Ethnobotanical study on medicinal plants used by Mulam people in Guangxi, China

Abstract

Background

The Mulam are an ethnic group native to Guangxi, and nearly 80% of the Mulam population lives in Luocheng Mulam Autonomous County, northern Guangxi, southern China. They have accumulated rich medicinal folk knowledge through practice and experience in their long-term struggles with disease and the harsh natural environment. However, their traditional medicinal knowledge is threatened due to a lack of written records, conservative inheritance patterns, and rapid economic development. Therefore, the investigation and documentation of medicinal plants and their associated indigenous wisdom are necessary.

Method

Ethnobotanical data were collected from 12 villages and five communities in Luocheng County from January 2013 to April 2017. A total of 128 informants were interviewed through semistructured interviews, field observations, group discussions, and guided field walks. Quantitative indices such as use categories, preference ranking exercises, the informant consensus factor (ICF), and the fidelity level (FL) were used to evaluate the importance of medicinal plant species. Additionally, group discussions were conducted about the conservation of and threats to medicinal plants and traditional knowledge.

Results

A total of 456 medicinal plant species from 350 genera and 132 families were recorded and documented in our ethnobotanical investigation. Most of them (335 species, 73.47%) were obtained from wild habitats. Most of the documented species (246) were herbaceous (54%), followed by shrubs, with 76 species (17%), lianas, with 75 species (16%), and trees, with 59 species (13%). The most common method of administration was oral administration, which was used for 390 species (62.70%). The most common method of preparation was decoction (316 species, 54.11%). The plants were used to treat 312 human diseases in 12 disease categories, and most of the categories had a high ICF value. The highest ICF value was recorded for gynecological ailments (0.92), followed by nervous and psychosomatic problems (0.90) and digestive system diseases (0.89). Traditional medicinal knowledge and medicinal plants are under threat due to conservative inheritance processes and anthropogenic pressures for various reasons.

Conclusion

A rich diversity of medicinal plants is distributed in the Mulam area, and these plants play an important role in healthcare among the Mulam people. Mulam people are skilled in using the plants in their surroundings to treat diseases in their daily lives. However, their traditional medicinal knowledge and medicinal plants are greatly threatened by rapid economic development for various reasons. Thus, policies and practices for the conservation of medicinal plants and the associated traditional knowledge are necessary.

Background

Medicinal plants have been used for many centuries not only in rural areas but also increasingly by urban citizens in both developing and developed countries [1–7]. According to the World Health Organization (WHO), approximately 80% of populations worldwide depend on herbal medicine for their healthcare needs, especially in rural areas [8]. In developing countries, traditional medicines provide an inexpensive source of primary health care due to the lack of modern health facilities [9, 10].

Herbal medicines have been widely accepted in China since ancient times. Shennong Bencao Jing (Shennong’s Herbal Classic) was the first book that systematically introduced and described traditional medicinal plant knowledge in the Eastern Han Dynasty (25 AD–220 AD) [11]. Traditional medicinal plants currently play an important role in protecting people’s lives and health in ethnic minority regions, especially in remote and less-developed areas [12–17].

Guangxi is an autonomous region of ethnic minorities, with Zhuang as the main group, and of multiethnic groups living together. The herbal medicinal markets during the Dragon-Boat Festival are very famous in the Zhuang and Yao communities of Guangxi [18–20]. Most members of ethnic minorities live in mountainous or hilly areas, and they are very good at using and naming the medicinal plants in their surroundings [21–25].

The Mulam are an ethnic group native to Guangxi, with a population of more than 210,000 [26]. Nearly 80% of the Mulam people live in Luocheng Mulam Autonomous County, Guangxi [26, 27]. Mulam people believe that human beings are an organic combination of “lingqi” (the energy that sustains living organisms), blood, tissue, bone, and muscle. They advocate “the unity of nature and man,” that is, harmony among people and between people and nature, with attention paid to both physical and mental health. “The unity of nature and man” is expressed in daily life as, for example, family members of all ages poking fun each other and through collective activity, such as the lion dance, dragon dance, monkey jumping, “zoupo” (antiphonal folk song singing by young people), and so on; these activities are beneficial to mental and physical health [28]. In their long history, Mulam people have accumulated rich folk medicinal knowledge and described many unique experiences in treating common local diseases (e.g., traumatic injuries, cough, diarrhea). Mulam folk medicinal knowledge has been enriched and developed through the process of use; this knowledge plays an important role in local daily life but has not been scientifically reported or studied. In addition, traditional medicinal knowledge is greatly threatened due to the lack of a written record and to conservative inheritance patterns. Young people prefer to look for higher-income jobs in urban areas and are not interested in traditional medicinal knowledge. Therefore, the investigation and documentation of medicinal plants and the associated indigenous wisdom are necessary. This study investigated medicinal plants and related traditional knowledge of the Mulam people, analyzed their ethnic medicinal characteristics and current threats, and proposed conservation strategies.

Methods

Study area

The study area is Luocheng Mulam Autonomous County, where the Mulam people live. Luocheng Mulam Autonomous County is situated in the subtropical zone between 24° 38′ and 25° 12′ east longitude and between 108° 29′ and 109° 10′ north latitude, with an annual average temperature of 19 °C and annual rainfall of 1566 mm. The vegetation category is the subtropical evergreen montane forest [26, 28]. Most Mulam villages are located on small strips of flat land or slopes in the karst mountainous area of southern Luocheng Mulam Autonomous County (Fig. 1). Based on the characteristics of traditional Mulam settlements and suggestions from local government officials, 12 villages (Xinan, Maan, Lining, Shuangzhai, Dashan, Youdong, Pingluo, Dafu, Lee, Dashanjiao, Deyin, Sanjia) and five townships (Dongmen, Xiali, Siba, Xiaochangan, Qiaotou) were selected as the investigation sites (Fig. 2).

Fig. 1.

Mulam villages and the surrounding farming fields

Fig. 2.

A sketch map of the study area

Mulam settled in Luocheng during the Pre-Qin Dynasty (twenty-first century BC–221 BC) [26, 27]. The Mulam language is part of the Dong-Shui branch of the Zhuang-Dong language group in the Chinese-Tibetan language family. The Mulam language has its own independent and complete language system and preserves the language of the ancient Yue people [29]. Mulam people have multiple beliefs. They believe that every village or region is protected by a deity, so they have constructed temples around their villages, such as “Shewang,” “Powang,” “Tuzhu,” “Zaowang,” and “God of Mountain” [28]. They also believe in Taoism and Buddhism. They grow rice, corn, and potatoes as staple foods. Cats and snakes are their taboo foods. Most Mulam people engage in traditional agriculture and can identify common herbal medicines and treat common diseases. For example, they use Artemisia argyi for traumatic injuries, Lobelia chinensis for wound healing, Sarcandra glabra for the common cold, and so on [28].

Ethnobotanical data collection

A total of 128 informants (81 males and 47 females) were interviewed in the study area. Among them, 84 informants were selected using the snowball method from the herbal medicinal market and Mulam villages, and 44 key informants were selected purposively and systematically after visiting local officers, village leaders, agricultural technicians, and other people in the study area via a reconnaissance survey prior to data collection. Local healers were automatically qualified as key informants who are custodians of indigenous knowledge of medicinal plants [30]. The informants were local inhabitants aged between 32 and 86 years old. Before each interview, prior informed consent was requested, and throughout the study, international codes of ethics were respected. After obtaining consent, various strata of participants (traditional healers, farmers, village leaders, religious leaders, and health officials) were interviewed.

Ethnobotanical data were collected from January 2013 to April 2017. Information about the medicinal use of plants was collected through semistructured interviews, observations, field visits, and group discussions in the investigation area [22, 31–33]. Interviews and discussions were performed based on a checklist of questions prepared in Chinese and translated into the Mulam language. The local names of the plants, the ailments treated by the plants, the plant parts used, the condition of the plant material, the modes of preparation, and the routes of administration were carefully recorded during the interviews with the informants. Vegetation categorization information was also requested and recorded. Other information, including the name, age, occupation, and education level of the informants, was collected in detail. Furthermore, we also recorded the geographic locality and date of the interview. Group discussions were conducted about the conservation of and threats to medicinal plants and traditional knowledge. In addition, the key informants were asked to perform preference ranking exercises.

Specimen collection and identification

Field observations were performed with traditional healers to identify the morphological features and habitats of each medicinal plant species. Voucher specimens and photographs of the local medicinal plants were collected from the field and from home gardens, and the habits and habitats of these plants were recorded. For future reference, voucher specimens were made and deposited in the Herbarium of Guangxi Institute of Botany (IBK), Guangxi Zhuang Autonomous Region and Chinese Academy of Sciences, Guilin, Guangxi, China.

Voucher specimens and photographs were identified and confirmed according to Flora of China, Flora of Guangxi, and botanical websites (e.g., http://www.tropicos.org/, http://www.cvh.ac.cn/search, http://www.plant.csdb.cn/). Finally, the identified specimens were reaffirmed by taxonomic experts from IBK, and the inventory of medicinal plants was completed.

Data analysis

Data analysis was carried out by using ethnobotanical investigation and descriptive statistical methods, such as frequency and percentage, to evaluate the importance of the plant species mentioned in the study area.

Preference ranking exercises [32–34] were conducted by asking informants to rank the most important medicinal plants that were frequently used by the local people based on their preference and the importance of the plant in the community. The plants in this exercise were shortlisted by the key informants, and then their importance in managing diseases was discussed. The ranking was based on the efficacy of the medicinal plants. If a medicinal plant was believed to be the most effective for a disease, it was given the highest value of 10 for the selected disease. In contrast, the least-effective plant would be given a value of 1. Each plant species was given a ranking based on its total score. The total ranking for the preference exercise was obtained by summing the number of informants who participated [28].

