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. 2020 May 8;9(5):398. doi: 10.3390/antiox9050398

A Reference List of Phenolic Compounds (Including Stilbenes) in Grapevine (Vitis vinifera L.) Roots, Woods, Canes, Stems, and Leaves

Piebiep Goufo 1,*, Rupesh Kumar Singh 2, Isabel Cortez 1
PMCID: PMC7278806  PMID: 32397203

Abstract

Due to their biological activities, both in plants and in humans, there is a great interest in finding natural sources of phenolic compounds or ways to artificially manipulate their levels. During the last decade, a significant amount of these compounds has been reported in the vegetative organs of the vine plant. In the roots, woods, canes, stems, and leaves, at least 183 phenolic compounds have been identified, including 78 stilbenes (23 monomers, 30 dimers, 8 trimers, 16 tetramers, and 1 hexamer), 15 hydroxycinnamic acids, 9 hydroxybenzoic acids, 17 flavan-3-ols (of which 9 are proanthocyanidins), 14 anthocyanins, 8 flavanones, 35 flavonols, 2 flavones, and 5 coumarins. There is great variability in the distribution of these chemicals along the vine plant, with leaves and stems/canes having flavonols (83.43% of total phenolic levels) and flavan-3-ols (61.63%) as their main compounds, respectively. In light of the pattern described from the same organs, quercetin-3-O-glucuronide, quercetin-3-O-galactoside, quercetin-3-O-glucoside, and caftaric acid are the main flavonols and hydroxycinnamic acids in the leaves; the most commonly represented flavan-3-ols and flavonols in the stems and canes are catechin, epicatechin, procyanidin B1, and quercetin-3-O-galactoside. The main stilbenes (trans-ε-viniferin, trans-resveratrol, isohopeaphenol/hopeaphenol, vitisin B, and ampelopsins) accumulate primarily in the woods, followed by the roots, the canes, and the stems, whereas the leaves, which are more exposed to environmental stresses, have a low concentration of these compounds. Data provided in this review could be used as (i) a metabolomic tool for screening in targeted and untargeted analyses and (ii) a reference list in studies aimed at finding ways to induce naturally occurring polyphenols on an industrial scale for pant and human disease control.

Keywords: bioactive compounds, vegetative organs, antioxidant activity, Vitis vinifera, secondary metabolites, polyphenol database, grapevine

1. Introduction

Grapevine (Vitis vinifera L.) is a perennial woody fruit crop used for wine, juice, fresh consumption (table grapes), dried fruit, and distilled liquor [1,2,3,4,5,6,7,8]. Most of the premium cultivars are highly susceptible to several pathogenic microorganisms [6,9,10,11,12,13]. In the past decades, the understanding of grapevine/pathogen interactions has focused on the molecular response of the host, and several metabolites, proteins, and gene/gene products have been identified as putative biomarkers of grapevine disease tolerance [14,15,16,17,18]. In particular, the importance of phenolic compounds as natural fungicides implicated in the resistance of some grapevine cultivars to fungi, oomycetes, bacteria, phytoplasma, and viruses have been highlighted by several authors; one of the most known properties of these compounds is their antioxidative activity, whereby they are able to scavenge free radicals and positively influence health outcomes [5,19,20,21,22,23,24,25,26,27,28,29,30,31]. Plants have evolved a variety of mechanisms using phenolic compounds, including the formation of a protective shield against ultraviolet (UV) radiation. Therefore, the compounds produced by highly resistant varieties are of great interest for the development of improved crops, natural spray reagents, and new dietary supplements or pharmaceuticals [5,19,32,33,34,35,36].

In V. vinifera, many studies have been published that reported on the concentration of phenolics in berry-containing foods and their impact on human health [18,35]. Indeed, several databases are available for the levels of phenolic compounds in the fruits (e.g., eBASIS, Phenol-Explorer), but none are available for non-edible parts of V. vinifera. Recently, the stems and canes of this economically important genus have been reported as an untapped source of health-promoting compounds [16,17,31,35,36,37,38,39]. Because of this, numerous efforts for isolation, identification, and quantification of phenolic compounds in the vegetative organs of grapevine have been ongoing. In order to properly design valorization strategies, the precise chemical composition of these vegetative materials has to be known. In this review, a more thorough understanding of the chemical diversity of polyphenols within V. vinifera vegetative organs is provided, which will be useful in this endeavor. The review includes an overview of compounds identified in the roots, cordon and trunk woods, canes, stems, and leaves with their mass and UV spectrum patterns, followed by an estimation of their levels. It concludes with a brief presentation of factors affecting the biosynthesis and accumulation of these compounds. The fallout of such data is multifaceted and will surely contribute to advancing the scientific knowledge in the field.

2. The Vegetative Organs of the Vine Plant

Grapevine is a climber whose growth in the vineyard is maintained with pruning in order to control the quantity and quality of the grapes [40]. Like any other plant, grapevine has vegetative and reproductive organs. The vegetative organs of vine include the roots and five parts extending from the root system and visible aboveground: trunk, cordons, canes, stems, and leaves. These organs play a key role in light energy capture via photosynthesis, as well as water and nutrient absorption as regulated by transportation.

2.1. Roots

The roots of a vine plant are multi-branched structures that grow to various depths into the soil on the basis of the variety (rootstock), and are responsible for anchoring the plant to the ground [12,23,29,30,41,42].

2.2. Woods

In the literature, the “wood” refers to samples obtained from the trunk and the cordons. The trunk is composed of sleeves of conductive tissues, most notably the phloem and the xylem [13,43,44,45]. Cordons or “arms” are extensions of the trunk and the parts where canes (one-year-old wood containing between 8 and 15 buds) and spurs (one-year-old wood containing between two and three buds) originate [12].

2.3. Canes

The terms “stems”, “canes”, “stalks”, and “shoots” are sometimes used interchangeably in the literature. For the purpose of this review and on the basis of the literature surveyed, the shoot is the new green growth that develops from buds located on the cordons [24,25,46,47,48,49]. Once the leaves fall from the vine at the beginning of the dormant season, the brown and harden/woody shoot is considered a cane, which represents a large source of waste derived from the wine industry [40,50,51,52].

2.4. Stems

The stem consists of the stalk extending out to hold the grape cluster (also known as the bunchstem) and the “stem” of the individual grape berry (also called the pedicel by some authors) [9,37,50,53,54,55,56,57,58].

2.5. Leaves

Leaves are the most visible parts of the canopy and consist of the blade (the broad, flat part of the leaf designed to absorb sunlight and CO2), and the petiole (the stem-like structure that connects the leaf to the shoot) [4,5,11,19,22,32,59,60,61,62,63,64].

3. Extraction, Separation, and Identification of Phenolic Compounds in Grapevine

In grapevine varieties, polyphenols are present as constitutive compounds of the lignified organs (roots, canes, seeds, stems, ripe cluster stems) and/or as induced substances in leaves and berries. In the frame of a long-term project aimed at investigating the physiological and molecular responses of grapevine to trunk diseases [15], several papers that contained the terms “grapevine, grape, vine, vineyard, or vitis” in their titles, plus one of the following terms: “phenolic, polyphenol, flavonoid, anthocyanin, proanthocyanidin, tannin, stilbene, stilbenoid, bioactive, bioactivity, antioxidant, antioxidative, metabolite, metabolic, metabolomic, metabolome, leaf, stem, root, wood, cordon, cane, trunk, phytoalexin, defense, resistance”, or terms related to the specific diseases and pathogens of grapevine, were retrieved from citation databases; 80 papers were analyzed that primarily reported on the presence and levels of polyphenols in the vegetative organs (Tables S1 and S2). The term “polyphenol” is used in this review to indicate both the compounds with a second aromatic ring and those arising from the polymerization of flavonoidic/catechin units. Despite their structural diversity, all polyphenols share a common structure element, which consists of a benzene ring to which more than one hydroxyl group is attached [65].

The surveyed literature shows that many extraction methods have been tested, and that several analytical methods using numerous techniques have been developed for the investigation of polyphenols in grapevine, including high-performance liquid chromatography (HPLC) coupled with diode array detection (LC–DAD), HPLC coupled with mass spectrometry (LC–MS, LC–MS/MS), and nuclear magnetic resonance (NMR) [24,28,36,66,67]. Different advantages and disadvantages are associated with each analytical system. Analysis by HPLC–DAD (or HPLC/UV–VIS) is limited by similar or identical absorption maxima of target compounds belonging to the same structural class of polyphenols. Other problems such as lack of baseline resolution, leading to overestimation of individual compound levels, may exist, along with poor sensitivity [16,17,36]. Because of its high selectivity, LC–MS/MS with electrospray ionization (ESI), atmospheric pressure photoionization (APPI), or chemical ionization (APCI) enables the sensitive and simultaneous detection and identification of a large number of (even co-eluting) compounds from a single chromatogram and is therefore the method of choice when libraries are available. MS also enables reductions in the process of sample preparation from extracts [10,68]. NMR, on the other hand, is a non-destructive high throughput method that allows metabolite identification and quantification. It is, however, significantly less sensitive than MS, although more reproducible, especially in long-term studies where samples collected and analyzed over different time periods have to be compared. NMR is also an invaluable tool for the de novo structure determination of compounds [16,59]. In all cases, however, precise conditions are required to achieve a complete qualitative survey of all metabolites over a significant dynamic range in a complex plant extract. Depending on the optimization of extraction and detection parameter settings, two large groups of chemical compounds with phenolic characteristics—that are classified into several structure classes—are clearly delineated in grapevine and are separately discussed in this paper.

The first group comprises phenolic acids (hydroxybenzoic and hydroxycinnamic acids), flavonoids (e.g., flavonols, anthocyanins, proanthocyanidins), and coumarins, which are usually present as preformed compounds in the tissues. Indeed, HPLC in gradient mode on reversed phase C18 columns provides a means to separate most of these compounds in a single chromatography run without the need for derivatization. Due to their structural complexity, however, proanthocyanidins are more easily separated alone by hydrophilic interaction liquid chromatography (HILIC) according their degree of polymerization, or by reverse-phase chromatography, although some of them coelute [69].

The second group is constituted of stilbenic compounds (stilbenes that bear the core structure of 1,2-diphenylethylene and stilbenoids that are hydroxylated derivatives of stilbenes). Several of these compounds are produced naturally by several plants upon attack by pathogens [8,14,70,71]. Because of their dynamic behavior as responses to stresses, the detection of stilbenes requires methods that can be used for monitoring their differential response in various phytopathologic situations [61,71]. Their extraction generally requires specialized instrumentation and expertise, for instance, sample cleaning techniques such as solid phase extraction (SPE), sample dilution, selective extraction, or use of stable isotopes. Most of the qualitative or quantitative analytical studies of stilbenes are performed with HPLC and in an increasing sensitivity order UV, fluorescence (FD), electrochemical (ECD), or MS detection [36,50,52]. A method for the simultaneous separation of proanthocyanidins and stilbenoids has been reported, using a comprehensive bi-dimensional chromatography, with a diol stationary phase in the first dimension and a C18 stationary phase in the second dimension [50,72].

4. Polyphenols (Excluding Stilbenes) Identified in the Vegetative Organs of Grapevine

Phenolic compounds produced by grapevine range from cell wall-thickening compounds such as lignin and tannins, to specialized compounds such as phenolic acids and flavonoids. The chemical characterization of these compounds is based on analysis of different groups of components individually by LC–MS, mainly in negative ionization mode, although some LC–MS methods in positive-ion mode have been reported [16]. With high-resolution MS, compounds are identified by processing raw data with specific algorithms to calculate molecular formulae on the basis of the monoisotopic mass of the [M–H] ion and the relative abundances and distances (spacing) of m/z signals measured in the isotopic pattern. Metabolites are then identified by searching in the available MS databases, in comparison with UV spectra patterns reported in the literature [16]. In Table 1, a database specific to grapevine phenolics containing 105 metabolites, including their specific MS and UV information, is provided.

Table 1.

Polyphenols (excluding stilbenes) in the vegetative organs of the grapevine plant.

