971 (0) 5605–5958 (0) 5617–5970 (0) 5618–5971 (0) 5616–5969 (0) 5619–5972 (0) 5645–5998 (0) 5610–5963 (0) 5592–5945 (0)
tRNAAla F 5967–6033 (-1) 5971–6037 (-1) 5958–6024 (-1) 5975–6041 (4) 5971–6037 (-1) 5972–6037 (2) 5971–6038 (-2) 6003–6070 (4) 5974–6039 (10) 5944–6010 (-2)
TRNAArg F 6049–6112 (15) 6053–6116 (15) 6045–6108 (20) 6055–6118 (13) 6058–6121 (20) 6064–6128 (6) 6048–6112 (9) 6084-6147/6175-6241(13/27) 6052–6120 (12) 6024–6088 (13)
tRNAsn F 6117–6182 (4) 6121-6186(4) 6113–6178 (4) 6120–6185 (1) 6126–6191 (4) 6150–6216 (21) 6117–6183 (4) 6242–6308 (0) 6122–6186 (1) 6094–6159 (5)
TRNASer(AGN) F 6194–6261 (11) 6198–6265 (11) 6197–6264 (18) 6202–6269 (16) 6211–6276 (19) 6232–6297 (15) 6204–6269 (20) 6308–6375 (-1) 6192–6257 (5) 6160–6220 (0)
tRNAGlu F 6261–6326 (-1) 6265–6329 (-1) 6264–6328 (-1) 6269–6333 (-1) 6277–6342 (0) 6298–6361 (0) 6270–6338 (0) 6376–6440 (0) 6258–6323 (0) 6221–6286 (0)
tRNAPhe R 6331–6396 (4) 6334–6399 (4) 6337–6402 (8) 6346–6412 (12) 6351–6416 (8) 6375–6441 (13) 6347–6413 (8) 6471–6537 (30) 6328–6395 (4) 6285–6349 (-2)
ND5 R 6399–8141 (2) 6402–8144 (2) 6406–8148 (3) 6416–8158 (3) 6420–8162 (3) 6446–8185 (4) 6418–8103 (4) 6538–8275 (0) 6394–8133 (-2) 6349–8088 (-1)
tRNAHis R 8142–8209 (0) 8145–8212 (0) 8149–8216 (0) 8159–8226 (0) 8163–8230 (0) 8186–8250 (0) 8161–8224 (57) 8276–8343 (0) 8134–8197 (0) 8089–8154 (0)
ND4 R 8210–9548 (0) 8213–9551 (0) 8217–9555 (0) 8227–9565 (0) 8231–9569 (0) 8251–9592 (0) 8226–9563 (1) 8348–9682 (4) 8197–9537 (-1) 8155–9493 (0)
ND4L R 9573–9866 (24) 9576–9869 (24) 9579–9872 (23) 9604–9897 (38) 9593–9880 (23) 9625–9918 (2) 9595–9861 (31) 9688–9981 (5) 9562–9855 (24) 9503–9796 (9)
tRNAThr F 9874–9937 (7) 9877–9940 (7) 9880–9943 (7) 9905–9970 (7) 9894–9957 (13) 9923–9987 (4) 9893–9957 (31) 9986–10050 (4) 9860–9923 (4) 9801–9864 (4)
tRNAPro R 9938–10002 (0) 9941–10005 (0) 9944–10008 (0) 9971–10035 (0) 9958–10022 (0) 9988–10052 (0) 9958–10022 (0) 10051–10115 (0) 9924–9988 (0) 9865–9929 (0)
ND6 F 10011–10541 (8) 10014–10544 (8) 10017–10547 (8) 10044–10574 (8) 10043–10561 (20) 10061–10591 (8) 10040–10561 (17) 10124–10654 (8) 9997–10524 (8) 9941–10465 (11)
CytB F 10546–11694 (4) 10549–11697 (4) 10552–11700 (4) 10579–11727 (4) 10569–11714 (7) 10595–11743 (3) 10570–11715 (8) 10662–11807 (7) 10537–11685 (12) 10478–11626 (12)
TRNASer(UCN) F 11698–11764 (3) 11701–11767 (3) 11704–11769 (3) 11731–11797 (3) 11718–11783 (3) 11742–11807 (-2) 11719–11784 (3) 11809–11875 (1) 11688–11754 (2) 11625–11692 (-2)
ND1 R 11764–12717 (-1) 11767–12720 (-1) 11769–12722 (-1) 11797–12750 (-1) 11783–12736 (-1) 11807–12760 (-1) 11784–12713 (-1) 11869–12825 (-7) 11753–12709 (-2) 11691–12647 (-2)
tRNALeu(CUN) R 12719–12786 (1) 12722–12789 (1) 12724–12791 (1) 12752–12820 (1) 12738–12805 (1) 12762–12832 (1) 12739–12806 (25) 12827–12892 (1) 12711-12780(1) 12648–12718 (0)
rRNAL R 12787–14247 (0) 12790–14248 (0) 12792–14245 (0) 12821–14253 (0) 12907–14263 (101) 12831–14214 (-2) 12847–14211 (40) 12893–14406 (0) 12766–14155 (-15) 12704–14057 (-15)
tRNAVal R 14248–14312 (0) 14249–14313 (0) 14246–14311 (0) 14254–14319 (0) 14260–14325 (-4) 14216–14280 (1) 14211–14278 (1) 14407–14471 (0) 14155–14220 (-1) 14056–14120 (-2)
rRNAS R 14313–15091 (0) 14314–15091 (0) 14312–15090 (0) 14320–15101 (0) 14326–15102 (0) 14282–15062 (1) 14279–15054 (0) 14472–15253 (0) 14221–14996 (0) 14121–14898 (0)
Control region F 15092–15411 15092–15411 15091–15410 15102–15417 15103–15422 15063–15382 15055–15373 15254–15570 14997–15368 14936–15281
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The value in parentheses: the positive number indicates interval base pairs between genes, while the negative indicates the overlapping base pairs between genes. “D” means that “Direction”.