The informant consensus factor (ICF) was calculated to determine the effectiveness of the medicinal plants in each ailment category according to Heinrich et al. [31]. The formula is provided below:

$$\mathrm{IFC}=\left(\mathrm{nur}-\mathrm{nt}\right)/\left(\mathrm{nur}-1\right)$$

nur is the number of individual reports of a plant use for a particular illness category and nt is the total number of species used by all informants for this illness category.

The fidelity level (FL) was calculated for each of the 15 preferred species for their popularity according to the key informants who cited them in the treatment of particular ailments [31, 35, 36]. The formula is provided below:

$$\mathrm{F}\mathrm{L}=\frac{{\mathrm{I}}_{\mathrm{p}}}{{\mathrm{I}}_{\mathrm{u}}}\times 100\mathrm{\%}$$

I_p is the number of informants who suggested the use of a species for the same major purpose (therapeutic use) and I_u is the total number of informants who mentioned the plant species for any use.

Results

Demographics of the informants

A total of 128 informants, 84 of whom were general informants and 44 of whom were key informants, from Luocheng County agreed to participate in this study. The distribution of informants by age, gender, and education level is shown in Table 1. The age of the informants ranged from 32 to 86 years old. Among them, 82.3% of informants were over 40 years old, 58.59% of informants had only a primary education, and 12.5% were illiterate. There were more male informants (81, 63.28%) than female informants.

Table 1.

Demographic profile of informants

Indicator	Description	General informants	Key informants	Total	Frequency (%)
Age	30–39	12	1	13	10.16
	40–49	23	4	27	21.09
	50–59	25	17	42	32.81
	60–69	12	16	28	21.88
	70–79	7	3	10	7.81
	≧ 80	5	3	8	6.25
Gender	Male	43	38	81	63.28
	Female	41	6	47	36.72
Education	Illiteracy	11	5	16	12.50
	Primary	53	22	75	58.59
	Secondary	20	13	33	25.78
	Tertiary	0	4	4	3.13

Medicinal plants recorded

From the study sites, a total of 456 medicinal plant species belonging to 350 genera and 132 families were documented. Ethnomedicinal information for each species, including its scientific name, Chinese name, Mulam name, family name, habit, habitat, plant parts used, cited sources, preparation, and use, is listed in Table 2.

Table 2.