ID 1 Compound Group Compound
Name 1
Chemical Formula 2 MW (g/mol) [M–H]– Main MS/MS Fragments (m/z) 3,4 λmax (CH3OH) (nm) Detection Mode 5 Tissue Distribution 6
LEAVES STEMS CANES WOODS ROOTS
1 Hydroxybenzoic acid Quinic acid C7H12O6 192.167 191 111, 173, 85, 127 308, 280 MS
2 Hydroxybenzoic acid Gallic acid C7H6O5 170.120 169 125, 124, 79, 51 278, 214 MS, NMR, DAD
4 Hydroxybenzoic acid Protocatechuic acid C7H6O4 154.121 153 109, 108 297, 258 MS
7 Hydroxybenzoic acid p-Hydroxybenzoic acid C7H6O3 138.122 137 93, 60, 79, 108, 118, 137 272, 310sh MS
8 Hydroxybenzoic acid Gentisic acid C7H6O4 154.121 153 109, 81, 42, 108 281, 228, 330sh MS
9 Hydroxybenzoic acid γ-Resorcylic acid C7H6O4 154.121 153 109, 136, 154, 110, 52, 80, 137, 39, 155 313, 245 MS
30 Hydroxybenzoic acid Vanillic acid C8H8O4 168.149 167 123, 152, 108, 91 292, 260 MS, NMR, DAD
36 Hydroxybenzoic acid Syringic acid C9H10O5 198.174 197 182, 153, 167, 138 276 MS, NMR, DAD
50 Hydroxybenzoic acid Ellagic acid C14H6O8 302.194 301 284, 300, 257, 229, 184 367, 256, 301sh MS
14 Hydroxycinnamic acid 1-O-Sinapoyl-β-D-glucose C17H22O10 386.353 385 223, 205, 341, 265, 190, 179, 119, 247 282 MS
16 Hydroxycinnamic acid 1-O-(4-Coumaroyl)-glucose C15H18O8 326.301 325 163, 145, 119, 187, 265, 205 322 MS
20 Hydroxycinnamic acid 1-Caffeoyl-β-D-glucose C15H18O9 342.300 341 179, 161, 143, 149, 131, 135 290, 304sh, 328 MS
21 Hydroxycinnamic acid Ferulic acid pentose NA NA 325 149, 178, 193 326, 275 MS
22 Hydroxycinnamic acid Caftaric acid isomer C13H11O9 311.224 311 179, 135, 149 325, 286 MS
24 Hydroxycinnamic acid Caftaric acid C13H12O9 312.230 311 179, 135, 149, 267, 161, 237 326, 298sh, 243 MS, NMR, DAD
27 Hydroxycinnamic acid Coutaric acid C13H12O8 296.231 295 163, 149, 119 316, 234, 300sh MS, DAD
28 Hydroxycinnamic acid Chlorogenic acid C16H18O9 354.311 353 191, 179, 135, 161, 335, 172, 284 328, 244, 303sh MS, DAD
31 Hydroxycinnamic acid Chicoric acid C22H18O12 474.374 473 311, 293, 179, 149, 135, 219 328, 305sh, 279 MS
32 Hydroxycinnamic acid Fertaric acid C14H14O9 326.259 325 193, 175, 149, 281, 134 314, 279 MS
35 Hydroxycinnamic acid Caffeic acid C9H8O4 180.159 179 135, 134, 96 324, 299sh, 240 MS, NMR, DAD
43 Hydroxycinnamic acid p-Coumaric acid C9H8O3 164.160 163 119, 104, 93 310, 225, 211, 310sh MS, NMR, DAD
46 Hydroxycinnamic acid Ferulic acid C10H10O4 194.186 193 134, 149, 178, 116 323, 289, 238sh MS, NMR, DAD
48 Hydroxycinnamic acid Sinapic acid C11H12O5 224.212 223 164, 149, 208, 164, 193, 179 318, 238 MS
83 Hydroxycinnamic acid Cinnamic acid C9H8O2 148.161 147 103, 77, 87, 129 276, 215, 203 DAD
3 Flavan-3-ol Gallocatechin C15H14O7 306.270 305 179, 221, 219, 165, 261, 125, 137 274, 370 MS
6 Flavan-3-ol Procyanidin B1 C30H26O12 578.526 577 425, 407, 289, 451, 287, 245, 451 275, 322 MS, NMR, DAD
10 Flavan-3-ol Procyanidin A1 C30H24O12 576.501 575 449, 289, 423, 539, 477, 407, 441 280 MS
15 Flavan-3-ol Epigallocatechin C15H14O7 306.270 305 179, 165, 219, 221, 261, 125, 261, 125 274, 212, 235 MS
18 Flavan-3-ol Procyanidin C1 C45H38O18 866.778 865 695, 407, 577, 287, 713, 739, 575, 425, 289 279 MS, DAD
19 Flavan-3-ol Procyanidin T2 C45H38O18 866.778 865 577, 713, 289, 287, 425, 575, 695, 407, 739 280 MS, DAD
23 Flavan-3-ol Catechin C15H14O6 290.271 289 245, 203, 179, 205, 227, 109, 123, 165, 125, 151 275, 222 MS, NMR, DAD
25 Flavan-3-ol Procyanidin B3 C30H26O12 578.526 577 425, 407, 289, 151, 559, 445 270, 330 MS, NMR, DAD
26 Flavan-3-ol Procyanidin B4 C30H26O12 578.526 577 425, 407, 289 280, 240 MS, DAD
29 Flavan-3-ol Procyanidin B2 C30H26O12 578.526 577 425, 407, 289, 451, 287, 245, 125 280, 240, 370 MS, NMR, DAD
37 Flavan-3-ol Epigallocatechin gallate C22H18O11 458.375 457 305, 219, 261, 221, 359, 169, 305, 289, 271, 125, 331 274, 238 MS, DAD
38 Flavan-3-ol Prodelphinidin A-type C30H26O13 594.527 593 425, 441, 573, 423, 407, 289, 531, 273, 339, 245, 177, 161 276, 228, 320 MS
39 Flavan-3-ol Procyanidin dimer gallate NA NA 729 577, 407, 559, 451, 711, 289, 593, 437, 425 280 MS, DAD
40 Flavan-3-ol Epicatechin C15H14O6 290.271 289 245, 203, 109, 179, 205, 123, 125, 151 277, 226 MS, NMR, DAD
42 Flavan-3-ol Gallocatechin gallate C22H18O11 458.375 457 169, 161, 359, 331, 169, 305, 193 276, 240 MS
47 Flavan-3-ol Epicatechin gallate C22H18O10 442.376 441 289, 245, 205, 169, 125, 331, 271, 179 278, 240 MS, NMR, DAD
61 Flavan-3-ol Catechin gallate C22H18O10 442.376 441 289, 245, 205, 331, 169, 125, 425, 271, 395, 169, 193, 405 278 MS
33 Anthocyanin Delphinidin-3-O-glucoside C21H21O12+ 465.387 463 301, 300, 271, 125 526, 361, 277, 402sh DAD
34 Anthocyanin Cyanidin-3-O-glucoside C21H21O11+ 449.388 447 284, 211, 285, 255, 147, 227 516, 262, 301sh MS, DAD
44 Anthocyanin Petunidin-3-O-glucoside C22H23O12+ 479.414 477 314, 315, 299, 300 526, 344sh, 277 DAD
45 Anthocyanin Peonidin-3-O-glucoside C22H23O11+ 463.415 461 299, 298, 284, 255, 227, 211 517, 280, 330sh, 421sh MS, DAD
52 Anthocyanin Malvidin-3-O-glucoside C23H25O12+ 493.441 491 329, 314, 299 528, 348sh, 288 MS, DAD
59 Anthocyanin Petunidin-3-(6-O-acetyl)glucoside C24H25O13+ 521.451 519 315, 302, 274, 149 528, 270, 350sh DAD
62 Anthocyanin Peonidin-3-(6-O-acetyl)glucoside C24H25O12+ 505.452 504 301 , 286, 230, 258, 268 522, 280 DAD
67 Anthocyanin Malvidin-3-(6-O-acetyl)glucoside C25H27O13+ 535.478 533 329, 315 522, 344, 278 DAD
72 Anthocyanin Cyanidin-3-(6-O-coumaroyl)glucoside C30H27O13+ 595.533 593 287 , 259, 231, 213, 259 524, 314, 284, 449sh DAD
80 Anthocyanin Petunidin-3-(6-O-coumaroyl)glucoside C31H29O14+ 625.553 624 317 , 302, 274, 218, 228, 246 534, 282, 313 DAD
81 Anthocyanin Peonidin-3-(6-O-coumaroyl)glucoside C31H29O13+ 609.554 608 301 , 286, 230, 258, 268 522, 312 MS, DAD
85 Anthocyanin Malvidin-3-(6-O-coumaroyl)glucoside C32H31O14+ 639.586 637 329, 299, 281 534, 318 DAD
86 Anthocyanin Malvidin-3-(6-O-caffeoyl)glucoside C32H31O15+ 655.581 655 331, 299, 637, 315, 475 532, 324, 284 MS
87 Anthocyanin Malvidin-3-O-rutinoside C29H35O16+ 639.583 637 331 526, 288 MS
41 Flavanone Taxifolin C15H12O7 304.254 303 285, 125, 177, 275, 151, 259, 217 290, 326sh MS
55 Flavanone Taxifolin-O-pentoside C20H20O11 436.371 435 303, 285, 399, 151, 241, 217, 175 274, 317 MS
56 Flavanone Taxifolin-3-O-glucoside C21H22O12 466.395 465 285, 303, 151, 339, 177, 259, 447 290 MS
57 Flavanone Taxifolin-3-O-rhamnoside C21H22O11 450.396 449 303, 285, 151, 323, 431 292, 235 MS
88 Flavanone Hesperetin C16H14O6 302.282 301 258, 143, 157, 137, 286 284, 324sh, 221 MS
95 Flavanone Eriodictyol-7-O-glucoside C21H22O11 450.396 449 287, 269, 151, 135, 259, 225, 209, 431 281, 327 MS
103 Flavanone Naringenin C15H12O5 272.256 271 151, 177, 119, 165, 125, 107, 227, 191 289, 228, 336sh MS
104 Flavanone Naringenin-7-O-glucoside C21H22O10 434.397 433 271, 269, 313, 177, 151, 119, 107 282, 222 MS
49 Flavonol Myricetin-3-O-galactoside C21H20O13 480.378 479 317, 316, 178, 271 360, 265 MS, DAD
51 Flavonol Myricetin-3-O-glucuronide C21H18O14 494.361 493 317 353, 300sh, 261 MS, DAD
53 Flavonol Myricetin-3-O-glucoside C21H20O13 480.378 479 317, 316, 169, 271, 303, 227, 179, 151 362, 298sh, 260 MS, DAD
54 Flavonol Quercetin-3-O-rutinoside C27H30O16 610.521 609 301, 300, 271, 255, 179, 343, 151 353, 256, 294sh MS, NMR, DAD
58 Flavonol Quercetin-3-O-galactoside C21H20O12 464.379 463 301, 300, 179, 273, 257, 151 362, 256, 301sh MS, NMR, DAD
60 Flavonol Quercetin-3-O-glucoside C21H20O12 464.379 463 301, 300, 271, 161, 179, 255, 151 358, 256, 300sh MS, NMR, DAD
63 Flavonol Quercetin-3-O-glucuronide C21H18O13 478.362 477 301, 179, 151, 283, 459, 431, 501 356, 254, 300sh MS, NMR, DAD
65 Flavonol Myricetin-3-O-rhamnoside C21H20O12 464.379 463 317, 316, 271, 300, 179, 287, 151 372, 302sh, 248 MS
68 Flavonol Myricetin C15H10O8 318.237 317 151, 179, 137, 287, 271, 109, 192 372, 253, 303sh, 207 MS, NMR, DAD
69 Flavonol Quercetin-3-O-rhamnoside C21H20O11 448.380 447 301, 300, 179, 151, 271, 257 354, 258, 307sh MS, NMR, DAD
70 Flavonol Kaempferol-3-O-galactoside C21H20O11 448.380 447 285, 255, 227, 327 361, 260 MS
71 Flavonol Kaempferol-3-O-rutinoside C27H30O15 594.522 593 285, 257, 151, 447, 199, 241, 93 354, 274 MS, DAD
73 Flavonol Kaempferol-3-O-glucuronide C21H18O12 462.363 461 285, 267, 443, 417, 257, 229 348, 265 MS, DAD
74 Flavonol Quercetin-3-(6-O-acetyl)glucoside C23H22O13 506.416 505 301, 300, 463, 271, 255 354, 256, 267sh, 298sh MS
75 Flavonol Quercetin-3-(3-O-arabinosyl)glucoside C26H28O16 596.493 595 301, 517, 151, 300, 463, 179, 445, 271, 255 354, 260, 231 MS
76 Flavonol Quercetin-3-(7-O-glucosyl)glucuronide C27H28O18 640.503 639 477, 301, 179, 151 361, 300, 268, 256 DAD
77 Flavonol Quercetin-3-O-arabinose C20H18O11 434.350 433 301, 179, 151, 300, 283 358, 311 MS
78 Flavonol C33H40O21 772.662 771 609, 301 355, 259, 299sh, 204 NMR, DAD
79 Flavonol Kaempferol-3-O-glucoside C21H20O11 448.380 447 285, 255, 151, 227, 327, 243 348, 263, 297sh MS, DAD
82 Flavonol Quercetin C15H10O7 302.239 301 151, 179, 273, 193, 257, 229 372, 255, 202sh, 300sh MS, NMR, DAD
84 Flavonol Kaempferol C15H10O6 286.239 285 187, 117, 211, 127, 257, 151, 169, 241 369, 258, 390 MS, NMR, DAD
89 Flavonol Kaempferol-3-O-xyloside C20H18O10 418.354 417 285, 255, 227 350 MS
90 Flavonol Kaempferol-3-O-rhamnoside C21H20O10 432.381 431 285 351, 264, 202, 294sh MS
91 Flavonol Dihydrokaempferol-3-O-rhamnoside C21H22O10 434.397 433 269, 287, 259, 180, 151, 368 286, 230 MS
92 Flavonol Isorhamnetin-3-O-galactoside C22H22O12 478.406 477 315,.314 271, 300, 357 366, 289, 259 MS
93 Flavonol Isorhamnetin-3-O-glucoside C22H22O12 478.406 477 315, 314, 285, 357, 271 354, 265sh MS, DAD
94 Flavonol Quercetin-3-(6-O-rhamnosyl)galactoside C27H30O16 610.517 609 301, 541, 463, 300, 271, 255, 179, 447, 151 356, 256, 300 NMR, DAD
96 Flavonol Isorhamnetin-3-O-arabinose C21H20O11 448.381 447 315, 314, 271, 243 345, 258 MS
97 Flavonol Isorhamnetin-3-O-glucuronide C22H20O13 492.389 491 315, 255, 151 355, 265sh MS
98 Flavonol Isorhamnetin-3-O-rutinoside C28H32O16 624.548 623 315, 300, 468 354, 256 MS
99 Flavonol Isorhamnetin-3-(6-O-feruloyl)glucoside C32H30O15 654.577 653 315 320, 274 MS
100 Flavonol Isorhamnetin-3-(4-O-rhamnosyl)rutinoside C34H42O20 770.685 769 461, 623, 163 354, 256 MS, DAD
101 Flavonol Kaempferol-3-(6-O-coumaroyl)glucoside C30H26O13 594.525 593 285, 227, 255 317, 265, 356sh, 310sh MS
102 Flavonol Kaempferol-3 (7-O-glucosyl)galactoside C27H30O16 610.521 609 447, 489, 285 343, 300sh, 265 DAD
105 Flavonol Diquercetin-3-(3-O-glucosyl)glucuronide C42H36O24 924.722 923 765, 755, 837, 903, 935, 808 374 MS
64 Flavone Apigenin-7-O-glucoside C21H20O10 432.381 431 269, 283, 311, 413, 231, 225, 201, 197, 149 335, 269, 253 MS, NMR, DAD
66 Flavone Luteolin-7-O-glucoside C21H20O11 448.380 447 285, 226, 257, 217, 241, 198 349, 254sh, 205 MS, NMR, DAD
5 Coumarin Aesculin C15H16O9 340.282 339 133, 177, 150 346, 289 MS
11 Dihydrochalcone Phlorizin C21H24O10 436.413 435 273, 167, 229, 297 285, 230sh MS
12 Coumarin Fraxin C16H18O10 370.310 369 207, 192, 354, 149, 123 332, 308sh MS
13 Coumarin Aesculetin C9H6O4 178.143 177 149, 133, 105, 91, 115, 89, 65 334, 288sh MS
17 Coumarin Umbelliferone C9H6O3 162.144 161 133, 117, 105, 51, 78 323, 236 MS

1 Other reported names are found in Table S1, where compounds are numbered (ID) according to their elution patterns. 2 NA = not available or not applicable, MW = Molecular Weight. 3 MS-MS values in italic (compounds 62, 72, 80, 81) are reported in positive mode. 4 The most abundant fragments are highlighted in bold. 5 MS = mass spectrometry detection, NMR = nuclear magnetic resonance detection, DAD = diode array or ultraviolet detection. 6 In blue with √ are detected compounds; in light red are undetected compounds or unavailable information.