Table 3. A+T content of Lasiocampidae.

Species Size (bp) A+T content (%)
Whole genome 1st codon positions 2nd codon positions 3rd codon positions
DP 15411 79.5 80.5 75.4 81.7
DT 15411 79.5 77.7 79.8 82.3
DSP 15410 79.38 80.42 78.45 79.26
DSU 15417 80.13 82.72 79.47 78.21
DK1 15422 79.20 76.62 82.01 78.97
DK2 15383 78.70 78.35 83.01 74.74
DH 15373 79.85 79.43 79.70 80.43
KU 15570 78.64 79.23 81.43 75.26
EL 15368 80.19 83.12 77.57 79.89
TVG 15281 80.87 81.94 82.69 77.97
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Start and stop codon usage is an important characteristic in the annotation of PCGs. We compared the start and stop codons across the 10 species of Lasiocampidae (Table 4). The start codon of these ten species was the typical ATN codons except for COI (CGA), and there were some different start codons on genes of ND2, ATP8, ND3, ND5, ND4, ND4L and ND1. The PCGs were used the same stop codon except for ND3, ND5, ND4 and ND4L. Furthermore, we compared codon usage and RSCU of ten available Lasiocampidae mitogenomes (S3 Table). Examination of these ten individual Lasiocampidae mitogenomes showed that Leu2 (UUA), Ser2 (UCU), Ala (GCU), Ser1 (AGA) were the four most frequent relatively synonymous codons.

Table 4. Start codon and stop codon of 13 PCGs in Lasiocampidae species.

Species ND2 COI COII ATP8 ATP6 COIII ND3 ND5 ND4 ND4L ND6 CytB ND1
DP ATT/TAA CGA/T ATA/T ATT/TAA ATG/TAA ATG/TAA ATG/TAA ATT/TAA ATG/T ATG/TAA ATA/TAA ATG/TAA ATG/TAA
DT ATT/TAA CGA/T ATA/T ATT/TAA ATG/TAA ATG/TAA ATG/TAA ATT/TAA ATG/T ATG/TAA ATA/TAA ATG/TAA ATG/TAA
DSP ATT/TAA CGA/T ATA/T ATC/TAA ATG/TAA ATG/TAA ATC/TAA ATT/TAA ATG/T ATG/TAA ATA/TAA ATG/TAA ATG/TAA
DSU ATC/TAA CGA/T ATA/T ATT/TAA ATG/TAA ATG/TAA ATC/TAA ATT/TAA ATG/T ATG/TAA ATA/TAA ATG/TAA ATG/TAA
DK1 ATT/TAA CGA/T ATA/T ATC/TAA ATG/TAA ATG/TAA ATT/TAA ATT/TAA ATG/T ATT/TAA ATA/TAA ATA/TAA ATG/TAA
DK2 ATT/TAA CGA/T ATA/T ATA/TAA ATG/TAA ATG/TAA ATT/TAA ATA/TAA ATG/T ATG/TAA ATA/TAA ATG/TAA ATG/TAA
DH ATA/TAA CGA/T ATA/T ATT/TAA ATG/TAA ATG/TAA ATT/TAG ATA/TAA ATG/T ATG/TAA ATA/TAA ATG/TAA ATG/TAA
KU ATT/TAA CGA/T ATA/T ATC/TAA ATG/TAA ATG/TAA ATC/TAA ATT/T ATG/TAG ATG/TAG ATA/TAA ATG/TAA ATG/TAA
EL ATA/TAA CGA/T ATA/T ATC/TAA ATG/TAA ATG/TAA ATT/TAA ATT/TAA ATG/TAA ATA/TAA ATA/TAA ATG/TAA ATG/TAA
TVG ATT/TAA CGA/T ATA/T ATC/TAA ATG/TAA ATG/TAA ATT/TAA ATT/TAA ATG/T ATG/TAA ATA/TAA ATG/TAA ATT/TAA
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Phylogenetic relationship