Inventory of medicinal plants traditionally used by Mulam people

Scientific name	Chinese name	Mulam name	Family	Habit	Habitat	Parts used	Preparation and uses	Cited sources
Abelmoschus sagittifolius (Kurz) Merr.	Jianyeqiukui箭叶秋葵	–	Malvaceae	Herb	Home garden	Whole plant	Decoction; taken orally for kidney deficiency, backache	451225130608007
Abrus cantoniensis Wall. ex Wightet Arn.	Guangdongxiangsizi广州相思子	hɣɔk8ci1kwət7	Fabaceae	Herb	Wild	Whole plant	Decoction; taken orally for jaundice hepatitis, stomachache, scrofula. Pounded fresh part applied on the affected area, treating for traumatic injury, painful swelling	451225130719008
Acalypha australis L.	Tiexiancai铁苋菜	–	Euphorbiaceae	Herb	Wild	Whole plant	Decoction; taken orally for clearing away heat and promoting diuresis. Pounded fresh part applied on the affected area, treating for hemostasis with astringents	451225130517008
Achyranthes aspera L.	Tuniuxi土牛膝	–	Amaranthaceae	Herb	Wild	Whole plant	Decoction; taken orally or medicinal bath for clearing away heat and toxic material, diuresis, treating for ascites, nephritis, sweating	451225130517018
Achyranthes bidentata Blume	Niuxi牛膝	mai4cen1tən2	Amaranthaceae	Herb	Wild	Root, Rhizome	Medicinal liquor; taken orally for treating rheumatism, traumatic injury. Decoction; taken orally for sore throat, urinary urgency, dysuria, furuncle and carbuncle	451225130101019
Achyranthes longifolia Makino	Liuyeniuxi柳叶牛膝	–	Amaranthaceae	Herb	Wild	Whole plant	Decoction; taken orally for calculosis	451225130517052
Aconitum carmichaelii Debeaux	Wutou乌头	–	Ranunculaceae	Herb	Home garden	Whole plant	Pounded fresh part applied on the affected area, treating for hyperosteogeny	451225130607001
Acorus calamus L.	Changpu菖蒲	–	Acoraceae	Herb	Wild	Whole plant	Decoction; medicinal bath, treating for carbuncle, headache	451225130607020
Acorus gramineus Soland.	Jinqianpu金钱蒲	sik8tshja:ŋ1pu2	Acoraceae	Herb	Wild	Rhizome	Decoction; taken orally for epilepsy, phlegm heat, abdominal distension, abdominal pain. Powdered, applied on the affected area for traumatic injury	451225130310058
Adina rubella Hance	Xiyeshuituanhua细叶水团花	–	Rubiaceae	Shrub	Wild	Root	Decoction; taken orally for treating tracheitis	451225130310001
Agrimonia pilosa Ledeb.	Longyacao龙芽草	ma4ljen6a:n1	Rosaceae	Herb	Wild	Whole plant	Decoction; taken orally for stanching bleeding, cool the blood, dissipate blood stasis, diarrhea	451225130719003
Akebia trifoliata (Thunb.) Koidz. subsp. australis (Diels) T. Shimizu	Baimutong白木通	–	Lardizabalaceae	Liana	Wild	Stem	Decoction; taken orally for nephritis	451225130428026
Alangium chinense (Lour) Harms.	Bajiaofeng八角枫	pa:t7kak7foŋ1	Cornaceae	Shrub	Wild	Stem, Leaf, Root	Decoction; medicinal bath for treating rheumatism, numbness of limbs, internal lesion caused by overexertion, traumatic injury, dissipate blood stasis, relieve pain	451225130421036
Albizia julibrissin Durazz.	Hehuan合欢	thəu5mu2kwa:n1tɔ1	Fabaceae	Tree	Wild	Bark	Decoction; taken orally for treating restlessness, insomnia and dreaminess, ADHD. Pounded fresh part applied on the affected area, treating for abscess, traumatic injury	451225130430033
Alchornea trewioides (Benth.) Muell. Arg.	Hongbeishanmagan红背山麻杆	–	Euphorbiaceae	Shrub	Wild	Stem and leaf	Medicinal bath, treating for eczema	451225130307019
Alisma orientale (Samuel) Juz.	Dongfangzexie东方泽泻	–	Alismataceae	Herb	Wild	Whole plant	Decoction; taken orally for enteritis	451225131107033
Allium fistulosum L.	Cong葱	thɔŋ1pa:k8	Amaryllidaceae	Herb	Home garden	Bulb	Decoction; taken orally for typhoid, headache, abdominal pain, constipation, urinary stoppage, diarrhea, abscess	451225131107034
Allium macrostemon Bge.	Yongbai薤白	kɣo3ceu4	Amaryllidaceae	Herb	Wild	Stem	Decoction; taken orally for thoracic obstruction, diarrhea. Pounded fresh part applied on the affected area, treating for furuncle	451225130729012
Allium sativum L.	Suan蒜	kɣo3hɣɔ2	Amaryllidaceae	Herb	Home garden	Bulb	Decoction; taken orally or medicinal bath for treating fever, headache, angina, hiccough, anorexia, poor appetite, furuncle, carbuncle	451225130311031
Allium tuberosum Rottler ex Spreng.	Jiu韭	ha:i5la:k8	Amaryllidaceae	Herb	Home garden	Seed, Leaf	Fried; taken orally directly for treating impotence, nocturnal emission, frequent micturition, enuresis, diarrhea, leukorrhea, turbidity, infantile convulsion	451225130723008
Alocasia cucullata (Lour.) Schott	Jianweiyu尖尾芋	–	Araceae	Herb	Wild	Rhizome	Decoction after slicing and drying; taken orally for hepatocirrhosis	451225130425003
Aloe vera (L.) Burm. f.	Luhui芦荟	ma1ləm6	Xanthorrhoeaceae	Herb	Home garden	Leaf juice	Taken orally directly for treating constipation, infantile convulsion, infatile malnutrition with fever, ringworm, hemorrhoid complicated by anal fistula, scrofula	451225131107017
Alyxia sinensis Champ. ex Benth.	Lianzhuteng链珠藤	–	Apocynaceae	Liana	Wild	Stem, Leaf	Decoction; taken orally for treating bladder cancer, uterine cancer	451225130807002
Amaranthus spinosus L.	Cixian刺苋	–	Amaranthaceae	Herb	Home garden	Root	Pounded fresh part applied on the affected area, treating for piles	451225130606018
Amomum tsaoko Crevost et Lemarie	Caoguo草果	–	Zingiberaceae	Herb	both	Seed	Taken orally directly for aid digestion	451225130728017
Amorphophallus konjac K. Koch	Huamoyu花磨芋	ɣa:k7la:i4	Araceae	Herb	both	Tuber	Decoction after slicing and drying; taken orally for cough. Powdered, applied on the affected area, treating for traumatic injury, furuncle, erysipelas	451225130519009
Amygdalus persica L.	Tao桃	hwi1tɔ2la:k8	Rosaceae	Tree	Home garden	Seed	Taken orally directly for treating dysmenorrhea, abdominal pain, traumatic injury, abscess of lung, intestinal carbuncle, constipation due to intestinal dryness	451225130424017
Andrographis paniculata (Burm. f.) Nees	Chuanxinlian穿心莲	tshjøn5təm1ljen2	Acanthaceae	Herb	Wild	Whole plant	Decoction; taken orally for influenza, sore throat, tracheitis, pneumonia	451225121230008
Anredera cordifolia (Ten.) Steenis	Luokuishu落葵薯	–	Basellaceae	Herb	Home garden	Tuber, Stem and leaf	Stewed with pork bone and drunk the soup for supplementary blood and nutrition. Pounded fresh part applied on the affected area for dissipate blood stasis	451225121230001
Arachis hypogaea L.	Luohuasheng落花生	ti6tau6	Fabaceae	Herb	Home garden	Seed	Taken orally directly for treating irritating dry cough, stomachache, hypertension, dizziness due to deficiency of blood	451225130606021
Aralia chinensis L.	Huangmaocongmu黄毛楤木	khai1mai4	Araliaceae	Shrub	Wild	Bark or Stem	Decoction; taken orally or medicinal bath, treating for rheumatic arthritis, nephritis edema, ascites due to cirrhosis, hepatitis, stomachache, turbidity, metrorrhagia, traumatic injury, abscess	451225130518021
Arctium lappa L.	Niupang牛蒡	tən2ha5la:k8	Asteraceae	Herb	both	Fruit	Decoction; taken orally for treating wind-heat type common cold, cough, sore throat, eczema	451225130428019
Ardisia crenata Sims	Zhushagen朱砂根	–	Primulaceae	Shrub	Wild	Root, Stem	Medicinal liquor; taken orally or applied on the affected area, treating for rheumatism	451225130308012
Ardisia gigantifolia Stapf.	Zoumatai走马胎	ça:u1tsha:m3ma4	Primulaceae	Shrub	Wild	Root	Medicinal liquor; taken orally or applied on the affected area, treating for rheumatism, dispelling wind, remove dampness, removing blood stasis, traumatic injury, waist-leg weakness, carbuncle ulcer	451225130610040
Ardisia lindleyana D. Dietr.	Xiaoluosan小罗伞	mai4ta:n5niŋ5	Primulaceae	Shrub	Wild	Root or Whole plant	Decoction; taken orally or medicinal bath for treating rheumatoid arthritis, amenorrhea, dysmenorrhea. Pounded fresh part applied on the affected area, treating for traumatic injury	451225130311035
Ardisia japonica (Thunb) Blume	Zijinniu紫金牛	te3ti6tsa2	Primulaceae	Shrub	Wild	Stem, Leaf	Decoction; taken orally and medicinal bath for treating chronic bronchitis, tuberculosis, nephritis, hypertension, swollen toxin, hernia	451225130722002
Areca catechu L.	Binglang槟榔	–	Arecaceae	Tree	Home garden	Rhizome	Decoction; taken orally for liver ascites	451225130610033
Arisaema erubescens (Wall.) Schott	Yibasannanxing一把伞南星	–	Araceae	Herb	Wild	Root	Decoction; taken orally for clearing away heat and toxic materials	451225130311032
Aristolochia debilis Sieb. et Zuce.	Madongling马兜铃	mai4həu1mɣa:ŋ1	Aristolochiaceae	Liana	Wild	Root	Decoction; taken orally for relieve pain, detoxifcation detumescence, blood pressure lowering	451225130729011
Aristolochia fordiana Hemsl.	Tongchenghu通城虎	–	Aristolochiaceae	Liana	both	Whole plant	Taken orally directly for anti-inflammatory, gastritis, enteritis. Pounded fresh part applied on the affected area, treating for snake bite	451225121204039
Armeniaca mume Sieb.	Mei梅	u5məi6	Rosaceae	Tree	Home garden	Fruit	Taken orally directly for treating diarrhea, hemafecia, cough with lung heat, sore throat, depriving ascarid	451225130426040