4.1. Hydroxycinnamic Acids

The phenylpropanoid pathway starts with the aromatic amino acid phenylalanine and leads to derivatives with one, two, or more aromatic rings (C6), each ring with a characteristic substitution pattern, and with different modifications of the propane residue of phenylalanine (C3) [35]. At least 15 hydroxycinnamic acids (moiety C6–C3) have been identified in the vegetative organs of grapevine, with different degrees of hydroxylation and methylation of C6. These include caftaric, coutaric, chlorogenic, chicoric, fertaric, caffeic, p-coumaric, ferulic, sinapic, and cinnamic acids, and some of their derivatives, that is, 1-O-sinapoyl-β-D-glucose, 1-O-(4-coumaroyl)-glucose, 1-caffeoyl-β-D-glucose (reported as caffeic acid derivative by some authors), ferulic acid pentose (reported as ferulic acid derivative by some authors), and a caftaric acid isomer (Table 1) [20,32,46,47,53,73,74].

4.2. Hydroxybenzoic Acids

The cleavage of a C2 fragment from the aliphatic side chain of p-coumaric acid leads to hydroxybenzoic acids (C6–C1) [35], and nine have been reported in the vegetative organs of grapevine: quinic, gallic, protocatechuic, p-hydroxybenzoic, gentisic, γ-resorcylic, vanillic, syringic, and ellagic acids, mostly detected in the leaves (Table 1) [4,32,47,73,75].

4.3. Flavan-3-Ols or Flavanols

The condensation of three C2 residues with an activated hydroxycinnamic acid produces metabolites with a second aromatic ring linked to the phenylpropanoid moiety, with a common C6-C3-C6 skeleton of flavonoids. The basic flavonoid chemical structure is the flavan nucleus, consisting of 15 carbon atoms arranged in two benzene rings (A and B) linked via a heterocyclic oxygen-containing pyran ring (C). The main classes of flavonoids differ in the level of oxidation and saturation of the C ring, the most relevant being flavan-3-ols including proanthocyanidins, anthocyanins, flavanones, flavonols, and flavones [35,65]. Flavan-3-ols exhibit a saturated C-ring hydroxylated in the 3-position. The A-ring of flavan-3-ols is generally hydroxylated in C5 and C7 and the B-ring in C4. Diversity arises from the substitution pattern of the B-ring and can be increased by galloylation and glucosylation of the 3-hydroxyl group [76]. The presence of two asymmetric carbons (in C2 and C3) opens the possibility for different stereoisomers, that is, 2R,3S (2,3-trans), 2R,3R (2,3-cis), 2S,3R (2,3-trans), and 2S,3S (2,3-cis) configurations. The following eight flavanol monomers are reported in grapevine leaves, stems, and canes: catechin, gallocatechin, epigallocatechin, epigallocatechin gallate, epicatechin, gallocatechin gallate, epicatechin gallate, and catechin gallate (Table 1) [32,59,69,73,77].

4.4. Proanthocyanidins

Proanthocyanidins, also known as condensed tannins, are both oligomeric and polymeric compounds arising from flavanol condensation. Linkages between constitutive flavan-3-ol units are found between C4 and C6 or C4 and C8 in the case of B-type proanthocyanidins. A-type are linked with additional C2-O-C7 or C2-O-C5 bonds. Substitution in the 4-position gives rise to another asymmetric center on extension and upper units, but the usual configuration is 3,4-trans (i.e., 3S,4S or 3R,4S). The chain length of one polymer is described by the degree of polymerization (DP), and the mean degree of polymerization (mDP) of a heterogeneous population of polymers [76]. The following nine proanthocyanidins are reported in grapevine leaves, stems, and canes: procyanidin A1, procyanidin B1, procyanidin B2, procyanidin B3, procyanidin B4, procyanidin C1, procyanidin T2, prodelphinidin A-type (reported as epigallocatechin-epicatechin dimer by some authors), and a procyanidin dimer gallate (Table 1) [33,50,53,69,76,77].

4.5. Anthocyanins

Anthocyanins share the same molecular structure of flavonoids composed by one heterocyclic benzopyran ring (as the C ring), one fused aromatic ring (as the A ring), and one phenyl constituent (as the B ring). Nevertheless, they differ on the basis of hydroxyl or methoxyl substitutions in the lateral phenyl B ring, and, in general, for glycosylations and esterifications. Anthocyanins of Vitis are structurally based on five aglycones/anthocyanidins—malvidin, cyanidin, delphinidin, peonidin, and petunidin—which differentiate on the basis of number and position of their hydroxyl groups and their degree of methylation. Acylation occurs at the C6 position of the glucose molecule by esterification with acetic, p-coumaric, and caffeic acids [77,78]. Anthocyanins have been mainly reported in the leaves of grapevine (at least 14) and include: delphinidin-3-O-glucoside, cyanidin-3-O-glucoside, cyanidin-3-(6-O-coumaroyl)glucoside, petunidin-3-O-glucoside, petunidin-3-(6-O-acetyl)glucoside, petunidin-3-(6-O-coumaroyl)glucoside, peonidin-3-O-glucoside, peonidin-3-(6-O-acetyl)glucoside, peonidin-3-(6-O-coumaroyl)glucoside, malvidin-3-O-glucoside, malvidin-3-(6-O-acetyl)glucoside, malvidin-3-(6-O-coumaroyl)glucoside, malvidin-3-(6-O-caffeoyl)glucoside, and malvidin-3-O-rutinoside (Table 1) [4,5,77,78,79].

4.6. Flavones

Flavones are the simplest members of the class of flavonoids and consist of 4H-chromen-4-one bearing a phenyl substituent at position 2 [65]. Among the flavonoids naturally occurring in grapevine, flavones represent the least common group of aromatic compounds with only apigenin-7-O-glucoside and luteolin-7-O-glucoside reported in the leaves (Table 1) [4].

4.7. Flavonols

Chemically, flavonols or 3-hydroxyflavones differ from many other flavonoids in that they have a double bond between positions 2 and 3 and an oxygen (a ketone group) in position 4 of the C ring, like flavones; however, they differ from flavones due to the presence of a hydroxyl group at the position 3. Most of the flavonols exist as O-glycosides and seldomly as C-glycosides, and their conjugated derivatives (glycones) are mainly bound to sugars, hydroxycinnamic acids, or organic acids [35]. Flavonols make up the largest group of flavonoid compounds encountered in grapevine leaves and stems, with at least 35 compounds reported in the literature (Table 1) [1,2,4,5,32,34,59,66,77,79,80] derived from four aglycones: myricetin, quercetin, kaempferol, and isorhamnetin:

  • -

    Myricetin, myricetin-3-O-galactoside, myricetin-3-O-glucuronide, myricetin-3-O-glucoside, and myricetin-3-O-rhamnoside;

  • -

    Quercetin, quercetin-3-O-rutinoside, quercetin-3-O-galactoside, quercetin-3-O-glucoside, quercetin-3-O-glucuronide, quercetin-3-O-rhamnoside, quercetin-3-(6-O-acetyl)glucoside, quercetin-3-(3-O-arabinosyl)glucoside, quercetin-3-(7-O-glucosyl)glucuronide, quercetin-3-O-arabinose (reported as quercetin-O-pentoside by some authors), quercetin-3-(3-O-rhamnosyl)glucoside-7-O-rhamnoside, quercetin-3-(6-O-rhamnosyl)galactoside, and diquercetin-3-(3-O-glucosyl)glucuronide;

  • -

    Kaempferol, kaempferol-3-O-galactoside, kaempferol-3-O-rutinoside, kaempferol-3-O-glucuronide, kaempferol-3-O-glucoside, kaempferol-3-O-xyloside (or kaempferol-O-pentoside by some authors), kaempferol-3-O-rhamnoside, dihydrokaempferol-3-O-rhamnoside, kaempferol-3-(6-O-coumaroyl)glucoside, and kaempferol-3-(7-O-glucosyl)galactoside (or kaempferol-3,7-diglucoside by some authors);

  • -

    Isorhamnetin-3-O-galactoside, isorhamnetin-3-O-glucoside, isorhamnetin-3-O-arabinose (or isorhamnetin-O-pentoside by some authors), isorhamnetin-3-O-glucuronide, isorhamnetin-3-O-rutinoside, isorhamnetin-3-(6-O-feruloyl)glucoside, and isorhamnetin-3-(4-O-rhamnosyl)rutinoside (or isorhamnetin diglycoside by some authors).

4.8. Flavanones

Flavanones (also called 2,3-dihydroxyflavones) lack the double bond between carbons 2 and 3 in the C-ring of the flavonoid skeleton, which is present in flavones and flavonols. Thus, flavanones are chiral at the C2 position, and are generally glycosylated by glucoside or disaccharide at position seven to give flavanone glycosides [65]. The following eight flavanones have been reported in the vine plant: taxifolin, taxifolin-O-pentoside, taxifolin-3-O-glucoside, taxifolin-3-O-rhamnoside, hesperetin, eriodictyol-7-O-glucoside, naringenin, and naringenin-7-O-glucoside (Table 1) [4,74].

4.9. Coumarins and Dihydrochalcones

Coumarins are 1,2-benzopyrones (fused benzene and α-pyrone rings) that are derived from the phenylpropanoid pathway, but can also be produced through the cleavage of O-hydroxycinnamic acid that exist in free or glycosylated forms. In studies aimed at identifying polyphenols in grapevine, the following compounds have been detected: aesculin, fraxin, aesculetin, umbelliferone (coumarins), and phlorizin (dihydrochalcone) (Table 1) [19,32,81,82].

4.10. Non-Phenolic Compounds

The literature surveyed reveals that at least eight non-phenolic compounds or volatile compounds are usually eluted with phenolic compounds, and these include pyrogallol and catechol (benzenediols), sinapaldehyde, syringaldehyde and coniferaldehyde (hydroxycinnamaldehydes), vanillin and acetovanillone (benzaldehydes), and arbutin (hydroquinone) (Table S1) [35,46,47,55,60,83]. Moreover, some still unknown compounds with phenolic characteristics have been reported, and their importance can be estimated only if their chemical structure is determined.

5. Stilbenic Compounds Identified in the Vegetative Organs of Grapevine

The condensation of three C2 residues with an activated hydroxycinnamic acid (as with flavonoids) produces stilbenes, which are metabolites with an essential structural skeleton of two aromatic rings joined by an ethylene bridge (C6–C2–C6) [31,50]. Stilbenes emit a blue fluorescence under UV light with excitation and emission peaks around 320 and 390 nm, respectively [52,63]; in fact, the name “stilbene” derives from the Greek word “stilbos”, which is translated as “shining” [16,36]. The chemical structure of stilbenes in both the monomeric and oligomeric states is constituted by a diphenylethylene group oriented in trans or cis. The presence of a cis-stilbenic chromophore gives rise to different spectra, with an absorption maximum of lower intensity and of shorter wavelength compared with that of the trans-isomer [61]. Light exposition of trans-stilbene solutions has been shown to partially photoisomerize stilbenes into cis forms [7,59,61]. There are several areas of confusion with stilbene nomenclature. According to current practice however, the trans/cis nomenclature is used to describe the stereochemistry at saturated rings, whereas the Z/E nomenclature is used to describe the stereochemistry of double bonds [8,13,61,64]. In this review, the trans/cis nomenclature is used, although at least two compounds have been reported with other nomenclatures, namely, miyabenol C and ε-viniferin. Both trans-E-miyabenol C and trans-Z-miyabenol C are reported in the literature [61]. In the case of ε-viniferin, there are two stereochemical centers, at positions 7a and 8a on the dihydrofuran ring, allowing for four potential stereoisomers: (+)-trans-ε-viniferin, (-)-trans-ε-viniferin), (+)-cis-ε-viniferin, and (-)-cis-ε-viniferin) [8].

Most stilbenes have been identified using NMR and MS, which are the most informative techniques. Using MS, the initial identification of compounds is performed on the exact mass measurement of the monoisotopic ion and isotopic pattern, enabling the molecular formula to be identified with a high-confidence score and low mass error. Exact mass measurements of MS/MS fragments either confirm or deny the putative structure. Because MS/MS cannot distinguish between isomeric compounds, tentative assignment is also based on comparisons with data found in the literature [13,16] and NMR profiles. In addition, UV−VIS data based on λmax and UV spectrum when available are compared with those in the literature [12,61]. With this approach, a total of 78 stilbenes have been successfully identified in the vegetative tissues of the vine plant. A database of these stilbenes is provided in Table 2; the masses, when available, are those derived from the negative ion LC−MS datasets. Mass data are usually in agreement among publications, with minor changes in product ions owing to different fragmentation conditions.

Table 2.

Stilbenic compounds in the vegetative organs of the grapevine plant.