The result showed that the best model of ML and BI trees was GTR+I+G, where 1nL value was -163,261.5358, AIC value was 326,791.0716, and ΔAIC value was 0. Two types of phylogenetic trees were constructed by using the 13 PCGs dataset having the same structure as Fig 4, which indicate that both methods (ML and BI) and results were consistent and reliable. The phylogenetic relationship among four genera was ((((Dendrolimus) + Kunugia) + Euthrix) + Trabala). Interestingly, we found two different phylogenetic trees can be constructed by using two groups data of D. kikuchii. When we use the data of DK1 to construct tree, the relationship was ((((D. punctatus + D. tabulaeformis) + (D. spectabilis + DK1)) + D. superans) + D. houi) (Fig 4A). However, the relationship have changed as ((((D. punctatus + D. tabulaeformis) + D. spectabilis) + D. superans)+ (DK2 + D. houi) (Fig 4B) by using the data of DK2. If two groups of D. kikuchii data were used simultaneously to construct phylogenetic tree, their phylogenetic relationship demonstrated that those two groups of DK data have different genetic relationship with D. houi (Fig 4C).

Fig 4. Lasiocampidae phylogenetic tree.

Fig 4

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A: using the data of DK1, B: using the data of DK2, C: using the data of DK1 and DK2.

Discussion

In this study, the complete mitogenome of D. houi was obtained, with a total length of 15,373 bp. The mitogenome of D. houi had similar structural composition and gene arrangement, which indicated that the mitogenome was stable and suitable for the study of phylogenetic relationships. Technically, we obtained the mitogenome by using high-throughput sequencing which was different from previous research [30–33]. The traditional mitogenome sequencing is mainly Sanger sequencing method based on PCR amplification products [34]. However, this method requires primer information of each segment of the genome, and the experimental process is complex, time-consuming and laborious. With the development of next generation sequencing technology (NGS) [33–35], the use of high-throughput sequencing technology has provided great convenience for the rapid acquisition of mitogenome [35–37], and the sequencing cost has also been significantly reduced in recent years, which provides an alternative choice for the sequencing of small genomes such as animal mitochondria [37].

Mitogenomes are more comprehensive and accurate in species identification and phylogeny, avoiding artificial biases caused by blindness of a single gene [38–43], and even the differences among species can be determined based on genes structure and arrangement, which has higher reliability [31,43]. Methodologically, using the 13 PCGs in the sequencing genome was superior in obtaining reliable results compared with clustering analysis by using individual genes [44–50], while both two clustering trees by using both methods were consistent, and the phylogenic relationship among 4 genera in Lasiocampidae was consistent with some previous studies [15,50–52]. In this study, the mitogenome total lengths of D. houi from two geographical populations (Yongtai and Jingdong [10]) were various, which may be caused by individual differences of samples. Furthermore, two original data of D. kikuchii were used to compare mitogenome structures and construct phylogenetic trees. Interestingly, we obtained the different phylogenetic trees concerning the relationship between D. houi and D. kikuchii. The phylogenetic relationship between D. kikuchii and D. spectabilis was closer than that between D. kikuchii and D. houi by using DK1 data (Fig 4A), which was different from previous research [7–8,10]. However, we obtained the same result as previous reports [10] by utilizing DK2 data (Fig 4B), and show D. houi and D. kikuchii have a close relationship (Fig 4B) and evolved earlier than the other four pine caterpillar species. Obviously, some populations of D. kikuchii from different locations can not be clustered as one group (Fig 4C) whereas DK1 and DK2 data were clustered simultaneously, indicating differentiation occurred due to geographical isolation [4].