Artemisia anomala S. Moore.	Qihao奇蒿	pɛ:k8hwa1wəi1	Asteraceae	Herb	Wild	Whole plant	Taken orally directly for treating amenorrhea, abdominal distention, postpartum blood stasis. Pounded fresh part applied on the affected area, treating for traumatic injury, carbuncle toxin	451225130427037
Artemisia argyi H. Lév. et Vaniot	Ai艾	ŋa:i6fa5	Asteraceae	Herb	Wild	Leaf	Moxibustion; Treating for tocolysis, dysmenorrhea, irregular menses, leukorrhea, metrorrhagia and metrostaxis	451225130720008
Artemisia capillaris Thunb.	Yinchenhao茵陈蒿	mau5hɣɔk8	Asteraceae	Herb	Wild	Stem and leaf	Taken orally directly for treating damp and hot jaundice, dysuria, sores	451225130102009
Artemisia carvifolia Buch.-Ham. ex Roxb.	Qinghao青蒿	ŋa:i6həu1	Asteraceae	Herb	Wild	Whole plant	Decoction; taken orally or medicinal bath for treating malaria, diarrhea, jaundice. Pounded fresh part applied on the affected area, treating for scabies, pruritus	451225130610003
Artemisia indica Willd.	Wuyueai五月艾	–	Asteraceae	Herb	Wild	Whole plant	Decoction; medicinal bath for dispelling wind and removing dampness	451225130427028
Artemisia scoparia Waldst. et Kit.	Zhumaohao猪毛蒿	–	Asteraceae	Herb	Wild	Whole plant	Taken orally directly for treating stomachache	451225130518018
Arundo donax L.	Luzhu芦竹	–	Poaceae	Shrub	Wild	Root	Decoction; taken orally for pharyngitis, nephritis, edema	451225130611004
Asarum caudigerum Hance	Weihuaxixin尾花细辛	–	Aristolochiaceae	Herb	Wild	Whole plant	Pounded fresh part applied on the affected area, for relieve pain, toothache, gout	451225130309040
Asparagus cochinchinensis (Lour.) Merr	Tianmendong天门冬	mən6tɔŋ1	Asparagaceae	Herb	Wild	Rhizome	Decoction; taken orally for cough, hemoptysis, pneumalgia, sore throat	451225130428020
Bauhinia championii (Benth.) Benth.	Longxuteng龙须藤	ça:u1ma6jin5	Fabaceae	Liana	Wild	Stem	Medicinal liquor; taken orally or applied on the affected area, treating for gastritis, rheumatism, traumatic injury, bone fracture	451225121231022
Belamcanda chinensis (L.) DC.	Shegan射干	məm6kwət7hɣɔk8	Iridaceae	Herb	Wild	Rhizome	Decoction; taken orally for sore throat, abscess, amenorrhea	451225130428054
Benincasa hispida (Thunb.) Cogn.	Donggua冬瓜	tɔŋ5kwa1ŋɣa2	Cucurbitaceae	Liana	Home garden	Peel	Decoction; taken orally for nephritis edema, poor urination	451225130430039
Bidens bipinnata L.	Popozhen婆婆针	la:i4tshəm1hɣɔk8	Asteraceae	Herb	Wild	Whole plant	Decoction; taken orally for acute appendicitis, mastalgia, bacillary dysentery, angina, kidney deficiency, backache, nephritis, migraine. Pounded fresh part applied on the affected area, treating for snake bite, traumatic injury	451225130608021
Bidens pilosa L.	Guizhencao鬼针草	–	Asteraceae	Herb	Wild	Stem and leaf	Decoction; medicinal bath for degerming and anti-inflammatory	451225130608026
Bischofia javanica Blume	Qiufeng秋枫	–	Euphorbiaceae	Tree	both	Root	Pounded fresh part applied on the affected area, treating for piles	451225131108037
Bletilla formosana (Hayata) Schltr.	Xiaobaiji小白及	–	Orchidaceae	Herb	Wild	Tuber	Stewed with pork bag and taken orally directly for tumour	451225130309006
Bletilla striata (Thunb. ex A. Murray) Rchb. f.	Baiji白及	–	Orchidaceae	Herb	Wild	Tuber	Decoction; taken orally for gastric ulcer, tuberculosis	451225130307037
Boehmeria nivea (L.) Gaudich.	Zhuma苎麻	pə6ma6ta:ŋ1	Urticaceae	Shrub	Wild	Root	Decoction; taken orally for internal hemorrhage, hemokelidosis, threatened abortion, poor urination. Pounded fresh part applied on the affected area, treating for poisoned sore, snake and insect injury	451225130421030
Botrychium lanuginosum Wall.	Rongmaoyindijue绒毛阴地蕨	–	Ophioglossaceae	Herb	Wild	Whole plant	Decoction; taken orally for lunacy, settle fright and quiet the spirit	451225131107031
Brassica juncea (L.) Czern.	Jiecai芥菜	–	Brassicaceae	Herb	Home garden	Whole plant	Decoction; taken orally for calculosis	451225130307031
Bryophyllum pinnatum (L. f. ) Oken	Luodishenggen落地生根	–	Crassulaceae	Herb	Wild	Whole plant	Pounded fresh part applied on the affected area, treating for detumescence relieve pain, detoxicating and generating muscles	451225130607009
Buchnera cruciata Buch. Mutis ex. L. f. Hamilt.	Heicao黑草	hɣɔk8nam1	Orobanchaceae	Herb	Wild	Whole plant	Decoction; taken orally or medicinal bath for treating eruptive disease, typhoid, epilepsy, painful swelling	451225130310048
Buddleja officinalis Maxim.	Mimenghua密蒙花	–	Scrophulariaceae	Shrub	Wild	Root	Decoction; taken orally for ascites due to cirrhosis, jaundice hepatitis	451225130310013
Callerya reticulata (Benth.) Schot	Wangluojixueteng网络鸡血藤	–	Fabaceae	Liana	Wild	Stem	Medicinal liquor; taken orally or rinsed, treating for rheumatism, free the channels and network vessels, osteoporosis	451225130722005
Callerya speciosa (Champ. ex Benth.) Schot	Meilijixueteng美丽鸡血藤	–	Fabaceae	Liana	Wild	Whole plant	Medicinal liquor; taken orally for treating tracheitis, osteoporosis	451225130607039
Callicarpa macrophylla Vahl	Dayezizhu大叶紫珠	–	Verbenaceae	Shrub	Wild	Stem and leaf	Pounded fresh part applied on the affected area, treating for protrusion of lumbar intervertebral disc, hyperosteogeny, rheumatism	451225130607013, 451225130722004
Camellia oleifera Abel	Youcha油茶	tsa:i6jəu2	Theaceae	Tree	Wild	Oil from seeds	Taken orally directly treating for abdominal pain, depriving ascarid, intestinal dryness and nodding. Applied on the affected area, treating for scabies, scald	451225130421041
Campanumoea javanica Blume Bijdr.	Jinqianbao金钱豹	–	Campanulaceae	Herb	Wild	Root	Decoction; taken orally for lung heat, dry cough	451225130608018
Canarium album (Lour.) Rauesch.	Ganlan橄榄	ka:n3la:n3	Burseraceae	Tree	Home garden	Fruit	Taken orally directly for sore throat, cough hemoptysis, bacillary dysentery, alleviate a hangover	451225130609002
Canna indica L.	Meirenjiao美人蕉	tɔŋ6fa5	Cannaceae	Herb	Wild	Stem, Flower	Decoction; taken orally for acute jaundice hepatitis, protracted dysentery, leukorrhea, irregular menses, hypertension. Pounded fresh part applied on the affected area, abscess	451225130518003
Canscora lucidissima (Levl. et Vant.) Hand.-Mazz.	Chuanxincao穿心草	hɣɔk8tshjøn5təm1	Gentianaceae	Herb	Wild	Whole plant	Decoction; taken orally for hepatopathy, cough with lung heat, hepatitis, jaundice, pectoralgia, stomachache, traumatic injury	451225130311007
Capsella bursa-pastoris (L.) Medic.	Jicai荠菜	ma1ja4	Brassicaceae	Herb	Home garden	Whole plant	Decoction; taken orally for diarrhea, edema, gonorrhea, internal hemorrhage, red eyes painful swelling	451225130608022
Cardiospermum halicacabum L.	Daodiling倒地铃	–	Sapindaceae	Herb	Wild	Whole plant	Taken orally directly or pounded fresh part applied on the affected area for expelling parasite, relieve pain	451225130519053
Carica papaya L.	Fanmugua番木瓜	–	Caricaceae	Tree	Home garden	Peel	Stewed with pork bone and drunk the soup, treating for osteoporosis	451225130312001
Cassytha filiformis L.	Wugenteng无根藤	ça:u1khu5mɛ2ni4	Lauraceae	Herb	Wild	Whole plant	Decoction; taken orally for diuresis, detumescence, cough with lung heat, jaundice, diarrhea, internal hemorrhage, abscess, scabies, scald	451225130311062
Catalpa ovata G. Don	Zi梓	–	Bignoniaceae	Tree	Wild	Fruit	Decoction; taken orally for hepatopathy	451225130424024
Cayratia albifolia C. L. Li	Baimaowulianmei白毛乌蔹莓	ça:u1mu5mai4	Vitaceae	Liana	Wild	Root, Leaf	Root: medicinal liquor; taken orally for treating rheumatic arthritis. Leaf: pounded fresh part applied on the affected area, treating for unknown swollen toxin; Chewing, treating for toothache.	451225130426036
Cayratia japonica (Thunb.) Gagnep.	Wulianmei乌蔹莓	ŋɔ4fa5mwa:i2	Vitaceae	Liana	Wild	Whole plant	Decoction; taken orally for rheumatoid arthritis, jaundice, diarrhea, hematuria, gonorrhea, furuncle abscess, erysipelas	451225130606003
Celastrus orbiculatus Thunb.	Nansheteng南蛇藤	ta6pɣa1lɔŋ2	Celastraceae	Liana	Wild	Stem	Decoction; taken orally for arthralgia and myalgia, numbness of limbs, infantile convulsion, measles syndrome, diarrhea	451225130430008
Celosia argentea L.	Qingxiang青葙	ja4ci1kon1hwa1	Amaranthaceae	Herb	both	Seed	Medicinal bath for insecticidal	451225130518039, 451225130608024
Celosia cristata L.	Jiguanhua鸡冠花	ci1kon1hwa1	Amaranthaceae	Herb	Home garden	Inflorescence	Decoction; taken orally for internal hemorrhage, leukorrhea	451225130607049
Centella asiatica (L.) Urb.	Jixuecao积雪草	chøt7pa:k7won3	Apiaceae	Herb	Wild	Whole plant	Decoction; taken orally for prostatitis, eruptive disease, diarrhea, jaundice, internal hemorrhage, measles. Pounded fresh part applied on the affected area, treating for furuncle abscess, traumatic injury	451225130424011
Centipeda minima (L.) A. Br. et Aschers.	Shihusui石胡荽	hɣɔk8ŋa:n6khu5tsa:n1	Asteraceae	Herb	Wild	Whole plant	Decoction; taken orally for dissipate blood stasis, dispelling wind detumescence, hepatitis, common cold, pharyngitis, pertussis cough, diarrhea, malaria, nasosinusitis, hemorrhoids	451225130611010