ID 1 Compound Group Compound Name 1,2 Chemical Formula 3 MW (g/mol) [M–H]– Precursor Ion Main MS/MS Fragments (m/z) 4 λmax (CH3OH) (nm) Detection Mode 5 Tissue Distribution 6
LEAVES STEMS CANES WOODS ROOTS
106 Monomers trans-Astringin C20H22O9 406.383 405 243, 225, 201, 322, 159, 199, 173 331, 305 MS
107 Monomers trans-Resveratroloside C20H22O8 390.388 389 227, 185, 179, 269, 143, 305, 371, 209 311 MS
108 Monomers trans-Resveratrol-2-C-glucoside NA NA 389 269, 241, 299, 175, 163 326 MS, NMR
109 Monomers trans-Resveratrol-10-C-glucoside NA NA 435 389, 227 315 MS, NMR
110 Monomers trans-Resveratrol-O-glucoside C20H22O8 390.388 389 227, 305, 175, 185 321 MS, NMR
183 Monomers cis-Resveratrol-O-glucoside C20H23O8 391.391 389 227 319, 306 MS
113 Monomers trans-Piceid C20H22O8 390.383 389 227, 185, 251, 269, 209, 371, 143 318, 306, 229 MS, NMR, DAD
117 Monomers cis-Astringin C20H22O9 406.383 405 243, 225, 201, 322, 405, 159, 228, 157 324, 260 MS
119 Monomers trans-Piceatannol C14H12O4 244.246 243 175, 225, 149, 215, 201, 159, 181, 132, 199, 143 325, 290, 306 MS, NMR
120 Monomers cis-Resveratroloside C20H22O8 390.388 389 227, 371, 209 280 MS
121 Monomers cis-Piceid C20H22O8 390.383 389 227, 269, 241, 185, 209, 371, 143 284, 230 MS, NMR
122 Monomers trans-Isorhapontin C21H24O9 420.411 419 257, 241, 225, 175, 242, 201, 159, 281, 132 326, 303, 290 MS
123 Monomers trans-Resveratrol C14H12O3 228.247 227 185, 143, 183, 159, 157, 212, 205 306, 319, 228 MS, NMR, DAD
124 Monomers 2,4,6-Trihydroxyphenanthrene-2-O-glucoside C20H20O8 388.372 389 371, 353, 335, 227, 209, 199 261, 222 MS
126 Monomers trans-Isorhapontigenin C15H14O4 258.270 257 242, 241, 224, 172, 213, 185 325, 303, 290 MS
127 Monomers trans-Pinostilbene-4′-O-glucoside C21H24O8 404.410 403 241, 226, 225 NA MS
128 Monomers cis-Resveratrol C14H12O3 228.247 227 185, 159, 143, 157, 212, 143 285, 232 MS, NMR
145 Monomers trans-Pterostilbene C16H16O3 256.296 255 239, 197, 209, 226, 165 298, 305, 275 MS, NMR, DAD
146 Monomers cis-Pterostilbene C16H16O3 256.296 255 197, 239, 209, 226, 165 279 MS
153 Monomers cis-Isorhapontigenin C15H14O4 258.270 257 241, 213, 185, 224 318, 220 MS
154 Monomers trans-Rhaponticin C21H24O9 420.414 419 257, 241, 281, 299, 323, 405, 389, 243, 169, 395 324, 220 MS
155 Monomers trans-Pinostilbene C15H14O3 242.270 241 181, 225, 197, 169 NA MS
156 Monomers cis-Pinostilbene C15H14O3 242.270 241 181, 225, 197, 169 NA MS
111 Dimers Leachianol G C28H24O7 472.496 471 387, 377, 349, 255, 121 280, 218 MS, NMR
112 Dimers Leachianol F C28H24O7 472.496 471 349, 453, 255, 287, 153, 241, 121 280, 218 MS, NMR
114 Dimers Restrytisol A C28H24O7 472.486 471 377, 255, 349, 121, 471 280, 221 MS
115 Dimers Ampelopsin A C28H22O7 470.479 469 345, 451, 375, 363, 257, 357, 423, 317, 241 283 MS, NMR
116 Dimers Pallidol C28H22O6 454.478 453 359, 265, 435, 406, 391, 346, 273 284 MS, NMR
118 Dimers Caraphenol B C28H22O7 470.473 469 451, 281, 363, 375, 227, 423 326, 291 MS
130 Dimers Ampelopsin D C28H22O6 454.478 453 359, 361, 437, 215, 343, 199, 255, 289 314, 280 MS, NMR
131 Dimers Quadrangularin A C28H22O6 454.471 453 359, 289, 411, 435, 347, 253 314 MS, NMR
132 Dimers (+)-cis-ε-Viniferin C28H22O6 454.471 453 435, 347, 411, 333, 359, 369, 253 286, 201, 230 MS, NMR
134 Dimers (+)-trans-ε-Viniferin C28H22O6 454.471 453 359, 435, 347, 369, 411, 333, 253, 225 327, 285, 308 MS, NMR, DAD
135 Dimers Viniferifuran C28H20O6 452.455 451 NA 317, 289, 209 MS, NMR
136 Dimers Diptoindonesin A C34H32O11 616.610 615 453, 359, 411, 347, 585 326, 226 MS, NMR
141 Dimers trans-ω-Viniferin C28H22O6 454.478 453 435, 359, 347, 411, 395, 333, 285 324, 280 MS, NMR
144 Dimers cis-ω-Viniferin C28H22O6 454.478 453 435, 411, 395, 333, 285, 359, 225 294 MS. NMR
149 Dimers trans-δ-Viniferin C28H22O6 454.478 453 435, 369, 411, 347, 333, 359, 225, 409 312, 225 MS, DAD
152 Dimers cis-δ-Viniferin C28H22O6 454.478 453 435, 411, 369, 359, 333, 347, 317, 307, 251, 267 285, 232 MS
157 Dimers trans-ε-Viniferin derivative (dimethylated) C30H26O6 482.523 481 387, 375, 226, 197, 466 325 MS
158 Dimers trans-δ-Viniferin derivative (dimethylated) C30H26O6 482.523 481 397, 361, 439, 387, 463 313 MS
159 Dimers trans-Scirpusin A C28H22O7 470.470 469 375, 451, 385, 359, 241, 427, 728, 445, 287, 514, 955 320, 286, 204 MS, NMR
162 Dimers Maackin A C28H22O8 486.470 485 244, 226, 137 327, 288, 204 MS, NMR
164 Dimers trans-ε-Viniferin derivative (γ-lactam ring) C32H26O7N 936.550 536 NA NA MS, NMR
165 Dimers trans-Resveratrol derivative (γ-lactam ring) C18H16O4N 310.324 310 NA NA MS, NMR
171 Dimers Malibatol A C28H20O7 468.454 467 NA NA MS, NMR
172 Dimers Ampelopsin F C28H22O6 454.471 453 NA 282, 220 MS, NMR
176 Dimers Viniferal C35H26O8 574.579 573 NA NA MS, NMR
177 Dimers Vitisinol C C27H24O5 428.482 427 NA 358, 279 MS
178 Dimers Vitisinol E C27H24O6 444.475 444 NA 281, 230, 204 MS, NMR
179 Dimers Vitisinol B C35H26O8 574.579 573 NA 282, 228, 204 MS, NMR
181 Dimers Viniferether A C29H26O7 486.509 485 NA 280, 229 MS, NMR
182 Dimers Viniferether B C29H26O7 486.513 485 NA 280, 231 MS, NMR
125 Trimers Ampelopsin B C28H22O6 454.478 453 359, 243, 211, 183, 265 281, 328 MS, NMR
139 Trimers trans-Miyabenol C C42H32O9 680.698 679 661, 573, 479, 451, 637, 585, 447 322, 279 MS, NMR
140 Trimers cis-Miyabenol C C42H32O9 680.699 679 661, 573, 479, 451, 637, 585, 447 285 MS, NMR
142 Trimers Davidiol A C42H32O9 680.704 679 585, 447, 491, 385, 479, 465, 567 284, 219 MS
143 Trimers α-Viniferin C42H30O9 678.682 677 571, 583, 437, 449, 463, 501, 331 284, 309 MS, NMR
161 Trimers Ampelopsin C C42H32O9 680.709 679 NA 283 MS, NMR
169 Trimers Viniferol D C42H32O9 680.702 679 NA NA MS, NMR
173 Trimers Ampelopsin E C42H32O9 680.701 679 NA 325, 285 MS, NMR
129 Tetramers Hopeaphenol C56H42O12 906.925 905 811, 717, 451, 611, 359, 299 283, 226 MS, NMR
133 Tetramers Isohopeaphenol C56H42O12 906.925 905 451, 675, 811, 717, 358, 265 284 MS, NMR
137 Tetramers Ampelopsin H C56H42O12 906.925 905 811, 717, 705, 793 281 MS, NMR
138 Tetramers Vaticanol C-like isomer C56H42O12 906.929 905 811, 717, 793, 705, 611 281 MS, NMR
147 Tetramers Vitisin A (r2-viniferin) C56H42O12 906.920 905 811, 887, 717, 693, 545, 451, 359, 265 328, 285 MS, NMR
148 Tetramers Vitisifuran A C56H40O12 904.907 903 NA 322, 232 MS, NMR
150 Tetramers Vitisin B (r-viniferin) C56H42O12 906.920 905 799, 887, 811, 717, 545, 451, 359, 317 321, 286 MS, NMR
151 Tetramers Vitisifuran B C56H40O12 904.907 903 NA 324, 228 MS, NMR
160 Tetramers Vitisin C C56H42O12 906.926 905 NA NA MS, NMR
166 Tetramers Viniferol A C56H42O12 906.925 905 559, 813, 361, 453, 651, 541, 801, 783 284, 227 MS, NMR
167 Tetramers Viniferol B C56H42O12 906.929 905 559, 813, 361, 453, 651, 541, 801, 783 283, 225 MS, NMR
168 Tetramers Viniferol C C56H42O12 906.929 905 NA 284, 228 MS, NMR
170 Tetramers Viniferol E C56H44O13 924.940 923 NA 284, 231 MS, NMR
174 Tetramers Wilsonol C C56H42O12 906.929 905 NA 231 NMR
175 Tetramers Heyneanol A C56H42O12 906.929 905 320, 284 322, 237 NMR
180 Tetramers Stenophyllol C C56H42O12 906.923 905 NA 285, 330, 223 MS, NMR
163 Hexamers Viniphenol A C84H64O18 1361.391 1360 NA NA MS, NMR

1 Other reported names are found in Table S2, where compounds are numbered (ID) according to their elution patterns. 2 Another stilbene is reported in the literature as vitisinol E (compound 178), but with the formula C29H26O7, MW of 486,51, [M − H] − (m/z) of 485, λmax CH3OH of 358, 279, 253. 3 NA = not available or not applicable, MW = Molecular Weight. 4 The most abundant fragments are highlighted in bold. 5 MS = mass spectrometry detection, NMR = nuclear magnetic resonance detection, DAD = diode array or ultraviolet detection. 6 In blue with √ are detected compounds; in light red are undetected compounds or unavailable information.

The basic simple structure of stilbenes gives rise to a wide array of compounds that primarily vary in the number and position of hydroxyl groups and various substitutions with sugars, methyl, and methoxy groups, in addition to the structural conformations of the molecules and oligomerization patterns [8,31,39,68].

5.1. Monomeric Stilbenes

Of the total known V. vinifera stilbenes, 23 are monomers: trans-astringin, cis-astringin, trans-resveratroloside, cis-resveratroloside, trans-resveratrol-2-C-glucoside, trans-resveratrol-10-C-glucoside, trans-resveratrol-O-glucoside, cis-resveratrol-O-glucoside, trans-piceid, cis-piceid, trans-piceatannol, trans-isorhapontin, trans-resveratrol, cis-resveratrol, 2,4,6-trihydroxyphenanthrene-2-O-glucoside, trans-isorhapontigenin, cis-isorhapontigenin, trans-pinostilbene, cis-pinostilbene, trans-pinostilbene-4′-O-glucoside (or trans-pinostilbene-3-O-glucoside by some authors), trans-pterostilbene, cis-pterostilbene, and trans-rhaponticin (or trans-rhapontin by some authors) (Table 2) [7,31,40,50,53].

5.2. Dimeric Stilbenes

The majority of the stilbenoids in grapevine vegetative organs are dimers (30 in total): leachianol G, leachianol F, restrytisol A, ampelopsin A, ampelopsin D, ampelopsin F, pallidol, caraphenol B, quadrangularin, (+)-trans-ε-viniferin (and occasionally (-)-trans-ε-viniferin), (+)-cis-ε-viniferin (and occasionally (-)-cis-ε-viniferin), viniferifuran (reported as amurensin H by some authors), diptoindonesin A (reported as ε-viniferin-C-glucoside by some authors), trans-ω-viniferin, cis-ω-viniferin, trans-δ-viniferin, cis-δ-viniferin, a dimethylated derivative of trans-ε-viniferin, a dimethylated derivative of trans-δ-viniferin, trans-scirpusin A, maackin A, a derivative of trans-ε-viniferin with γ-lactam ring, a derivative of trans-resveratrol with γ-lactam ring, malibatol A, viniferal, vitisinol C, vitisinol E, vitisinol B, viniferether A, and viniferether B (Table 2). It is important to note that there are a number of instances where common names given to particular stilbenoids can lead to confusion. For instance, the name vitisinol E has been given to two different stilbenoid dimers by different authors [8,25,26,27,28,62].

5.3. Trimeric Stilbenes

There are eight trimers in V. vinifera vegetative organs: ampelopsin B, ampelopsin C, ampelopsin E, trans-miyabenol C, cis-miyabenol C, davidiol A, α-viniferin, and viniferol D (Table 2) [9,31,56,57,67].

5.4. Tetrameric Stilbenes

Among stilbene tetramers, the following 16 compounds are reported in the vegetative organs of grapevine: hopeaphenol, isohopeaphenol, ampelopsin H, vaticanol C-like isomer (or vaticanol C by some authors), vitisin A (r2-viniferin), vitisin B (r-viniferin), vitisifuran A, vitisifuran B, vitisin C, viniferol A, viniferol B, viniferol C, viniferol E, wilsonol C, heyneanol A, and stenophyllol C (reported as napalensinol B by some authors) (Table 2) [7,25,28,29,31,41,67].

5.5. Pentameric Stilbenes

Two stilbenes pentamers have been reported in the Vitis genus [39]. However, none have been detected in the vegetative organs.

5.6. Hexameric Stilbenes

Viniphenol A, a new resveratrol hexamer, is the only hexameric stilbene isolated from V. vinifera leaves (Table 2) [26].

6. Levels of Phenolic Compounds in the Leaves, Stems, Canes, Woods, and Roots of the Vine Plant

Several phenolic compounds have been quantified in grapevine, although absolute quantification is currently not available for many of them [9,55,59]. Most authors have reported their data on either a fresh or dry weigh basis (Tables S1 and S2). In analyzing the data for this review, mean values were first calculated using fresh and dry weight values separately, and then together. Although the separate analysis proved challenging because of few data points available for many of the compounds, the final ranking of phenolics was not affected by the method of calculation.

On another note, many of the compounds are quantified as equivalents of the most similar chemicals [12,13,51]. Comparison of the calibration curves showed that assays of content determination in vine of stilbenes in which equivalent chemicals are used as standards lead to a severe underestimation of the oligomer concentration. For example, the quantification of ε-viniferin using trans-resveratrol as standard underestimated its concentration by a factor > 2 in the study by [24]. Therefore, caution is required when interpreting the data presented in Table 3, Table 4, Table 5, Table 6, Table 7, Table 8, Table 9 and Table 10, taking into consideration the water status of the samples analyzed as reported by the different authors, and the number of studies and data points used in the calculation of mean values (Tables S1 and S2).