These differences were thought to be mostly caused by individual differences or geographic population variation, because the samples of DK1 and DK2 were originally collected originally from Yunnan and Hunan Province respectively [6,14], and some previous studies have shown that insects have generated genetic variation after long-term living in different geographical habitats or from feeding on different hosts [4,5,53]. The degree of genetic differentiation and gene exchange within and between populations have an impact on the geographical populations’ genetic diversity of insects. However, even now, little is known about the different geographical populations genetic diversity of D. houi. Effective molecular markers should be used to prove whether there is differentiation among different populations, or to better determine the genetic relationship and variation at the genus level.

In this study, all species looked at have the start codon CGA with COI gene, which were reported in previous research [11–19,54,55]. Theoretically, it is considered a typical trait due to it being high conservation in Lepidoptera specicies. Similarly, the stop codon ended with TAA in the majority of PCGs, which was also consistent with the results of most Lepidoptera species [6–10]. Currently, there was only one trnR within the mitochondrial structure of D. houi, which is similar to most species of Lasiocampidae speices, and different from that of K.undans with two trnRs. Therefore, we presume that the structure of two trnRs is unique in Kunugia spp., which requires further clarification because more species’ genomes are not available at this time.

Currently, the sequencing of animal mitogenomes is rapidly increasing, but the data of insect mitogenomes are obviously still insufficient. Actually, several species of pine caterpillars periodically occur and outbreak [1–3,9,10], endangering local coniferous forests in China [56] under the reasonable climate. Their phylogenetic relationship might be complicated because of homogenization or hybrid of congeneric species. Therefore, the acquisition of the complete mitogenome of D. houi and comparison to Lasiocampidae species may provide more genetic varieties for future research.

Supporting information

S1 Fig. The relative synonymous codon usage frequency of the mitogenome of Dendrolimus houi (RSCU).

(TIF)

Click here for additional data file. (12.3MB, tif)
S2 Fig. Secondary structure of mitogenome tRNA of Dendrolimus houi.

(TIF)

Click here for additional data file. (31.5MB, tif)
S3 Fig. Structure of A +T-rich region of Dendrolimus houi.

(TIF)

Click here for additional data file. (2.2MB, tif)
S1 Table. Composition and characteristics of mitogenome of Dendrolimus houi.

(XLS)

Click here for additional data file. (25KB, xls)
S2 Table. Mitogenomic nucleotides composition of Dendrolimus houi.

(XLS)

Click here for additional data file. (20.5KB, xls)
S3 Table. The relative synonymous codon usage frequency of the mitogenome of ten Lasiocampidae species (RSCU).

(XLS)

Click here for additional data file. (49.5KB, xls)
S1 File. Mitochondrial genome of Dendrolimus houi.

(FA)

Click here for additional data file. (15.1KB, fa)

Acknowledgments

The authors are thankful to Scott M Geib, from USDA-ARS, Daniel K. Inouye US Pacific Basin Agricultural Research Center (Hilo, Hawaii, USA), and Prof. Jacob D Wickham from Rutgers University (NJ, USA), provided professional service of linguistic editing of this manuscript. Some field work of sample collection was partially supported by Xiapu State-owned Forest Farm, Xiapu, Fujian, China.

Data Availability

All relevant data are within the paper and its Supporting Information files.

Funding Statement

This research was funded by the National Natural Science Fund of China (No. 31870641), National Key Research and Development Program of China (No. 2017YED0600105), Science and Technology Department of Fujian Province-China (No. 2018N5101), Forest and Grassland Department of Fujian Province-China (No. 2017 - 03), Excellent Graduate Thesis Fund Project of Fujian Agriculture and Forestry University ([2019] No. 2).

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Associated Data

This section collects any data citations, data availability statements, or supplementary materials included in this article.

Supplementary Materials

S1 Fig. The relative synonymous codon usage frequency of the mitogenome of Dendrolimus houi (RSCU).

(TIF)

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S2 Fig. Secondary structure of mitogenome tRNA of Dendrolimus houi.

(TIF)

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S3 Fig. Structure of A +T-rich region of Dendrolimus houi.

(TIF)

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S1 Table. Composition and characteristics of mitogenome of Dendrolimus houi.

(XLS)

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S2 Table. Mitogenomic nucleotides composition of Dendrolimus houi.

(XLS)

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S3 Table. The relative synonymous codon usage frequency of the mitogenome of ten Lasiocampidae species (RSCU).

(XLS)

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S1 File. Mitochondrial genome of Dendrolimus houi.

(FA)

Click here for additional data file. (15.1KB, fa)

Data Availability Statement

All relevant data are within the paper and its Supporting Information files.

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