Cephalotaxus fortunei Hook.	Sanjianshan三尖杉	tau6la:n3sa1	Cephalotaxaceae	Tree	Wild	Stem and leaf	Decoction; taken orally for dry cough, dry pharynx	451225130430030
Chenopodium hybridum L.	Zapeili杂配藜	phɣə:t7nən1jəu1	Amaranthaceae	Herb	Wild	Whole plant	Decoction; taken orally for sore abscess, irregular menses, internal hemorrhage, enteritis, bacillary dysentery	451225130425013
Chloranthus henryi Hemsl.	Kuanyejinsulan宽叶金粟兰	ti5phjen5ŋwa4	Chloranthaceae	Herb	Wild	Whole plant	Pounded fresh part applied on the affected area, treating for rheumatism, arthralgia and myalgia, traumatic injury	451225130723006
Choerospondias axillaris (Roxb.) B. L. Burtt et A. W. Hill	Nansuanzao南酸枣	–	Anacardiaceae	Tree	Wild	Root	Decoction; taken orally for encephalemia	451225130426037
Chrysanthemum indicum L.	Yeju野菊	cy6hwa1ja4	Asteraceae	Herb	Wild	Flower	Decoction; taken orally for anti-inflammatoryy, enteritis, rheumatism, wind-heat type common cold, pneumonia, diphtheritis, hypertension, furuncle, aptha, erysipelas, eczema	451225121205038
Chrysopogon aciculatus (Retz.) Trin.	Zhujiecao竹节草	–	Poaceae	Herb	Wild	Whole plant	Decoction; taken orally for diuresis detumescence, clearing away heat and toxic materials	451225130611024
Cibotium barometz (L.) J. Sm.	Jinmaogou金毛狗	cəm1mɔ2ŋwa1	Cibotiaceae	Herb	Wild	Rhizome	Decoction; taken orally for hemiplegia, backache, rheumatism, urinary frequency, spermatorrhea, leukorrhea	451225121204014, 451225130728003
Cinnamomum camphora (L.) Presl	Zhang樟	–	Lauraceae	Tree	both	Stem, Root	Decoction; taken orally for hepatosplenomegaly, edema, hepatitis	451225130430032
Cipadessa baccifera (Roth) Miq.	Huimaojiangguolian灰毛浆果楝	–	Meliaceae	Shrub	Wild	Stem and leaf	Medicinal bath for thermolysis, anti-inflammatory	451225121230031
Cirsium chinense Gardner et Champ.	Xiaoji小蓟	ci1niŋ5	Asteraceae	Herb	Wild	Whole plant or Root	Decoction; taken orally or medicinal bath for treating internal hemorrhage, irregular menses, damp and hot, jaundice. Pounded fresh part applied on the affected area, treating for bleeding wound, furuncle, swollen toxin	451225130422019
Cirsium japonicum Fisch. ex DC.	Daji大蓟	ci1lo4	Asteraceae	Herb	Wild	Whole plant or Root	Decoction; taken orally for internal hemorrhage, scald, mumps, jaundice, costalgia, intestinal carbuncle	451225130422019
Cissus pteroclada Hayata	Yijingbaifenteng翼茎白粉藤	ça:u1ti5teŋ2	Vitaceae	Liana	Wild	Stem	Medicinal liquor or decoction; taken orally for activate collaterals, rheumatoid arthritis, traumatic injury	451225130310068
Citrullus lanatus (Thunb.) Matsum. et Nakai	Xigua西瓜	te1kwa1ŋɣa2	Cucurbitaceae	Liana	Home garden	Bark	Decoction; taken orally for hotness and polydipsia, oliguresis, edema	451225130606028
Citrus maxima (Burm.) Merr.	You柚	–	Rutaceae	Tree	Home garden	Stem and leaf	Decoction; medicinal bath for sweating	451225130426008
Citrus sinensis (L.) Osbeck	Tiancheng甜橙	ka:m5tsən2ŋɣa2	Rutaceae	Tree	Home garden	Peel	Taken orally directly for abdominal distention, nausea, vomit	451225131108015
Citrus tangerina Hort. et Tanaka.	Fuju福橘	cy6fa5	Rutaceae	Tree	Home garden	Peel	Taken orally directly for costalgia, acute mastitis, lump of breast	451225140408015
Citrus trifoliata L.	Ji枳	tsi2la:k8	Rutaceae	Tree	Home garden	Fruit	slicing and drying, decoction; taken orally for rib expansion, dyspeptic retention, hiccup, alo laxata, rectal prolapse, uterine prolapse	451225130721012
Clausena lansium (Lour.) Skeels.	Huangpi黄皮	ŋɣa2ŋa:n3hwi1la:k8	Rutaceae	Tree	Home garden	Fruit	Taken orally directly for removing jaundice,hepatitis, dyspeptic retention, cough asthma	451225130422041
Clematis chinensis Osbeck.	Weilingxian威灵仙	hɣɔk8məm4mut8	Ranunculaceae	Liana	Wild	Root	Decoction; taken orally for gout, obstinate arthralgia, barbiers, malaria, tetanus, painful swelling	451225121205044
Clerodendrum bungei Steud.	Choumudan臭牡丹	ȵin1lɔ2ta:n1	Lamiaceae	Shrub	Wild	Stem, Leaf	Decoction; medicinal bath for tuberculosis, carbuncle, furuncle, eczema, piles, rectal prolapse, infantile convulsion	451225130426029
Clerodendrum cyrtophyllum Turcz.	Daqing大青	–	Lamiaceae	Shrub	Wild	Stem and leaf	Pounded and heated the fresh part, applied on the affected area, treating for hyperosteogeny	451225130729016
Clerodendrum japonicum (Thunb.) Sweet	Chengtong赪桐	–	Lamiaceae	Shrub	Wild	Stem and leaf	Decoction; medicinal bath for rheumatism	451225130606025
Cnidium monnieri (L.) Cusson.	Shechuang蛇床	twi2pho5la:k8	Apiaceae	Herb	Wild	Fruit	Medicinal liquor; taken orally for treating impotence, rheumatoid arthritis, hemorrhoids eczema. Decoction; taken orally and medicinal bath for eczema scrotum, leukorrhea, pruritus vulvae, infertility	451225130421020
Coix lacryma-jobi L. var. ma-yuen (Rom. Caill.) Stapf	Yimi薏米	hɣɔk8lak8khau5	Poaceae	Herb	both	Seed	Stewed; taken orally directly for dysuria, edema, inchacao, invigorating spleen, diarrhea, rheumatoid arthritis, abscess of lung, intestinal carbuncle	451225130310025
Commelina diffusa Burm.	Jiejiecao节节草	–	Commelinaceae	Herb	Wild	Whole plant	Decoction; taken orally for lithangiuria, clearing liver and eyesight, removing dampness	451225130519005
Coriandrum satiuum L.	Yuansui芫荽	jøn6tok8	Apiaceae	Herb	Home garden	Whole plant	Decoction; taken orally for measles, poor appetite, stomach cold	451225130519021
Corydalis saxicola Bunting	Yanhuanglian岩黄连	pa:i2lε5huŋ6ljen2	Papaveraceae	Herb	both	Whole plant	Taken orally directly for anti-inflammatory	451225130426020
Corydalis sheareri S. Moore	Dijinmiao地锦苗	hu5təm1mwɔ5	Papaveraceae	Herb	Wild	Rhizome	Taken orally directly or pounded fresh part applied on the affected area, treating for stomach heat, damp and hot jaundice, edema, traumatic injury, furuncle and carbuncle	451225130307005
Crassocephalum crepidioides (Benth.) S. Moore	Yetonghao野茼蒿	–	Asteraceae	Herb	Wild	Stem and leaf	Pounded fresh part applied on the affected area, treating for hyperplasia of mammary glands	451225130519023
Crataegus pinnatifida Bge. var. major N. E. Br.	Shanlihong山里红	pɣa1tsa1	Rosaceae	Tree	both	Fruit	Taken orally directly for abdominal distension, anorexia, abdominal pain	451225130729010
Crinum asiaticum L. var. sinicum (Roxb. ex Herb.) Baker	Wenshulan文殊兰	khɣɛ1lɔŋ2ma4	Amaryllidaceae	Herb	Wild	Leaf	Pounded fresh part applied on the affected area, treating for abscess, traumatic injury, joint pain	451225130430048
Cucumis sativus L.	Huanggua黄瓜	–	Cucurbitaceae	Liana	Home garden	Root, Seed	Root: Decoction; taken orally for rheumatism, removing jaundice, jaundice, hepatitis. Seed: taken orally directly for treating heart disease	451225130609003
Cucurbita moschata (Duch. ex Lam.) Duch. ex Poiret	Nangua南瓜	cəm1kwa1piŋ5	Cucurbitaceae	Liana	Home garden	Peel, pedicel, Seed	Peel: Decoction; taken orally for stone. Pedicellus cucurbitae: Decoction; taken orally for treating stone, carbuncle, furuncle, scald, threatened abortion. Seed: taken orally directly, treating for tapeworm, depriving ascarid, postpartum blood stasis, piles	451225130718020
Cupressus funebris Endl.	Baimu柏木	–	Cupressaceae	Tree	both	Bark	Decoction; taken orally for liver ascites	451225130517006
Curculigo orchioides Gaertn.	Xianmao仙茅	pɣa1jyn6	Hypoxidaceae	Herb	Wild	Rhizome	Stir-fry until dry after soaking with wine, then decoction or medicinal liquor for treating impotence, aconuresis. Pounded fresh part applied on the affected area, treating for carbuncle, scrofula	451225130309002
Curcuma longa L.	Jianghuang姜黄	–	Zingiberaceae	Herb	both	Tuber	Slicinged and heated applied on the affected area for dissipate blood stasis, dredging collaterals	451225130430037
Curcuma phaeocaulis Valeton	Eshu莪术	–	Zingiberaceae	Herb	both	Tuber	Decoction; medicinal bath for dissipate blood stasis, dysmenorrhea	451225130501009
Cyclea hypoglauca (Schauer) Diels	Fenyelunhuanteng粉叶轮环藤	ça:u1phəp7	Menispermaceae	Liana	Wild	Root, Stem, Leaf	Root: Decoction; taken orally for soothe throats, suppressing cough. Stem: Decoction; taken orally for expectorant. Leaf: Decoction; taken orally for sore throat, abdominal pain	451225130310018
Cynanchum amplexicaule (Sieb. et Zucc.) Hemsl. var. castaneum Makino	Zihuahezhangxiao紫花合掌消	–	Apocynaceae	Herb	both	Whole plant	Decoction; taken orally for cool blood detoxifcation, hepatitis	451225130424025
Cynanchum atratum Bunge	Baiwei白薇	–	Apocynaceae	Herb	both	Whole plant	Pounded fresh part applied on the affected area, treating for skin disease	451225130523002
Cynodon dactylon (L.) Pers.	Gouyagen狗牙根	khɣət7tjen5hɣɔk8	Poaceae	Herb	Wild	Whole plant	Decoction; taken orally for rheumatism, hemiplegia, over-strained hemoptysis. Pounded fresh part applied on the affected area, treating for traumatic injury, bleeding wound, carbuncle	451225130610024
Cyperus rotundus L.	Xiangfuzi香附子	hɣɔk8ti6cəu3	Cyperaceae	Herb	Wild	Rhizome	Decoction; medicinal liquor; taken orally for clearing and activating the channels and collaterals, rheumatism, ostealgia, stomachache, asthma in children	451225130606020