Table 3.

Levels (mg/kg) of 92 polyphenols (excluding stilbenes) identified in grapevine leaves.

Id Compound Name 1 Minimum Value 2,3 Maximum Value Mean Value 4 Standard Deviation N 5 References
63 Quercetin-3-O-glucuronide 868.63 46,528.55 10,305.10 13,363.51 10 [1,2,4,5,19,59,60,66,75,79,81,82,84,85,86]
58 Quercetin-3-O-galactoside 21.72 28,831.11 7436.94 9880.90 14 [2,3,5,20,22,73,75,79,81,85]
60 Quercetin-3-O-glucoside 27.65 22,610.13 7256.42 7628.71 24 [1,2,3,5,19,20,22,59,60,66,73,75,79,80,81,82,84,85,86]
24 Caftaric acid 12.46 14,052.62 4151.97 3984.79 18 [3,4,5,19,20,22,59,60,66,73,75,79,81,82,84,85,86]
69 Quercetin-3-O-rhamnoside 1210.53 4206.67 2708.60 1498.07 2 [1,2]
79 Kaempferol-3-O-glucoside 2.56 6203.85 1730.09 1812.15 20 [2,3,19,20,22,59,60,66,73,75,79,80,81,84,85,86]
73 Kaempferol-3-O-glucuronide 47.92 1698.41 662.34 736.83 3 [2,19,66,79,81,82,85,86]
27 Coutaric acid 4.54 1491.02 635.81 432.70 10 [3,19,20,22,73,75,79,81,82,85]
53 Myricetin-3-O-glucoside ND 850.12 291.23 254.65 8 [2,3,20,22,73,85]
54 Quercetin-3-O-rutinoside 1.30 1650.01 257.51 473.26 12 [2,4,5,32,73,75,79,81,82,85,87]
71 Kaempferol-3-O-rutinoside 0.12 730.01 200.34 307.13 4 [2,19,75,79,81,85,86]
32 Fertaric acid 85.48 85.48 85.48 0.00 1 [81,82]
7 p-Hydroxybenzoic acid 15.80 151.00 83.40 67.60 2 [19,32]
42 Gallocatechin gallate 20.10 78.70 49.40 29.30 2 [32]
68 Myricetin 1.00 193.28 44.75 74.37 5 [1,3,22,81,88]
3 Gallocatechin 4.84 102.00 40.20 43.85 3 [32,81,82]
5 Aesculin 1.60 50.70 25.63 20.06 3 [32,81]
15 Epigallocatechin 1.67 66.30 23.77 30.08 3 [32,81,82]
37 Epigallocatechin gallate 0.04 43.81 10.69 16.71 6 [32,73,81,82]
23 Catechin 0.02 76.58 10.62 21.44 18 [19,32,59,60,73,75,79,81,82,84,87,88]
46 Ferulic acid 0.008 89.80 9.07 25.61 11 [32,59,60,73,79,81,84]
82 Quercetin 0.13 52.17 8.84 16.55 16 [1,4,19,32,59,60,73,84,87,88]
6 Procyanidin B1 0.39 25.56 6.80 10.83 4 [73,75,79,81,82]
4 Protocatechuic acid 1.25 10.50 5.88 4.63 2 [32]
8 Gentisic acid 0.59 8.85 4.72 4.13 2 [32]
11 Phlorizin 2.95 2.95 2.95 0.00 1 [81,82]
2 Gallic acid 0.01 7.80 2.77 2.95 9 [32,79,81,82,87,88]
78 Quercetin-3-(3-O-rhamnosyl)glucoside-7-O-rhamnoside 1.32 4.21 2.77 1.44 2 [1]
40 Epicatechin 0.01 15.02 2.46 4.69 18 [32,59,60,73,75,79,81,82,84,87,88]
94 Quercetin-3-(6-O-rhamnosyl)galactoside 0.02 4.02 2.02 2.00 2 [1]
29 Procyanidin B2 0.35 5.69 1.91 2.21 4 [75,79,81,82]
47 Epicatechin gallate 0.01 8.45 1.74 2.57 9 [59,60,81,82,84,88]
28 Chlorogenic acid 0.01 11.50 1.74 3.70 8 [32,73,79,88]
35 Caffeic acid 0.003 19.60 1.68 4.84 15 [1,32,59,73,79,81,82,84,87,88]
25 Procyanidin B3 0.74 2.41 1.57 0.84 2 [75,81,82]
26 Procyanidin B4 0.61 2.38 1.49 0.89 2 [75,81,86]
93 Isorhamnetin-3-O-glucoside 1.48 1.48 1.48 0.00 1 [2,80,81,85]
84 Kaempferol 0.01 6.77 1.28 2.19 8 [1,32,59,60,84,86,88]
34 Cyanidin-3-O-glucoside 0.01 6.40 1.17 2.04 8 [4,5,59,60,77,78,79,84,88]
98 Isorhamnetin-3-O-rutinoside 1.12 1.12 1.12 0.00 1 [2,81]
43 p-Coumaric acid 0.01 8.17 0.92 2.42 10 [32,59,60,79,84,88]
64 Apigenin-7-O-glucoside 0.09 1.60 0.85 0.75 2 [1]
10 Procyanidin A1 0.72 0.72 0.72 0.00 1 [75]
66 Luteolin-7-O-glucoside 0.02 1.91 0.60 0.69 5 [1,4,73,81,82]
48 Sinapic acid 0.55 0.55 0.55 0.00 1 [81]
50 Ellagic acid 0.06 0.77 0.41 0.36 2 [32]
41 Taxifolin 0.37 0.37 0.37 0.00 1 [81]
83 Cinnamic acid 0.17 0.51 0.34 0.17 2 [79]
75 Quercetin-3-(3-O-arabinosyl)glucoside 0.31 0.31 0.31 0.00 1 [2,81]
89 Kaempferol-3-O-xyloside 0.23 0.23 0.23 0.00 1 [2,75]
45 Peonidin-3-O-glucoside 0.01 0.60 0.20 0.24 4 [5,77,78,79,88]
30 Vanillic acid 0.01 0.54 0.19 0.19 5 [77,78,79,81,88]
14 1-O-Sinapoyl-β-D-glucose 0.15 0.15 0.15 0.00 1 [75]
70 Kaempferol-3-O-galactoside 0.06 0.06 0.06 0.00 1 [2,75,85,86]
36 Syringic acid 0.01 0.07 0.04 0.03 2 [88]
52 Malvidin-3-O-glucoside 0.01 0.06 0.04 0.03 2 [1,2,3,4,5,19,32,59,66,75,77,78,79,80,81,82,84,85,86,88]
16 1-O-(4-Coumaroyl)-glucose 0.03 0.03 0.03 0.00 1 [75]
1 Quinic acid NQ NQ NQ NQ 0 [4,19]
9 γ-Resorcylic acid NQ NQ NQ NQ 0 [82]
12 Fraxin NQ NQ NQ NQ 0 [82]
13 Aesculetin NQ NQ NQ NQ 0 [19]
17 Umbelliferone NQ NQ NQ NQ 0 [19]
20 1-Caffeoyl-β-D-glucose NQ NQ NQ NQ 0 [81]
21 Ferulic acid pentose NQ NQ NQ NQ 0 [19]
22 Caftaric acid isomer NQ NQ NQ NQ 0 [85]
33 Delphinidin-3-O-glucoside NQ NQ NQ NQ 0 [77,78,79]
44 Petunidin-3-O-glucoside NQ NQ NQ NQ 0 [77,78,79]
49 Myricetin-3-O-galactoside NQ NQ NQ NQ 0 [2,79,85]
51 Myricetin-3-O-glucuronide NQ NQ NQ NQ 0 [2,79]
59 Petunidin-3-(6-O-acetyl)glucoside NQ NQ NQ NQ 0 [77]
61 Catechin gallate NQ NQ NQ NQ 0 [86]
62 Peonidin-3-(6-O-acetyl)glucoside NQ NQ NQ NQ 0 [79]
65 Myricetin-3-O-rhamnoside NQ NQ NQ NQ 0 [2]
67 Malvidin-3-(6-O-acetyl)glucoside NQ NQ NQ NQ 0 [77,79]
72 Cyanidin-3-(6-O-coumaroyl)glucoside NQ NQ NQ NQ 0 [77]
74 Quercetin-3-(6-O-acetyl)glucoside NQ NQ NQ NQ 0 [19]
76 Quercetin-3-(7-O-glucosyl)glucuronide NQ NQ NQ NQ 0 [80]
80 Petunidin-3-(6-O-coumaroyl)glucoside NQ NQ NQ NQ 0 [77]
81 Peonidin-3-(6-O-coumaroyl)glucoside NQ NQ NQ NQ 0 [2,77,79]
85 Malvidin-3-(6-O-coumaroyl)glucoside NQ NQ NQ NQ 0 [77,79]
88 Hesperetin NQ NQ NQ NQ 0 [4]
90 Kaempferol-3-O-rhamnoside NQ NQ NQ NQ 0 [2]
92 Isorhamnetin-3-O-galactoside NQ NQ NQ NQ 0 [2,85]
95 Eriodictyol-7-O-glucoside NQ NQ NQ NQ 0 [19]
96 Isorhamnetin-3-O-arabinose NQ NQ NQ NQ 0 [2]
97 Isorhamnetin-3-O-glucuronide NQ NQ NQ NQ 0 [2]
100 Isorhamnetin-3(4-O-rhamnosyl)rutinoside NQ NQ NQ NQ 0 [2,80,85]
101 Kaempferol-3-(6-O-coumaroyl)glucoside NQ NQ NQ NQ 0 [4]
102 Kaempferol-3 (7-O-glucosyl)galactoside NQ NQ NQ NQ 0 [80]
103 Naringenin NQ NQ NQ NQ 0 [82]
104 Naringenin-7-O-glucoside NQ NQ NQ NQ 0 [82]
105 Diquercetin-3-(3-O-glucosyl)glucuronide NQ NQ NQ NQ 0 [66]

1 Compounds 33, 43, 52, 59, 62, 67, 72, 76, 80, 83, 85, and 102 are detected using only UV. 2 ND = not detected. 3 NQ = not quantified by the authors. 4 Fresh and dry weight data were combined for the calculations, without any conversion. 5 N = number of data points used in the calculation of the mean value, and made of minimum, maximum, and average values extracted from each reference.

Table 4.

Levels (mg/kg) of 40 stilbenic compounds identified in grapevine leaves.

Id Compound Name Minimum Value 1,2 Maximum Value Mean Value 3 Standard Deviation N 4 References
123 trans-Resveratrol ND 1886.80 137.88 444.15 24 [6,10,11,19,23,32,59,60,61,62,63,64,68,70,73,81,82,84,87,88,89]
138 Vaticanol C-like isomer ND 226.80 96.85 102.35 6 [61,81,82,89]
121 cis-Piceid ND 368.40 78.38 132.57 6 [10,62,63,64,68,81,82]
119 trans-Piceatannol ND 232.10 78.04 108.94 5 [23,63,82,88]
137 Ampelopsin H ND 226.80 76.08 106.58 6 [61,81,82,89]
143 α-Viniferin ND 189.06 71.61 75.19 6 [10,61,81,89]
140 cis-Miyabenol C ND 148.60 50.67 69.29 6 [61,81,82,89]
110 cis-Resveratrol-3-O-glucoside ND 232.63 47.41 83.30 6 [59,60,84]
113 trans-Piceid ND 170.23 44.71 64.69 17 [6,10,11,23,61,62,63,64,68,70,73,81,82,89]
139 trans-Miyabenol C ND 121.30 41.57 56.43 6 [61,81,82,89]
149 trans-δ-Viniferin 1.09 165.71 35.55 53.31 8 [6,10,11,62,68,70,82]
120 cis-Resveratroloside 15.20 37.50 26.35 11.15 2 [63]
134 (+)-trans-ε-Viniferin ND 98.20 25.11 35.79 15 [6,10,11,23,61,62,68,70,73,81,82,89]
130 Ampelopsin D ND 67.60 22.78 31.70 6 [10,61,81,82,89]
141 trans-ω-Viniferin ND 63.55 21.35 29.84 6 [10,61,81,82,89]
144 cis-ω-Viniferin ND 63.55 21.24 29.92 6 [10,61,81,82,89]
128 cis-Resveratrol ND 53.10 19.46 20.50 4 [62,63,64,73,82]
107 trans-Resveratroloside 7.50 21.80 14.65 7.15 2 [63]
116 Pallidol ND 26.71 11.52 12.09 6 [61,81,82,89]
131 Quadrangularin A ND 33.80 11.29 15.92 6 [10,61,81,82,89]
133 Isohopeaphenol ND 131.17 7.12 12.33 6 [61,81,82,89]
153 cis-Isorhapontigenin 0.10 13.00 6.55 6.45 2 [63]
122 trans-Isorhapontin 0.07 21.30 6.44 8.69 4 [63,81,82]
126 trans-Isorhapontigenin 0.10 9.60 4.85 4.75 2 [63]
145 trans-Pterostilbene ND 10.83 3.92 4.24 10 [6,10,61,62,64,68,70,82,89]
132 (+)-cis-ε-Viniferin ND 7.31 1.83 3.17 4 [10,62,68,82,89]
106 trans-Astringin 0.04 7.60 3.02 3.09 4 [63,81,82]
152 cis-δ-Viniferin ND 3.42 1.71 1.71 2 [62,68]
127 trans-Pinostilbene-4′-O-glucoside 0.10 3.30 1.70 1.60 2 [63]
117 cis-Astringin 0.20 2.10 1.15 0.95 2 [63]
155 trans-Pinostilbene 0.10 2.00 1.05 0.95 2 [63]
154 trans-Rhaponticin 0.10 1.80 0.95 0.85 2 [63]
156 cis-Pinostilbene 0.10 0.30 0.20 0.10 2 [63]
114 Restrytisol A NQ NQ NQ NQ 0 [10]
124 2,4,6-Trihydroxyphenanthrene-2-O-glucoside NQ NQ NQ NQ 0 [64]
125 Ampelopsin B NQ NQ NQ NQ 0 [10]
142 Davidiol A NQ NQ NQ NQ 0 [10]
146 cis-Pterostilbene NQ NQ NQ NQ 0 [10]
157 trans-ε-Viniferin derivative (dimethylated) NQ NQ NQ NQ 0 [10]
158 trans-δ-Viniferin derivative (dimethylated) NQ NQ NQ NQ 0 [10]

1 ND = not detected. 2 NQ = not quantified by the authors. 3 Fresh and dry weight data were combined for the calculations, without any conversion. 4 N = number of data points used in the calculation of the mean value, and made of minimum, maximum, and average values extracted from each reference.