Daemonorops jenkinsiana (Griffith) Martius	Huangteng黄藤	ça:u1ŋa:n3	Arecaceae	Liana	Wild	Stem or root	Decoction; taken orally for food-poisoning, constipation, diarrhea, infectious hepatitis, carbuncle, sore throat	451225130311001
Damnacanthus indicus C. F. Gaertn.	Huci虎刺	–	Rubiaceae	Shrub	Wild	Stem and leaf	Decoction; taken orally for treating stone, diuresis, nephropathy	451225121230021
Datura metel L.	Baimantuoluo白曼陀罗	ma:n4tho6lo5	Solanaceae	Herb	Home garden	Flower, Leaf	Pounded fresh part applied on the affected area, treating for alopecia. Decoction; medicinal bath, treating for cough with asthma, arthralgia, inchacao, rectal prolapse	451225130523001
Davallia divaricata Dutch et Tutch.	Dayegusuibu大叶骨碎补	–	Davalliaceae	Herb	Wild	Rhizome	Medicinal liquor; taken orally or applied on the affected area, for treating rheumatism, strengthening the bones and muscles, traumatic injury	451225130307006
Dendrobium nobile Lindl.	Shihu石斛	hɣɔk8ŋa:n3	Orchidaceae	Herb	Wild	Stem	Decoction; taken orally for febrile diseases, asthenia fever after illness	451225130427039
Desmodium gangeticum (L.) DC.	Dayeshanmahuang大叶山蚂蝗	–	Fabaceae	Shrub	Wild	Whole plant	Decoction; taken orally for diuresis	451225121230019
Desmodium racemosum (Thunb.) DC.	Shanmahuang山蚂蝗	pɣa1miŋ2	Fabaceae	Shrub	Wild	Whole plant	Decoction; taken orally for stomachache, infantile malnutrition	451225131109003
Desmodium multiflorum DC.	Dongmahuang饿蚂蝗	–	Fabaceae	Shrub	Wild	Root	Decoction; taken orally for clearing away heat and toxic materials, anti-itch, infantile malnutrition	451225130726004
Dichondra repens Forst.	Matijin马蹄金	ma1luk7	Convolvulaceae	Herb	Wild	Whole plant	Decoction; taken orally for throat inflammation, enteritis, liver ascites, jaundice, costalgia, urinary urgency, dysuria, irregular menses. Pounded fresh part applied on the affected area, treating for bleeding wound	451225130610014
Dicliptera chinensis (L.) Juss.	Gougancai狗肝菜	ma1tap7ŋwa1	Acanthaceae	Herb	Wild	Whole plant	Decoction; taken orally or medicinal bath for dizziness, tinnitus, bacillary dysentery hemafecia, dysuria, pyretic stranguria, measles	451225130606001
Dimocarpus longan Lour.	Longyan龙眼	ȵøn2sik8	Sapindaceae	Tree	Home garden	Aril	Taken orally directly for weakness of spleen and stomach, anorexia, diarrhea, insomnia dreaminess, palpitation, postpartum hypogalactia	451225130101009
Dioscorea bulbifcra L.	Huangdong黄独	kɣa2ŋa:n3la:k8	Dioscoreaceae	Liana	Wild	Tuber	Decoction; taken orally for antral gastritis, enteritis, thyroid disease, cough with lung heat, pudendal ulcer	451225130430035
Dioscorea cirrhosa Lour.	Shuliang薯莨	–	Dioscoreaceae	Liana	Wild	Tuber	Stir-fry with rice; taken orally for fever in children	451225130101027, 451225130430011
Dioscorea esquirolii Prain et Burkill	Qiyeshuyu七叶薯蓣	–	Dioscoreaceae	Liana	Wild	Rhizome	Decoction; medicinal bath, treating for herpes, hyperthyreosis	451225130312023
Diospyros kaki Thunb.	Shi柿	ca:u1ma3kai5	Ebenaceae	Tree	both	Persistent calyx	Decoction; taken orally for vomiting, relieve hiccup	451225130421035, 451225130428004
Drynaria roosii Nakaike	Hujue槲蕨	çiŋ1mu6lau2	Polypodiaceae	Herb	Wild	Rhizome	Decocted with water, slicing, drying, medicinal liquor; taken orally for treating kidney deficiency, backache, rheumatoid arthritis, toothache, tinnitus, traumatic injury, bone injury, appendicitis, pelada, heloma	451225130311014, 451225130421012
Dryopteris championii (Benth.) C. Chr.	Kuolinlinmaojue阔鳞鳞毛蕨	kon5tsɔŋ1	Dryopteridaceae	Herb	Wild	Whole plant	Decoction; taken orally for anemopyretic cold ecchymosis, internal hemorrhage, leukorrhea, enteric verminosis	451225130421053
Duchesnea indica (Andr.) Focke.	Shemei蛇莓	təm6twi2	Rosaceae	Herb	Wild	Whole plant	Decoction; taken orally for fever, cough, spitting blood, angina, diarrhea. Pounded fresh part applied on the affected area, treating for abscessfuruncle, snake bite, scald.	451225130311059, 451225130424009
Dysosma versipellis (Hance) M. Cheng	Bajiaolian八角莲	–	Berberidaceae	Herb	Wild	Whole plant	Pounded fresh part applied on the affected area, treating for poisonous insect bite	451225130612002
Dysphania ambrosioides (L.) Mosyakin et Clemants	Tujingjie土荆芥	ma1ȵin1	Amaranthaceae	Herb	Wild	Whole plant	Medicinal bath or pounded fresh part applied on the affected area, treating for treating for rheumatism painful swelling, eczema, poisonous insect bite	451225130607023
Echinochloa crus-galli (L.) P. Beauv.	Bai稗	–	Poaceae	Herb	Wild	Whole plant	Decoction; taken orally for diuresis detumescence, quiet the spirit	451225130718016
Eclipta Prostrata L.	Lichang鳢肠	hɣɔk8ma1ha:n5	Asteraceae	Herb	Wild	Whole plant	Decoction; taken orally or medicinal bath for treating internal hemorrhage, premature graying hair, diphtheritis, turbidity, leukorrhea, pudendal eczema. Pounded fresh part applied on the affected area, treating for bleeding wound, snake bite	451225130421003, 451225130501038
Elaeagnus glabra Thunb.	Manhutuizi蔓胡颓子	–	Elaeagnaceae	Liana	Wild	Leaf, Fruit, Root	Leaf: Decoction; taken orally for calm panting and suppress cough. Fruit: Taken orally directly for anti-diarrhea	451225131108045
Elephantopus scaber L.	Didancao地胆草	hɣɔk8tsja:k7ta:ŋ1	Asteraceae	Herb	Wild	Whole plant	Decoction; taken orally or medicinal bath for treating gastritis, dental ulcer, pharyngitis, inchacao edema, urinary frequency, urinary urgency, furuncle	451225130806001
Eleusine indica (L.) Gaertn.	Niujincao牛筋草	tən2cen1hɣɔk8	Poaceae	Herb	Wild	Whole plant	Decoction; taken orally for fever, damp and hot jaundice, abdominal distention, lumbar muscle injury	451225130610023
Eleutherococcus nodiflorus (Dunn) S. Y. Hu	Xizhuwujia细柱五加	ŋɔ4ca1ŋɣa2	Araliaceae	Shrub	Wild	Root bark	Medicinal liquor; taken orally for treating rheumatism, cramp	451225121205001
Eleutherococcus trifoliatus (L.) S. Y. Hu	Baiha白簕	–	Araliaceae	Shrub	Wild	Whole plant	Root and leaf: Decoction; taken orally for clearing away heat and toxic materials, nephritis, renal tuberculosis, edema; pounded fresh part applied on the affected area, treating for stanching bleeding; Stem: medicinal liquor; taken orally for rheumatism	451225121205030
Elsholtzia rugulosa Hemsl.	Baibeixiangru白背香薷	ma1mɣa:ŋ1	Lamiaceae	Herb	Wild	Whole plant with flower	Decoction; taken orally or medicinal bath for headache fever, abdominal pain, vomit, diarrhea, edema, inchacao	451225130608041
Embelia parviflora Wall. ex A. DC.	Dangguiteng当归藤	–	Primulaceae	Liana	Wild	Stem and leaf	Decoction; taken orally for diuresis, edema	451225121204018
Emilia sonchifolia DC.	Yidianhong一点红	nə5tjem3la:n3	Asteraceae	Herb	Wild	Whole plant	Decoction; taken orally or medicinal bath for urinary tract infection, kidney deficiency, sore throat, cough, urinary urgency, furuncle, herpes, eczema	451225130312002
Epimedium sagittatum (Sieb. et Zucc.) Maxim.	Sanzhijiuyecao三枝九叶草	hɣɔk8ta:n1ŋa5cəu3fa5	Berberidaceae	Herb	Wild	Stem, Leaf	Medicinal liquor or stewed with bone and drunk the soup, treating for impotence, dripping discharge of urine, soreness and weakness of waist and knees, rheumatoid arthritis	451225121231009
Equisetum diffusum D. Don	Pisanmuzei披散木贼	–	Equisetaceae	Herb	Wild	Whole plant	Pounded fresh part applied on the affected area, for anti-inflammatory, detumescence. Decoction; taken orally for nephritis, diuresis stranguria, renomegaly, clearing heat and improving eyesight	451225130721013
Equisetum hiemale L.	Muzei木贼	hɣɔk8pət7tha:p7	Equisetaceae	Herb	Wild	Whole plant	Decoction; taken orally for conjunctivitis, sore throat, abdominal pain, hemafecia, edema	451225131108023
Eriobotrya japonica (Thunb.) Lindl.	Pipa枇杷	pε:k8pa2fa5	Rosaceae	Tree	both	Leaf	Decoction; taken orally for ascites due to cirrhosis, cough with lung heat, hemoptysis, clearing away heat and toxic materials	451225130426034
Eriocaulon buergerianum Koern.	Gujingcao谷精草	hɣɔk8muŋ4la1	Eriocaulaceae	Herb	Wild	Inflorescence	Decoction; taken orally for nyctalopia, headache, toothache, pharyngitis, hemorrhinia	451225130428017
Erycibe obtusifolia Benth.	Dinggongteng丁公藤	ça:u1kɔŋ1pɔ1	Convolvulaceae	Shrub	Wild	Rhizome	Decoction; taken orally for rheumatism, hemiplegia. Pounded fresh part applied on the affected area, treating for painful swelling from knocks and falls	451225130611027
Eucalyptus globulus Labill.	Lanan蓝桉	a:n5mai4fa5lo4	Myrtaceae	Tree	both	Leaf	Decoction; taken orally for stomachache, prostatitis, wind-heat type common cold, cough, urinary urgency, dysuria. Pounded fresh part applied on the affected area, treating for furuncle, skin itch, eczema	451225130425026
Eucalyptus robusta Sm.	An桉	–	Myrtaceae	Tree	both	Seed	Decoction; taken orally for prostatitis, stomachache	451225130310004
Eucommia ulmoides oliv.	Dongzhong杜仲	tshja3ti1ŋɣa2	Eucommiaceae	Tree	both	Bark	Stewed with pig kidney and taken orally directly, treating for kidney deficiency, backache, frequent micturition, hypertension. Pounded fresh part applied on the affected area, treating for breaking of muscle and tendon, bone fracture	451225130426035