Table 5.

Levels (mg/kg) of 41 polyphenols (excluding stilbenes) identified in grapevine stems.

Id Compound Name 1 Minimum Value 2 Maximum Value Mean Value 3 Standard Deviation N 4 References
58 Quercetin-3-O-galactoside 1920.34 41,831.70 17,403.61 15,457.56 4 [21,50]
23 Catechin 283.72 98,290.95 14,900.45 27,191.10 12 [9,21,37,50,53,55,69,74,90]
2 Gallic acid 386.54 32,960.41 10,307.36 13,374.20 4 [9,21,34,37,55]
40 Epicatechin 193.61 33,154.03 9251.64 12,435.12 14 [9,21,33,50,53,54,55,69,90]
6 Procyanidin B1 215.36 50,709.00 9216.18 14,385.61 10 [9,33,37,50,53,54,55,69]
19 Procyanidin T2 1388.90 35,015.04 9100.99 8406.54 2 [9,34,50,55,69]
25 Procyanidin B3 186.04 23,108.65 8724.23 5791.29 4 [9,21,55,69]
47 Epicatechin gallate 2371.55 9862.08 6362.96 2950.30 6 [9,21,33,54,55]
18 Procyanidin C1 305.51 9710.00 5007.76 4702.25 2 [9,50,55,69]
82 Quercetin 321.88 8210.20 4266.04 3944.16 2 [21]
24 Caftaric acid 110.35 16,110.62 3373.18 5723.49 6 [33,54,74,87]
26 Procyanidin B4 131.00 4355.20 2243.10 2112.10 2 [69]
39 Procyanidin dimer gallate 110.04 4358.12 2234.08 2124.04 2 [9,33,34,50,54,69]
29 Procyanidin B2 10.49 6670.76 2056.93 2735.52 4 [9,21,50,53,55,69,74]
60 Quercetin-3-O-glucoside 29.88 7270.12 1785.38 2544.06 6 [9,21,37,53,55,90]
69 Quercetin-3-O-rhamnoside 320.20 2820.00 1570.10 1249.90 2 [21]
10 Procyanidin A1 674.91 1833.85 1254.38 579.47 4 [33,50,54]
84 Kaempferol 70.12 1830.57 950.35 880.23 2 [21]
63 Quercetin-3-O-glucuronide 391.52 1424.35 908.82 469.54 6 [33,34,37,54,74]
87 Malvidin-3-O-rutinoside 451.00 628.77 539.89 88.88 4 [33,54]
52 Malvidin-3-O-glucoside 224.88 801.37 513.13 288.25 4 [33,54]
43 p-Coumaric acid 12.00 934.08 473.04 461.04 2 [9,21,55]
35 Caffeic acid 10.18 647.32 328.75 318.57 2 [9,21,55]
38 Prodelphinidin A-type 27.46 292.88 160.17 132.71 2 [33,50,54]
99 Isorhamnetin-3-(6-O-feruloyl)glucoside 81.10 115.07 98.09 16.99 4 [33,54]
86 Malvidin-3-(6-O-caffeoyl)glucoside 47.33 119.20 83.27 35.94 4 [33,54]
71 Kaempferol-3-O-rutinoside 21.99 127.39 74.69 52.70 4 [33,54]
54 Quercetin-3-O-rutinoside 10.55 126.73 65.84 46.33 6 [21,33,34,54,74,90]
79 Kaempferol-3-O-glucoside 20.14 79.08 49.61 29.47 4 [33,54]
36 Syringic acid 6.48 32.23 19.36 12.88 2 [21]
46 Ferulic acid 8.01 25.55 16.78 8.77 2 [9,21,55]
16 1-O-(4-Coumaroyl)-glucose NQ NQ NQ NQ 0 [53]
20 1-Caffeoyl-β-D-glucose NQ NQ NQ NQ 0 [53]
21 Ferulic acid pentose NQ NQ NQ NQ 0 [9,55]
31 Chicoric acid NQ NQ NQ NQ 0 [9,55]
55 Taxifolin-O-pentoside NQ NQ NQ NQ 0 [9,55]
56 Taxifolin-3-O-glucoside NQ NQ NQ NQ 0 [53]
57 Taxifolin-3-O-rhamnoside NQ NQ NQ NQ 0 [9,34,55,74]
61 Catechin gallate NQ NQ NQ NQ 0 [53]
77 Quercetin-3-O-arabinose NQ NQ NQ NQ 0 [50]
91 Dihydrokaempferol-3-O-rhamnoside NQ NQ NQ NQ 0 [9,55]

1 Compound 52 is detected using only UV. 2 NQ = not quantified by the authors. 3 Fresh and dry weight data were combined for the calculations, without any conversion. 4 N = number of data point used in the calculation of the mean value, and made of minimum, maximum, and average values extracted from each reference.

Table 6.

Levels (mg/kg) of 47 stilbenic compounds identified in grapevine stems.

Id Compound Name Minimum Value 1,2 Maximum Value Mean Value 3 Standard Deviation N 4 References
123 trans-Resveratrol ND 2130.00 506.41 570.04 6 [9,23,26,27,53,55,58,91]
134 (+)-trans-ε-Viniferin 14.30 1400.67 433.49 765.23 6 [9,23,26,27,28,53,55,56,58,67,91]
130 Ampelopsin D ND 130.00 65.00 65.00 2 [53]
150 Vitisin B (r-Viniferin) 6.80 61.10 33.95 27.15 2 [26,27,28,53,58,67,91]
113 trans-Piceid 14.52 14.52 14.52 0.00 1 [9,23,26,27,53,55]
126 trans-Isorhapontigenin ND 19.80 9.90 9.90 2 [91]
119 trans-Piceatannol ND 21.10 7.42 9.68 3 [9,23,26,27,53,55,58,91]
149 trans-δ-Viniferin 4.86 4.86 4.86 0.00 1 [23]
106 trans-Astringin NQ NQ NQ NQ 0 [9,53,55]
107 trans-Resveratroloside NQ NQ NQ NQ 0 [53]
108 trans-Resveratrol-2-C-glucoside NQ NQ NQ NQ 0 [53]
109 trans-Resveratrol-10-C-glucoside NQ NQ NQ NQ 0 [56]
110 trans-Resveratrol-O-glucoside NQ NQ NQ NQ 0 [56]
111 Leachianol G NQ NQ NQ NQ 0 [26,27]
112 Leachianol F NQ NQ NQ NQ 0 [26,27]
114 Restrytisol A NQ NQ NQ NQ 0 [58]
115 Ampelopsin A NQ NQ NQ NQ 0 [26,27,28,53,56,58]
116 Pallidol NQ NQ NQ NQ 0 [9,26,27,55]
118 Caraphenol B NQ NQ NQ NQ 0 [53]
129 Hopeaphenol NQ NQ NQ NQ 0 [9,26,53,55,56,58]
131 Quadrangularin A NQ NQ NQ NQ 0 [26,27,53]
133 Isohopeaphenol NQ NQ NQ NQ 0 [26,27,53,56,67]
135 Viniferifuran NQ NQ NQ NQ 0 [67]
136 Diptoindonesin A NQ NQ NQ NQ 0 [26,27,53]
137 Ampelopsin H NQ NQ NQ NQ 0 [26,27]
139 trans-Miyabenol C NQ NQ NQ NQ 0 [26,27,53,58]
140 cis-Miyabenol C NQ NQ NQ NQ 0 [53]
142 Davidiol A NQ NQ NQ NQ 0 [26,27,53]
143 α-Viniferin NQ NQ NQ NQ 0 [9,55]
145 trans-Pterostilbene NQ NQ NQ NQ 0 [9,26,27,55]
147 Vitisin A (r2-Viniferin) NQ NQ NQ NQ 0 [28,56,58,67]
148 Vitisifuran A NQ NQ NQ NQ 0 [67]
151 Vitisifuran B NQ NQ NQ NQ 0 [67]
159 trans-Scirpusin A NQ NQ NQ NQ 0 [26,27,53]
160 Vitisin C NQ NQ NQ NQ 0 [26,27,67]
161 Ampelopsin C NQ NQ NQ NQ 0 [26,27]
162 Maackin A NQ NQ NQ NQ 0 [26,27]
163 Viniphenol A NQ NQ NQ NQ 0 [26,27]
166 Viniferol A NQ NQ NQ NQ 0 [56]
167 Viniferol B NQ NQ NQ NQ 0 [56]
168 Viniferol C NQ NQ NQ NQ 0 [56]
169 Viniferol D NQ NQ NQ NQ 0 [67]
171 Malibatol A NQ NQ NQ NQ 0 [56]
172 Ampelopsin F NQ NQ NQ NQ 0 [56]
173 Ampelopsin E NQ NQ NQ NQ 0 [56]
176 Viniferal NQ NQ NQ NQ 0 [67]
178 Vitisinol E NQ NQ NQ NQ 0 [28]

1 ND = not detected. 2 NQ = not quantified by the authors. 3 Fresh and dry weight data were combined for the calculations, without any conversion. 4 N = number of data points used in the calculation of the mean value, and made of minimum, maximum, and average values extracted from each reference.

Table 7.

Levels (mg/kg) of 26 stilbenic compounds identified in grapevine canes.

Id Compound Name Minimum Value 1,2 Maximum Value Mean Value 3 Standard Deviation N 4 References
123 trans-Resveratrol ND 6526.29 2797.17 2559.72 17 [7,12,24,25,40,48,49,50,51,52,58,72]
134 (+)-trans-ε-Viniferin 21.00 12,612.22 2449.25 3197.26 13 [7,12,24,25,40,50,51,52,58]
133 Isohopeaphenol ND 3521.52 851.43 1133.46 7 [12,24,51,52]
150 Vitisin B (r-Viniferin) 0.01 2159.00 668.08 818.46 10 [7,12,24,40,50,51,52,58]
119 trans-Piceatannol 0.50 1710.24 583.88 799.71 11 [7,12,24,25,40,50,51,52,58]
141 trans-ω-Viniferin ND 1714.63 556.41 628.60 3 [7,12,24,25,50]
129 Hopeaphenol ND 1439.21 511.39 585.40 9 [12,24,25,40,50,51,52,58]
116 Pallidol 4.00 1276.43 440.81 591.08 3 [12,24,40,50]
139 trans-Miyabenol C 0.01 2108.47 412.53 702.07 7 [7,12,24,25,40,51,52,58]
115 Ampelopsin A 0.01 1684.16 370.88 534.32 8 [12,24,25,40,50,51,52,58]
147 Vitisin A (r2-Viniferin) 43.00 717.55 293.18 301.67 3 [12,24,25,50,51,58]
149 trans-δ-Viniferin 9.00 43.00 26.00 17.00 2 [24,50]
113 trans-Piceid 0.50 36.21 13.50 16.11 5 [7,40,48,49,50]
177 Vitisinol C 1.00 29.00 15.00 14.00 2 [24]
108 trans-Resveratrol-2-C-glucoside NQ NQ NQ NQ 0 [7]
110 trans-Resveratrol-O-glucoside NQ NQ NQ NQ 0 [72]
111 Leachianol G NQ NQ NQ NQ 0 [50]
112 Leachianol F NQ NQ NQ NQ 0 [50]
114 Restrytisol A NQ NQ NQ NQ 0 [50,58]
118 Caraphenol B NQ NQ NQ NQ 0 [72]
121 cis-Piceid NQ NQ NQ NQ 0 [50]
125 Ampelopsin B NQ NQ NQ NQ 0 [40]
126 trans-Isorhapontigenin NQ NQ NQ NQ 0 [50]
130 Ampelopsin D NQ NQ NQ NQ 0 [50]
164 trans-ε-Viniferin derivative (γ-lactam ring) NQ NQ NQ NQ 0 [25]
165 trans-Resveratrol derivative (γ-lactam ring) NQ NQ NQ NQ 0 [25]

1 ND = not detected. 2 NQ = not quantified by the authors. 3 Fresh and dry weight data were combined for the calculations, without any conversion. 4 N = number of data points used in the calculation of the mean value, and made of minimum, maximum, and average values extracted from each reference.

Table 8.

Levels (mg/kg) of 23 polyphenols (excluding stilbenes) identified in grapevine canes.

Id Compound Name Minimum
Value 1
Maximum
Value
Mean
Value 2
Standard
Deviation
N 3 References
23 Catechin 65.16 6735.24 1747.01 2525.88 10 [46,48,49,50,83]
48 Sinapic acid 26.41 2283.20 1154.81 1128.40 4 [46,47,83]
6 Procyanidin B1 215.36 806.87 511.12 295.76 2 [50]
40 Epicatechin 45.53 896.17 269.40 289.87 6 [48,49,50]
46 Ferulic acid 0.92 650.13 165.63 279.74 8 [46,47,48,49,83]
2 Gallic acid 7.21 570.13 165.06 234.37 8 [46,47,48,49,83]
38 Prodelphinidin A-type 27.46 292.88 160.17 132.71 2 [50]
4 Protocatechuic acid 3.25 379.85 103.31 159.84 8 [46,47,48,49,83]
24 Caftaric acid 18.64 77.60 48.12 29.48 4 [48,49]
7 p-Hydroxybenzoic acid 0.01 95.22 47.62 47.61 4 [46,47,83]
30 Vanillic acid 0.01 152.10 40.13 64.74 8 [46,47,48,49,83]
36 Syringic acid 0.01 113.09 31.05 47.43 8 [46,47,48,49,83]
50 Ellagic acid 0.01 53.25 18.78 20.99 8 [46,48,49,83]
27 Coutaric acid 5.20 19.39 12.30 7.10 4 [48,49]
43 p-Coumaric acid 0.01 31.20 11.13 11.97 8 [46,47,48,49,83]
35 Caffeic acid 1.15 3.43 2.29 1.14 4 [47,48,49]
10 Procyanidin A1 NQ NQ NQ NQ 0 [50]
18 Procyanidin C1 NQ NQ NQ NQ 0 [50]
19 Procyanidin T2 NQ NQ NQ NQ 0 [50]
29 Procyanidin B2 NQ NQ NQ NQ 0 [50]
39 Procyanidin dimer gallate NQ NQ NQ NQ 0 [50]
58 Quercetin-3-O-galactoside NQ NQ NQ NQ 0 [50]
77 Quercetin-3-O-arabinose NQ NQ NQ NQ 0 [50]

1 NQ = not quantified by the authors. 2 Fresh and dry weight data were combined for the calculations, without any conversion. 3 N = number of data points used in the calculation of the mean value, and made of minimum, maximum, and average values extracted from each reference.

Table 9.

Levels (mg/kg) of 23 stilbenic compounds identified in grapevine woods.

Id Compound Name Minimum
Value 1,2
Maximum
Value
Mean
Value 3
Standard
Deviation
N 4 References
134 (+)-trans-ε-Viniferin 122.57 14,080.88 8263.87 4866.89 7 [12,13,43,45]
132 (+)-cis-ε-Viniferin 2504.08 14,023.65 3851.97 5759.79 2 [13]
133 Isohopeaphenol 11.68 7913.00 2429.69 2544.59 7 [12,13,43,45]
143 α-Viniferin ND 4732.06 2366.03 2366.03 2 [13]
123 trans-Resveratrol 15.11 3604.04 2195.12 1414.54 7 [12,13,43,45]
137 Ampelopsin H 1144.77 2518.08 1831.43 686.66 2 [13]
116 Pallidol 410.60 2602.15 1647.36 916.64 3 [12,13]
111 Leachianol G 350.32 2800.34 1575.33 1225.01 2 [13]
129 Hopeaphenol 20.09 5006.77 1570.13 1683.09 7 [12,13,43,45]
141 trans-ω-Viniferin 1554.16 1554.16 1554.16 0.00 1 [12]
112 Leachianol F 35.57 2805.13 1420.35 1384.78 2 [13]
115 Ampelopsin A 151.00 3684.01 1345.17 1541.97 5 [12,13,45]
147 Vitisin A (r2-Viniferin) 1298.67 1298.67 1298.67 0.00 1 [12]
128 cis-Resveratrol 780.58 3609.66 774.64 1192.86 2 [13]
110 trans-Resveratrol-O-glucoside 131.00 1090.00 610.50 479.50 2 [44]
150 Vitisin B (r-Viniferin) 569.18 569.18 569.18 0.00 1 [12]
139 trans-Miyabenol C ND 1339.51 430.02 482.17 5 [12,13,45]
125 Ampelopsin B ND 493.44 246.72 246.72 2 [13]
119 trans-Piceatannol 38.00 378.07 160.69 154.14 3 [12,45]
130 Ampelopsin D 10.51 310.22 160.37 149.86 2 [43]
113 trans-Piceid 35.00 50.00 42.50 7.50 2 [45]
136 Diptoindonesin A 9.78 57.70 33.74 23.96 2 [44]
106 trans-Astringin 2.56 24.00 13.28 10.72 2 [44]

1 ND = not detected. 2 NQ = not quantified by the authors. 3 Fresh and dry weight data were combined for the calculations, without any conversion. 4 N = number of data points used in the calculation of the mean value, and made of minimum, maximum, and average values extracted from each reference.

Table 10.

Levels (mg/kg) of 24 stilbenic compounds identified in grapevine roots.

Id Compound Name Minimum
Value 1
Maximum
Value
Mean
Value 2
Standard
Deviation
N 3 References
134 (+)-trans-ε-Viniferin 125.10 18,000.98 6475.95 8163.57 3 [12,23,30,43]
150 Vitisin B (r-Viniferin) 11.10 12,829.85 6420.48 6409.38 2 [12,30,41,42]
129 Hopeaphenol 1814.90 1814.90 1814.90 0.00 1 [12,41,42]
115 Ampelopsin A 15.60 2178.23 1096.92 1081.32 2 [12,29,30,41,42]
147 Vitisin A (r2-viniferin) 87.10 2093.13 1090.12 1003.02 2 [12,30]
133 Isohopeaphenol 529.54 529.54 529.54 0.00 1 [12]
123 trans-Resveratrol 46.30 1095.24 503.25 438.74 3 [12,23,29,30]
141 trans-ω-Viniferin 127.70 127.70 127.70 0.00 1 [12]
139 trans-Miyabenol C 12.70 212.34 112.52 99.82 2 [12,30]
113 trans-Piceid 112.07 112.07 112.07 0.00 1 [23,29]
116 Pallidol 73.06 73.06 73.06 0.00 1 [12,29]
119 trans-Piceatannol 4.20 121.33 47.18 52.66 3 [12,23,30]
149 trans-δ-viniferin 32.77 32.77 32.77 0.00 1 [23]
121 cis-Piceid NQ NQ NQ NQ 0 [29]
161 Ampelopsin C NQ NQ NQ NQ 0 [41,42]
169 Viniferol D NQ NQ NQ NQ 0 [41,42]
170 Viniferol E NQ NQ NQ NQ 0 [41,42]
173 Ampelopsin E NQ NQ NQ NQ 0 [41,42]
174 Wilsonol C NQ NQ NQ NQ 0 [29]
175 Heyneanol A NQ NQ NQ NQ 0 [29]
179 Vitisinol B NQ NQ NQ NQ 0 [41,42]
180 Stenophyllol C NQ NQ NQ NQ 0 [41,42]
181 Viniferether A NQ NQ NQ NQ 0 [41,42]
182 Viniferether B NQ NQ NQ NQ 0 [41,42]

1 NQ = not quantified by the authors. 2 Fresh and dry weight data were combined for the calculations, without any conversion. 3 N = number of data points used in the calculation of the mean value, and made of minimum, maximum, and average values extracted from each reference.

6.1. Phenolic Compounds in Grapevine Leaves

A total of 132 phenolic compounds have been reported in grapevine leaves (Table 3 and Table 4).

Eighty-seven phenolic acids and flavonoids, and five coumarins have been identified in the leaves of grapevine, with the highest level recorded for quercetin-3-O-glucuronide (10,305.10 mg/kg on average), followed by quercetin-3-O-galactoside (7436.94 mg/kg), quercetin-3-O-glucoside (7256.42 mg/kg), caftaric acid (4151.97 mg/kg), quercetin-3-O-rhamnoside (2708.60 mg/kg), kaempferol-3-O-glucoside (1730.09 mg/kg), kaempferol-3-O-glucuronide (662.34 mg/kg), coutaric acid (635.81 mg/kg), myricetin-3-O-glucoside (291.23 mg/kg), quercetin-3-O-rutinoside (257.51 mg/kg), and kaempferol-3-O-rutinoside (200.34 mg/kg) (Table 3). Among compounds with levels between 10 and 100 mg/kg are five favan-3-ols (gallocatechin gallate, 49.40 mg/kg; gallocatechin, 40.20 mg/kg; epigallocatechin, 23.77 mg/kg; epigallocatechin gallate, 10.69 mg/kg; and catechin; 10.62 mg/kg), and two phenolic acids (fertaric acid, 85.48 mg/kg; and p-hydroxybenzoic acid, 83.40 mg/kg) (Table 3). These levels in general agree with reports that grapevine leaves are rich sources of flavonols. In their studies, [2,20,22,79,84,85] found that the predominant phenolics in the leaves are quercetin-3-O-glucuronide, quercetin-3-O-glucoside, caftaric acid, and kaempferol-3-O-glucoside; total amounts of quercetin derivatives were significantly higher than total amounts of kaempferol derivatives in the studies [2,79,85].

The 40 stilbenes reported in the leaves of V. vinifera are eminently less abundant than the phenolic acids and flavonoids. The most predominant stilbenes in the leaves with levels superior to 50 mg/kg are trans-resveratrol (137.88 mg/kg), vaticanol C-like isomer (96.85 mg/kg), cis-piceid (78.38 mg/kg), trans-piceatannol (78.04 mg/kg), ampelopsin H (76.08 mg/kg), α-viniferin (71.61 mg/kg), and cis-miyabenol C (50.37 mg/kg) (Table 4). All these compounds are often undetected in healthy leaves. For example, in two grapevine varieties grown in Serbia, the total stilbene content was 45% higher in infected than in healthy leaf extracts [73]. Interestingly, some leaf samples have been found to contain cis-resveratrol-3-O-glucoside instead of the expected trans-resveratrol as their predominant stilbene [59,60,84].

6.2. Phenolic Compounds in Grapevine Stems

Literature data have revealed the presence of 88 phenolic compounds (of which 47 were stilbenes) in the stems of grapevine. Although the most abundant compound is the flavonol quercetin-3-O-galactoside (17,403.61 mg/kg), flavan-3-ols constitute the majority of compounds in the stems and in the order catechin (14,900.45 mg/kg) > gallic acid (10,307.36 mg/kg) > epicatechin (9251.64 mg/kg) > procyanidin B1 (9216.18 mg/kg) > procyanidin T2 (9100.99 mg/kg) > procyanidin B3 (8724.23 mg/kg) > epicatechin gallate (6362.96 mg/kg) > procyanidin C1 (5007.76 mg/kg) > procyanidin B4 (2243.10 mg/kg) > procyanidin dimer gallate (2234.08 mg/kg) > procyanidin B2 (2056.93 mg/kg) > procyanidin A1 (1254.38 mg/kg) (Table 5). The high level of flavan-3-ols in the stems agrees with several reports [33,34,37,54,69]. Among other compounds with average values superior to 900 mg/kg are the phenolic acid caftaric acid (3373.18 mg/kg) and the flavonols quercetin (4266.04 mg/kg), quercetin-3-O-glucoside (1785.38 mg/kg), quercetin-3-O-rhamnoside (1570.10 mg/kg), kaempferol (950.35 mg/kg), and quercetin-3-O-glucuronide (908.82 mg/kg), which are also abundant compounds in the leaves. In the stems, two anthocyanins are reported with average values superior to 500 mg/kg, namely, malvidin-3-O-rutinoside (539.89 mg/kg) and malvidin-3-O-glucoside (513.13 mg/kg) (Table 5). In the stems from seven cultivars grown in northern Portugal, caftaric acid, quercetin-3-O-glucuronide, malvidin derivatives, and epicatechin were the main metabolites, representing from 54% to 75% of the total phenolic content [33].

Only a few of the 47 stilbenic compounds identified in the stems of grapevine have been quantified [58]: trans-resveratrol (506.41 mg/kg), (+)-trans-ε-viniferin (433.49 mg/kg), ampelopsin D (65.00 mg/kg), vitisin B (33.95 mg/kg), trans-piceid (14.52 mg/kg), trans-isorhapontigenin (9.90 mg/kg), trans-piceatannol (7.42 mg/kg), and trans-δ-viniferin (4.86 mg/kg) (Table 6).

6.3. Phenolic Compounds in Grapevine Canes

Compared to leaves and stems, fewer studies have been conducted on the phenolic composition of grapevine canes, which explains the report of only 49 phenolic compounds for the organ. These data indicate that canes have substantial quantities of valuable health-promoting stilbenes [7,12,40,46,51,52,58]. Compounds usually present in the cane extracts Table 7) are trans-resveratrol (2797.17 mg/kg), (+)-trans-ε-viniferin (2449.25 mg/kg), isohopeaphenol (851.43 mg/kg), vitisin B (668.08 mg/kg), trans-piceatannol (583.88 mg/kg), trans-ω-viniferin (556.41 mg/kg), and hopeaphenol (511.39 mg/kg); the remaining compounds are with levels below 500 mg/kg.

Other compounds identified in the canes with significant amounts are catechin (1747.01 mg/kg), sinapic acid (1154.81 mg/kg), procyanidin B1 (511.12 mg/kg), epicatechin (269.40 mg/kg), ferulic acid (165.63 mg/kg), gallic acid (165.06 mg/kg), prodelphinidin A-type (160.17 mg/kg), and protocatechuic acid (103.31 mg/kg) (Table 8). Ferulic acid, for example, has been reported as the major compound in the shoots of various grapevine cultivars [47,83].

6.4. Phenolic Compounds in Grapevine Woods

No report was found related to the identification of phenolic acids and flavonoids in the woods (trunk and cordons) of the vine plant. All the 23 stilbenes identified in the woods of various cultivars have been quantified, as shown in Table 9, and with generally high levels ranging from 13.28 mg/kg for trans-astringin to 8263.87 mg/kg for (+)-trans-ε-viniferin [12,13]. The most abundant compounds are (+)-trans-ε-viniferin (8263.87 mg/kg), (+)-cis-ε-viniferin (3851.97 mg/kg), isohopeaphenol (2429.69 mg/kg), α-viniferin (2366.03 mg/kg), and trans-resveratrol (2195.12 mg/kg). Eight compounds are with levels between 1000 and 2000 mg/kg, seven with levels between 100 and 1000 mg/kg, and three with levels between 10 and 50 mg/kg.

6.5. Phenolic Compounds in Grapevine Roots

As with the woods, there are no reports on the phenolic acid and flavonoid profiles of grapevine roots. The 24 stilbenes in the roots [12,30,41,42,62] can be ranked, on the basis of abundance, in the following order: (+)-trans-ε-viniferin (6475.95 mg/kg) > vitisin B (6420.48 mg/kg) > hopeaphenol (1814.90 mg/kg) > ampelopsin A (1096.92 mg/kg) > vitisin A (1090.12 mg/kg) > isohopeaphenol (529.54 mg/kg) > trans-resveratrol (503.25 mg/kg) (Table 10).

7. Distribution of Phenolic Compounds in the Vegetative Organs of Grapevine

A mapping of the distribution of phenolic compounds in grapevine shows that composition and levels greatly vary according to the organ investigated (Figure 1 and Figure 2). In general, flavonoids constitute the largest group of phenolics. From an anatomical point of view, these compounds localize specifically in the stems, with lower amounts in the leaves and the canes (Figure 1).

Figure 1.

Figure 1

Distribution of the major phenolic acids and flavonoids in the vegetative organs of the vine plant: mean values (y-axis; mg/kg) + standard deviations as error bars divided by 10 for better visualization.

Figure 2.

Figure 2

Distribution of the major stilbenic compounds in the vegetative organs of the vine plant: mean values (y-axis; mg/kg) + standard deviations as error bars divided by 10 for better visualization.