Eulaliopsis binata (Retz.) C. E. Hubb.	Nijinmao拟金茅	–	Poaceae	Herb	Wild	Whole plant	Decoction; taken orally or medicinal bath for clearing liver and eyesight	451225130607032
Euonymus fortunei (Turcz.) Hand.-Mazz.	Fufangteng扶芳藤	ça:u1fu6səu3	Celastraceae	Liana	Wild	Stem, Leaf	Medicinal liquor; taken orally or applied on the affected area, treating for rheumatism, ostealgia, traumatic injury, bone fracture. Pounded fresh part applied on the affected area, treating for bleeding wound,	451225130428013
Euonymus nitidus Benth.	Zhonghuaweimao中华卫矛	–	Celastraceae	Tree	Wild	Stem and leaf	Medicinal bath for relieve pain	451225130307032
Eupatorium fortunei Turcz.	Peilan佩兰	hɣɔk8la:n6	Asteraceae	Herb	Wild	Stem, Leaf	Decoction; taken orally for acute gastritis and enteritis, blood blight	451225131109021
Eupatorium lindleyanum DC.	Linzelan林泽兰	thjen1mɛ1hɣam5	Asteraceae	Herb	Wild	Whole plant	Decoction; taken orally for treating wind-heat type common cold, swelling and aching of gum, cough due to lung heat	451225130427017
Euphorbia esula L.	Rujiangdaji乳浆大戟	–	Euphorbiaceae	Herb	Wild	Whole plant	Decoction; medicinal bath for degerming; put it on the bed, treating for chills, fever	451225130306004
Euphorbia helioscopia L.	Zeqi泽漆	na:u3pa3ta:n5	Euphorbiaceae	Herb	Wild	Whole plant	Decoction; taken orally or pounded fresh part applied on the affected area, treating for edematous asthma, malaria, bacillary dysentery, scrofula, kerion, osteomyelitis	451225130426030
Euphorbia hirta L.	Feiyangcao飞扬草	nɛ6hɣo5hɣɔk8lo4	Euphorbiaceae	Herb	Wild	Whole plant	Decoction; taken orally for diarrhea, hematuria, dysuria, herpes eczema	451225121206004
Euphorbia humifusa Willd. ex Schltdl.	Dijin地锦	–	Euphorbiaceae	Herb	Wild	Whole plant	Pounded fresh part applied on the affected area, treating for snake bite	451225130306004
Euphorbia hypericifolia L.	Tongnaicao通奶草	–	Euphorbiaceae	Herb	Wild	Whole plant	Taken orally directly for diarrhea	451225130420011
Euphorbia thymifolia L.	Qiangencao千根草	nɛ6hɣo5hɣɔk8niŋ5	Euphorbiaceae	Herb	Wild	Whole plant	Taken orally directly for diarrhea, hemafecia. Pounded fresh part applied on the affected area, treating for eczema, kerion, pruritus	451225140420070
Euryale ferox Salisb.	Qian芡	kɣo3ci1ja4	Nymphaeaceae	Herb	Home garden	Fruit	Taken orally directly for enuresis, spermatorrhea, leukorrhea, diarrhea	451225140412008
Evodia lepta (Spreng.) Merr.	Sanyaku三桠苦	–	Rutaceae	Tree	Wild	Root, Leaf	Decoction; taken orally or medicinal bath for clearing away heat and toxic materials, anti-itch	451225131109030
Fagopyrum dibotrys (D. Don) H. Hara	Jinqiaomai金荞麦	–	Polygonaceae	Herb	both	Whole plant	Pounded fresh part applied on the affected area, treating for mammitis before suppuration	451225130519008
Ficus carica L.	Wuhuaguo无花果	khu5mɛ2hwa1hwi1	Moraceae	Shrub	both	Receptacle	Decoction; taken orally for diarrhea, constipation, piles, sore throat, cough with lung heat	451225130430049
Ficus hirta Vahl	Cuyerong粗叶榕	ŋɔ4nja2la:k8mɔ6tɔ2	Moraceae	Shrub	Wild	Root	Decoction; taken orally for stomachache, cough, abdominal distension, edema, leukorrhea, rheumatoid arthritis, lumbago	451225130307034
Ficus microcarpa L. f.	Rongshu榕树	–	Moraceae	Tree	Wild	Root, Aerial root	Root: medicinal liquor; taken orally for treating raumatic injury, hyperosteogeny, catagma. Aerial root: Decoction with old bamboo and drunk the soup, treating for hemiplegia	451225130430036
Ficus sarmentosa Buch.-Ham. ex J. E. Sm. var. lacrymans (Levl. Vant.) Corner	Baoyepatengrong薄叶爬藤榕	–	Moraceae	Liana	Wild	Stem and leaf	Decoction; medicinal bath for numbness of bone, rheumatism	451225130423027
Ficus tikoua Bur.	Diguo地果	ti6ɔŋ5	Moraceae	Liana	Wild	Stem, Leaf	Decoction; taken orally for anemopyretic cold, edema, jaundice, rheumatism, piles, amenorrhea, leukorrhea, indigestion, traumatic injury, treating for abdominal paindiarrhea, diarrhea, dizziness due to blood deficiency, leukorrhea, hemorrhinia	451225130423009
Ficus tinctoria G. Forst. subsp. gibbosa (Blume) Corner	Xieyerong斜叶榕	–	Moraceae	Tree	Wild	Stem and leaf	Decoction; medicinal bath for clearing away heat and toxic materials	451225121205032, 451225130519013, 451225130519028
Ficus pumila L.	Bili薜荔	–	Moraceae	Shrub	Wild	Stem and leaf	Decoction with the root of Melastoma malabathricum; medicinal bath for foot pain	451225121231023, 451225130311072
Flemingia macrophylla (Willd.) Kuntze ex Prain	Dayeqianjinba大叶千斤拔	–	Fabaceae	Shrub	Wild	Stem and leaf	Decoction; taken orally or medicinal bath, treating for caligo of old people	451225130427015
Flemingia prostrata Roxb. f. ex Roxb.	Qianjinba千斤拔	–	Fabaceae	Shrub	Wild	Root	Medicinal liquor; taken orally for treating rheumatism, arthritis, traumatic injury, relaxing tendons and strengthening bones, waist-leg weakness	451225130606029
Flueggea virosa (Roxb. ex Willd.) Voigt	Baifanshu白饭树	–	Phyllanthaceae	Shrub	Wild	Stem and leaf	Decoction; medicinal bath for eczema, anti-itch	451225130519010, 451225130606029
Foeniculum vulgare Mill.	Huixiang茴香	ma1mɣa:ŋ1niŋ5	Apiaceae	Herb	Home garden	Fruit	Decoction; taken orally for heart and chest pain, abdominal distension, abdominal pain	451225130430031
Galium aparine L. var. echinospermum (Wallr.) Farw.	Lalateng拉拉藤	hɣɔk8pak7ta:n5	Rubiaceae	Herb	Wild	Whole plant	Decoction; taken orally for treating turbidity, hematuria. Pounded fresh part applied on the affected area, treating for traumatic injury, abscess	451225131108001
Gardenia jasminoides J. Ellis	Zhizi栀子	lak8mwɔ2	Rubiaceae	Shrub	Wild	Fruit	Decoction; taken orally for jaundice with damp-heat pathogen. Incinerated; taken orally with water for treating internal hemorrhage. Pounded fresh part applied on the affected area, treating for sore, oliguria with reddish urine, painful swelling	451225130422008
Gelsemium elegans (Gardn. et Champ.) Benth.	Gouwen钩吻	–	Gelsemiaceae	Liana	Wild	Stem and leaf	Frying into carbon shape, decoction; taken orally for treating cancer	451225121204028,
Geum japonicum Thunb. var. chinense F. Bolle	Roumaolubianqing柔毛路边青	tshjøn5məm6mai4	Rosaceae	Herb	Wild	Whole plant	Decoction; taken orally or medicinal bath for intestinal carbuncle, diarrheabacillary dysentery, toothache, traumatic injury, pudendal pruritus, skin eczema	451225131108027
Ginkgo biloba L.	Yinxing银杏	la:k8ho3pa:k8	Ginkgoaceae	Tree	Home garden	Seed	Decoction; taken orally for cough, asthma, nocturnal emission, turbid urine	451225131108049
Glechoma longituba (Nakai) Kuprian.	Huoxuedan活血丹	hɣɔk8tjen2ljen6	Lamiaceae	Herb	Wild	Whole plant	Taken orally directly for commom cold, fever, cough, heatstroke, eruptive disease. Pounded fresh part applied on the affected area, cool the blood, dispelling wind detumescence, painful swelling from knocks and falls	451225130309028
Gleditsia sinensis Lam.	Zaojia皂荚	thjem1teŋ1	Fabaceae	Tree	Wild	Thorn	Powdered; applied on the affected area, treating for abscess, sore, kerion, enteritis	451225130308006
Glochidion eriocarpum Champ. ex Benth.	Maoguosuanpanzi毛果算盘子	–	Phyllanthaceae	Shrub	Wild	Whole plant	Decoction; taken orally for nephritis, edema	451225130421057, 451225130430045, 451225130421057
Glochidion puberum (L.) Hutch.	Suanpanzi算盘子	ton5pon2.la:k8	Phyllanthaceae	Shrub	Wild	Fruit, Stem and leaf	Taken orally directly for malaria, hernia, turbidity, backache. Decoction; medicinal bath for insecticidal anti-itch	451225130608029
Gnetum parvifolium (Warb.) Chun	Xiaoyemaimateng小叶买麻藤	–	Gnetaceae	Liana	Wild	Stem	Medicinal liquor; taken orally for rheumatism, activating blood circulation to dissipate blood stasis	451225130310009
Gomphrena globosa L.	Qianrihong千日红	thjen1fan1la:n3	Amaranthaceae	Herb	Home garden	Inflorescence or Whole plant	Decoction; medicinal bath for headache, giddiness. Decoction; taken orally for cough and asthma	451225130501040
Gonostegia hirta (Bl.) Miq.	Nuomituan糯米团	hu3kɣœ3ça:u1	Urticaceae	Herb	Wild	Whole plant	Decoction; taken orally for diarrhea, leukorrhea, infantile malnutrition, spitting blood. Pounded fresh part applied on the affected area, treating for furuncle, abscess, scrofula, bleeding wound	451225130427019
Gossypium herbaceum L.	Caomian草棉	mjεn2hwa1ta:ŋ1	Malvaceae	Herb	Home garden	Whole plant	Decoction; taken orally for weakness cough with asthma, hernia, metrorrhagia and metrostaxis, uterine prolapse	451225130501004
Gynostemma pentaphyllum (Thunb.) Makino	Jiaogulan绞股蓝	thət7fa5mwɔ5	Cucurbitaceae	Liana	both	Whole plant	Decoction; taken orally for relieve fever, anti-inflammator, chronic tracheitis, cough and asthma, stomachache, insomnia, headache	451225131109006
Gynura japonica (Thunb.) Juel	Jusanqi菊三七	–	Asteraceae	Herb	Wild	Stem and leaf	Pounded fresh part applied on the affected area, treating for traumatic injury, piles	451225130608031
Gynura bicolor (Roxb. ex Willd.) DC.	Hongfengcai红凤菜	–	Asteraceae	Herb	Wild	Whole plant	Decoction; taken orally for aid digestion, hypertension	451225130608021