The overall data obtained through adding together the available individual compound means (not shown) indicate that the total amount of phenolics in the stems is on average 114,415.68 mg/kg. Flavan-3-ols constitute the most abundant group of compounds in the stems (61.63%; catechin, epicatechin, and procyanidin B1 with the highest levels), followed by flavonols (23.75%; quercetin-3-O-galactoside with the highest level), hydroxybenzoic acids (9.03% with a high abundance of gallic acid), hydroxycinnamic acids (3.66%), anthocyanins (0.99%), and stilbenes (0.94%). From an industrial point of view, stems seem to be an important source of proanthocyanidins for potential use as nutraceutical, enological products, chemical standards, or even in winemaking to regulate the composition of flavonoids in wine [69].

Flavonols are quantitatively the most abundant phenolic class in the leaves (83.43% of the total amount of phenolics, i.e., 37,052.70 mg/kg) with a high abundance of quercetin-3-O-glucuronide, quercetin-3-O-galactoside, and quercetin-3-O-glucoside; flavonols are followed by hydroxycinnamic acids (13.19%, of which caftaric acid and coutaric acid have the highest levels), stilbenes (2.63%), flavan-3-ols (0.41%), and hydroxybenzoic acids (0.26%). Coumarins, flavones, anthocyanins, and flavanones are found in minor amounts. The spatial distribution of phenolic compounds in grapevine leaves evaluated by matrix-assisted laser desorption/ionization (MALDI) showed the specific colocation of trans-resveratrol, pterostilbene, and viniferins around the veins in healthy leaves [68]. It is reported that the leaf blade is more abundant in phenolic compounds than the petiole, and much less than the pedicel [75,84].

There are very few reports on flavonols, flavones, flavanones, anthocyanins, and coumarins in the canes. Phenolic groups identified (on average 14,477.42 mg/kg) can be classified in terms of abundance as stilbenes (69.00% of the total) > flavan-3-ols (18.56%; catechin, procyanidin B1 and epicatechin with the highest levels as with the stems) > hydroxycinnamic acids (9.63% of which sinapic acid and ferulic acid) > hydroxybenzoic acids (2.80% of which gallic acid). Indeed, in the comparison of phenolics in the skins, pulps, seeds, canes, and leaves of six cultivars grown in Iran, it was found that the canes usually contained the highest amounts of flavonoids and stilbenes [87].

The data also show that stilbenes accumulate primarily in the woods (34,390.90 mg/kg; ε-viniferin, isohopeaphenol, trans-resveratrol, α-viniferin, and ampelopsin H with the highest levels), followed by the roots (18436.44 mg/kg; ε-viniferin, hopeaphenol, vitisin B, and ampelopsin A with the highest levels), the canes (9989.50 mg/kg; ε-viniferin, trans-resveratrol, isohopeaphenol, vitisin B, and trans-piceatannol with the highest levels), and the stems (1075.55 mg/kg; ε-viniferin, trans-resveratrol, vitisin B, and ampelopsin D with the highest levels), whereas leaves, which are more exposed to environmental stresses [23,40], have a low concentration of these compounds (972.97 mg/kg; trans-resveratrol, vaticanol C-like isomer, piceid, trans-piceatannol, and ampelopsin H with the highest levels) (Figure 2).

Stilbenes are more constitutively expressed in the woods, roots, canes, and stems, where they are believed to help in the prevention of wood rot [12,39,62]. This constitutive expression might explain the more consistent and greater levels of compounds in these plant parts, in contrast to the leaves in which stilbene production is mostly induced to provide enhanced protection against pests and diseases [12,23,65,85]. Levels of stilbenes were compared in the wood, roots, and canes by [12]; grapevine canes usually had ε-viniferin and trans-resveratrol as their main compounds, and woods had more ε-viniferin and isohopeaphenol, whereas roots were generally rich in vitisin B, ampelopsin A, and vitisin A [12]. The authors concluded that the degree of oligomerization of stilbenes increases from the aerial organs to the root system. After manual dissection of the cortex, pith, and conducting tissues of grape canes, the evaluation of the spatial distribution of stilbenes suggested a predominance of monomers in conducting tissues and oligomers in cortex and pith [52].

8. Factors Affecting the Biosynthesis and Levels of Phenolic Compounds in the Vegetative Organs of Grapevine

Grapevine phenolics occur in large concentration ranges, as attested by standard deviation values presented in Table 3, Table 4, Table 5, Table 6, Table 7, Table 8, Table 9 and Table 10. There are a number of factors that interact together, so as to result in such wide range of phenolic variations. Some of these factors are well documented in the literature and include cultivars, climate, cultural practices, and biotic and abiotic stresses.

8.1. Grapevine Cultivars and Rootstocks

Grapevine cultivars are not genetically homogeneous, and most of them are multiplied by vegetative propagation. A collection of vines propagated from the same mother vine make up a clone; clonal selection is routinely carried out in viticulture with the purpose of creating disease-free or high-yielding populations. Progressively, criteria such as the levels of grape sugar and skin phenolic compounds have been integrated in clonal selection programs. Moreover, these clones are often grafted on different rootstocks [2,9,90]. These factors could explain why the contents of polyphenols are subject to such severe variations [6,32,58,59,89]. For instance, plants of Pinot blanc grafted on three different rootstocks—Kober 5B, S04, and 1103P—accumulated resveratrol differentially in the leaves [14]. According to some authors, the best resveratrol-producing cultivars are Pinot noir and Cabernet Sauvignon, depending on the clones investigated [5,6,51]. A comparison of the phenolic profile of canes of the cultivars Chardonnay, Cabernet Sauvignon, Shiraz (Syrah), Merlot, Sauvignon blanc, and Pinot noir showed that Pinot noir had very high levels of trans-resveratrol and trans-ε-viniferin [51]. In several studies, quantitative analyses showed that the stems and leaves of red cultivars are richer in proanthocyanidins, flavonols, hydroxycinnamic acids, anthocyanins, and stilbenes than those of white cultivars [33,53,54,91]. The biosynthesis of phenolic compounds is also closely dependent on plant developmental stages. It has indeed been reported that very young and very old leaves do not synthesize high stilbene and anthocyanin levels, probably because of the incomplete development of the stomata [9,69,77,79,84]. In the study by [89], however, the intensity of stilbene induction did not show a clear and homogeneous correlation with the position of leaves along the shoot. The total viniferin content was generally highest in the second, third, and fourth leaves for the 21/103 genotype. Moreover, [25] did not find a homogeneous trend of change in stilbenoid levels in the stems during the growth cycle.

8.2. Geographical Location and Climate (Shading, Temperature, Irrigation)

The geographical location of the vineyard (especially latitude and elevation) and the seasonal meteorological variability in the area are known to influence the phenolic composition of grapevine organs. Meteorological variability, including light, temperature, and water, represents one of the main environmental factors responsible for phenolic biosynthesis. Clear separation was demonstrated between the phenolic profile of leaves [32,79,86] and stems [40] of grapevine cultivars of different geographical origins. A higher variation of stilbene levels between years as compared to variation between plants of the same year have also been reported [89]. Different light exposures of the vine demonstrated that shading decreases the flavonoid content of the leaves, a result that is consistent with the role these molecules play in protecting tissues from UV light [85,91]. In the study by [59], accumulation of quercetin-3-O-glucoside, kaempferol-3-O-glucoside, and quercetin-3-O-galactoside was the most prominent in full sunlight-exposed leaves compared with half-shaded leaves. Furthermore, the biosynthesis of phenolics is sensitive to diurnal differences in temperature, although with different temporal patterns. Indeed, a decrease of flavonoid biosynthesis has been observed when the temperature is limiting or excessive [92]. Extreme weather conditions with prolonged dry periods as well as heavy rain events can severely influence grapevine physiology [2,86]. Water deficit has been reported to upregulate the expression of genes of the anthocyanin pathway [77] and to increase the levels of most polyphenols in the leaves, in particular cis-resveratrol-3-O-glucoside, kaempferol-3-O-glucoside, and quercetin-3-O-glucoside [60]. Recent results show that, during water stress, the synthesis of anthocyanins is paralleled by an increase of the expression of flavonoid transporters [65]. On the other hand, it is reported that excessive water application could induce a decrease in proanthocyanidin levels [92].

8.3. Vinicultural Practices

There are many cultural practices that affect the production and accumulation of phenolic compounds in grapevine organs. However, many of these factors seem to act in a typical bell-shaped manner, where they could improve the final levels of compounds only when present at optimal levels. For instance, pruning greatly influences the levels of stilbenoids in the canes, leaves, and stems of grapevine, but the effect depends on the number of branches removed and the duration of the treatment [40,50]. In canes remaining on the plant 30 days after pruning, only a minor increase of total stilbenoid levels was observed, whereas in canes stored at room temperature after pruning, a twofold increase occurred [40]. In general, practices that increase plant vigor, such as fertilizer application, are reported to negatively influence the biosynthesis of phenolics in grapevine. Less trans-resveratrol was accumulated in the leaves when increasing nitrogen doses were applied to one-year-old potted vines, whereas the opposite was observed with increased potassium doses; when nitrogen and potassium were supplied together, potassium did not balance the negative effect of nitrogen [14]. Iron deficiency stimulated anthocyanin accumulation in grapevine apical leaves [78]. The application of other agrochemicals (e.g., plant hormones and chitosan) with the aim of enhancing vegetative growth and grape quality also affects phenolic biosynthesis in a complex way [18]. Typically, it has been reported that abscisic, auxin, and ethylene application lead to an increase in the levels of flavonoids, whereas the opposite has been observed with the application of gibberellic acid and inhibitors of the ethylene receptor [65]. Indirectly, fertilizer and hormone application could also lead to low levels of polyphenols because they induce the production of especially dense foliage that limits the exposure of some organs to sunlight. Grapevine is susceptible to various pests and diseases usually controlled by chemical and biological treatments that can introduce additional variability in the data. High amounts of stilbenoids were produced in grapevine plants that were mycorrhized with Rhizophagus irregularis, as well as an up-regulation in the leaves of genes involved in the stilbene biosynthesis pathway [70].

8.4. Outside and Biotic Stimuli

High variability in phenolic levels in grapevine is best explained by biotic stresses and mechanical injuries. In most studies, it was found that the infection status of the plant influences phenolic profiles much more than other factors [9]. Indeed, following pathogen attacks and insect bites, all the vegetative organs of grapevine undergo modifications in terms of their polyphenol composition and contents. For phenolic acids, flavonoids, and coumarins, the literature is contradictory regarding the relationship between level and disease susceptibility [15]. This might be due to the fact that these compounds are part of the constitutive metabolome in lignified tissues. In the study by [77], the expression of flavonoid pathway genes was detected in both healthy and diseased leaves, confirming that the pathway is active in control conditions [77]. These polyphenols that are present prior to an attempted infection of the plant are known as preformed, and are part of a passive resistance mechanism [14,36]. A mechanism of active resistance is the synthesis, degradation, or metabolism to a different compound in response to attacks by pathogens; de novo synthesized compounds are called phytoalexins [71]. An induction in the synthesis of stilbenic compounds in photosynthetic tissues has been considerately reported in response to the main grapevine pathogens, namely, Botrytis cinerea of grey mould [70], Plasmopara viticola of downy mildew [6,10,12,52,61,62,64,68,70,73,82,89], Erysiphe necator of powdery mildew [11,88], fungi associated with grapevine trunk diseases [3,13,15,43,44,45,86], Rhizopus stolonifera of berry rot [14], Grapevine leafroll-associated virus 3 of Grapevine leafroll disease [77], Xylella fastidiosa of Pierce’s disease [9,55], and Aspergillus carbonarius of sour rot [71]. The increment can be as high as 100-fold, and has a biosynthetic origin attributable to stilbene synthase induction. Interestingly, it was found that downy mildew affects the spatial repartition of stilbenoids in the cane, with an increase in the cortex (a tissue notably involved in protection against mechanical damage and microbial attack) and conducting tissues, and a decrease in the pith [52]. Mechanical stress on freshly pruned canes and leaves have also been reported to overinduce the biosynthesis of trans-resveratrol and trans-piceatannol within a short period after pruning [23,40].

9. Concluding Remarks

Several compounds with phenolic characteristic have been detected in the leaves, stems, canes, woods, and roots of the grapevine plant. An effort is still needed to identify and quantify several of these compounds. It is clear that several factors affect the biosynthetic pathways, leading to the accumulation of phenolic compounds in grapevine. The patterns of gene expression show significant differences between organs and cultivars, especially for genes involved in stilbene synthesis. In the leaves in particular, random inductions in the synthesis of these compounds have been observed, which is understandable given their higher exposure to the environment and resulting susceptibility to attack by pests and diseases. An understanding of the different roles of these factors is crucial because only with this information will it be possible to develop cultural practices aimed at improving phenolic levels in the plants and in the derived products. Moreover, unexplored areas of research related to this topic will most certainly constitute a basis for future improvement of grapevine disease tolerance.

Supplementary Materials

The following are available online at https://www.mdpi.com/2076-3921/9/5/398/s1, Table S1: Reference source for phenolic acids, flavonoids and coumarins identified in the vegetative organs of grapevine (Vitis vinifera L.). Table S2: Reference source for stilbenes identified in the vegetative organs of grapevine (Vitis vinifera L.).

Author Contributions

Conceptualization, P.G. and I.C.; methodology, P.G. and R.K.S.; software, P.G.; validation, P.G., I.C., and R.K.S.; formal analysis, P.G.; investigation, P.G. and R.K.S.; resources, I.C.; data curation, P.G. and R.K.S.; writing—original draft preparation, P.G.; writing—review and editing, P.G., I.C., and R.K.S.; visualization, P.G.; supervision, I.C.; project administration, I.C.; funding acquisition, I.C. All authors have read and agreed to the published version of the manuscript.

Funding

This research was funded by the R&D project “INNOVINE & WINE –Vineyard and Wine Innovation Platform (NORTE-01-0145-FEDER-000038)”, co-supported by Fundo Europeu de Desenvolvimento Regional (FEDER) and Norte 2020 (Programa Operacional Regional do Norte 2014/2020), and the project UIDB/04033/2020 supported by FCT – Fundação para a Ciência e a Tecnologia.

Conflicts of Interest

The authors declare no conflict of interest. The funders had no role in the design of the study; in the collection, analyses, or interpretation of data; in the writing of the manuscript; or in the decision to publish the results.

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