Hedyotis diffusa Willd.	Baihuasheshecao白花蛇舌草	hɣɔk8ma2twi2	Rubiaceae	Herb	Wild	Whole plant	Decoction; taken orally for cough with lung heat, sore throat, jaundice, pelvic inflammation. Pounded fresh part applied on the affected area, treating for carbuncle, snake bite	451225130427036
Helianthus annuus L.	Xiangrikui向日葵	la:k8thəu5fan1	Asteraceae	Herb	Home garden	Seed, Receptacle	Seed: taken orally directly for treating constipation, bloody dysentery, hemafecia, measles, furuncle. Receptacle: Decoction; taken orally for tinnitus, dizziness, hypertension, dysmenorrhea, constipation	451225121205003
Helicteres angustifolia L.	Shanzhima山芝麻	–	Malvaceae	Shrub	Wild	Whole plant	Decoction; taken orally for clearing away heat and toxic materials, detumescence anti-itch, poor urination, removing stasis	451225121205014
Hemerocallis fulva L.	Xuancao萱草	ŋa:n3hwa1ma1ta:ŋ1	Xanthorrhoeaceae	Herb	both	Root	Decoction; taken orally for edema, dysuria, turbidity, leukorrhea, jaundice, hemafecia, metrorrhagia and metrostaxis, mammary abscess	451225130729014
Hibiscus mutabilis L.	Mufurong木芙蓉	mai4fu6juŋ6	Malvaceae	Shrub	Wild	Flower, Leaf, Root	Decoction; taken orally for cough with lung heat, infantile convulsion, leukorrhagia. Pounded fresh part applied on the affected area, treating for furuncle, scald	451225121206003
Hibiscus sabdariffa L.	Meiguiqie玫瑰茄	–	Malvaceae	Herb	Home garden	Root	Pounded fresh part applied on the affected area, treating for acute appendicitis	451225121230028
Hibiscus sgriacus L.	Mujin木槿	mai4cen1ŋɣa2	Malvaceae	Shrub	Home garden	Bark or Root bark	Decoction; taken orally for diarrhea, hemoptysis, rectal prolapse, piles, eczema, stubborn dermatitis	451225130519029, 451225130722009
Hordeum vulgare L.	Damai大麦	mε:k8ŋa2	Poaceae	Herb	Wild	Fruit	Decoction; taken orally for treating dyspeptic retention, abdominal distention, poor appetite, vomit diarrhea	451225121230036
Houttuynia cordata Thunb.	Jicai蕺菜	ma1wat7	Saururaceae	Herb	Wild	Whole plant	Decoction; taken orally for gynecological disease, tracheitis in children, bronchitis, pneumonia, stone, dermatitis	451225130425034
Hydrocotyle sibthorpioides Lam.	Tianhusui天胡荽	–	Apiaceae	Herb	Wild	Whole plant	Decoction; taken orally for jaundice hepatitis, lithangiuria	451225121231004
Hypericum japonicum Thunb.	Didongcao地耳草	ça:ŋ1tsən2	Clusiaceae	Herb	Wild	Whole plant	Decoction; taken orally for gynecological inflammation, liver ascites, damp and hot jaundice, intestinal carbuncle. Pounded fresh part applied on the affected area, treating for snake bite, furuncle abscess	451225130423003, 451225130427018, 451225130610029
Hypericum sampsonii Hance	Yuanbaocao元宝草	hɣɔk8ȵen6pɔ1	Clusiaceae	Herb	Wild	Whole plant	Decoction; taken orally for internal hemorrhage, irregular menses, dysmenorrhea. Pounded fresh part applied on the affected area, treating for bleeding wound	451225130426017, 451225130518027
Ilex asprella (Hook. et Arn.)_champ. ex Benth.	Chengxingshu秤星树	mai4ja4həu1	Aquifoliaceae	Tree	Wild	Stem and leaf	Decoction; taken orally for bitter taste, common cold, eruptive disease, abscess of lung, hemoptysis, sore throat, gonorrhea. Pounded fresh part applied on the affected area, treating for carbuncle toxin, traumatic injury	451225121231014
Ilex rotunda Thunb.	Tiedongqing铁冬青	cəu5lai3çen1	Aquifoliaceae	Tree	Wild	Bark	Decoction; taken orally for fever, sore throat, damp and hot diarrhea, stomachache, hemoptysis, spitting blood, hemafecia, hematuria. Powdered; applied on the affected area, treating for traumatic injury	451225130101003
Illicium verum Hook. f.	Bajiao八角	–	Schisandraceae	Tree	both	Whole plant	Pounded fresh part applied on the affected area, treating for facial skin disease	451225130430031
Impatiens balsamina L.	Fengxianhua凤仙花	–	Balsaminaceae	Herb	Wild	Whole plant, Seed	Decoction; medicinal bath for rheumatoid arthritis, contracture of bones and muscles, inchacao, tinea sores	451225130519022
Imperata cylindrica (L.) Raeusch.	Baimao白茅	juŋ3nɔ3	Poaceae	Herb	Wild	Rhizome	Decoction; taken orally for edema, jaundice, pancreatitis, mastitis, internal hemorrhage, edema, damp and hot jaundice	451225130101017
Ipomoea nil (Linnaeus ) Roth	Qianniu牵牛	chen1tən2la:k8	Convolvulaceae	Herb	Wild	Seed	Taken orally directly for treating edema, inchacao, constipation	451225121206008, 451225130718012
Isatis tinctoria L.	Songlan崧蓝	lo4sən3fa5	Brassicaceae	Herb	Home garden	Root	Decoction; taken orally for influenza, epidemic encephalitis B, sore throat, mumps, red eyes, pneumonia, erysipelas, herpes	451225130102011
Ixeris polycephala Cass.	Kumaicai苦荬菜	ma1kam1	Asteraceae	Herb	both	Whole plant	Decoction; taken orally for abscess of lung, mammary abscess, bloody stranguria, furuncle. Pounded fresh part applied on the affected area, treating for traumatic injury	451225130424008
Jasminum nudiflorum Lindl.	Yingchunhua迎春花	jin6tshən1hwa1	Oleaceae	Shrub	Home garden	Flower	Decoction; taken orally or medicinal bath for treating fever headache, painful voidings of hot urine, carbuncle eczema	451225130307012
Jasminum sambac (L.) Aiton	Molihua茉莉花	–	Oleaceae	Shrub	both	Root	Medicinal liquor; taken orally for treating rheumatism	451225130307014
Juglans regia L.	Hutao胡桃	hwi1tɔ2	Juglandaceae	Tree	Home garden	Seed	Taken orally directly for kidney deficiency, dyspnea with cough, backache, impotence, spermatorrhea, frequent micturition, dry feces	451225130307017
Juncus effusus L.	Dengxincao灯心草	hɣɔk8fi1taŋ1	Juncaceae	Herb	Wild	Whole plant	Decoction; taken orally for insomnia, prostatitis, lithangiuria	451225130422017, 451225130501023
Justicia adhatoda L.	Yazuihua鸭嘴花	–	Acanthaceae	Shrub	Wild	Whole plant	Pounded fresh part applied on the affected area, treating for protrusion of lumbar intervertebral disc, snake bite, traumatic injury	451225130307025
Justicia ventricosa Wall. ex Sims.	Heiyexiaobogu黑叶小驳骨	–	Acanthaceae	Herb	Wild	Whole plant	Pounded fresh part applied on the affected area, treating for traumatic injury, hyperosteogeny, protrusion of lumbar intervertebral disc, scald	451225130607011
Kadsura coccinea (Lem.) A. C. Smith	Heilaohu黑老虎	ça:u1kon3kɔk8	Schisandraceae	Liana	Wild	Stem, Leaf	Medicinal liquor; taken orally for liver ascites, rheumatism, ostealgia. Pounded fresh part applied on the affected area, treating for traumatic injury, bone fracture, furuncle, wound infection	451225130307040
Kadsura longipedunculata Finet et Gagnep.	Nanwuweizi南五味子	–	Schisandraceae	Liana	Wild	Root, Stem, Fruit	Root and stem: Decoction; taken orally for gastritis. Fruit: medicinal liquor; taken orally for treating rheumatism, stomachache	451225130308007
Kalimeris indica (L.) Sch. Bip.	Malan马兰	–	Asteraceae	Herb	Wild	Whole plant	Pounded fresh part applied on the affected area, treating for removing blood stasis, clearing away heat and toxic materials	451225130309013
Kummerowia striata (Thunb.) Schindl.	Jiyancao鸡眼草	hɣɔk8ci1la1	Fabaceae	Herb	Wild	Whole plant	Decoction; taken orally for cold and fever, vomiting and diarrhea, malaria, diarrhea, infectious hepatitis	451225130608028
Kyllinga polyphylla Kunth	Shuiwugong水蜈蚣	hɣɔk8nəm4cε3khɣap7	Cyperaceae	Herb	Wild	Whole plant or Root	Decoction; taken orally for fever, cough, diarrhea bacillary dysentery. Medicinal liquor; taken orally for traumatic injury, rheumatism	451225130309030
Kyllinga nemoralis (J. R. Forster & G. Forster) Dandy ex Hutchinson & Dalziel	Dansuishuiwugong单穗水蜈蚣	–	Cyperaceae	Herb	Wild	Whole plant	Decoction; taken orally for commom cold, cough, clearing and activating the channels and collaterals, pneamopathy, renomegaly	451225130519004
Lablab purpureus (L.) Sweet	Biandong扁豆	tau6pɔp7	Fabaceae	Liana	Home garden	Seed	Decoction; taken orally for diarrhea, vomit, bacillary dysentery	451225130309043
Lantana camara L.	Mayingdan马缨丹	ŋɔ4sak7hwa1	Verbenaceae	Shrub	Wild	Stem and leaf	Branch and leaf: Pounded fresh part applied on the affected area, treating for itchy skin, eczema, traumatic injury, painful swelling. Root: Decoction; taken orally for treating kidney stone	451225130429022
Laportea violacea Gagnep.	Putaoyeaima葡萄叶艾麻	–	Urticaceae	Herb	Wild	Root	Stewed with pig spleen and drunk the soup, treating for ascites due to cirrhosis	451225130310042
Lemmaphyllum microphyllum C. Presl var. obovatum (Harr.) C. Chr.	Daoluanyefushijue倒卵叶伏石蕨	–	Polypodiaceae	Herb	Wild	Whole plant	Decoction; taken orally for infantile malnutrition	451225130311011
Leonurus japonicus Houtt.	Yimucao益母草	mau6mai4hɣɔk8	Lamiaceae	Herb	Wild	Whole plant	Decoction; taken orally for irregular menses, amenorrhea, dysmenorrhea, postpartum blood stasis, abdominal pain, persistent lochia. Pounded fresh part applied on the affected area, treating for edema, abscess, pruritus, traumatic injury	451225130426002, 451225130518028, 451225130606006
Lespedeza cuneata (Dum.-Cours.) G. Don	Jieyetiesaozhou截叶铁扫帚	mu2kwa:n1tɔ1	Fabaceae	Shrub	Wild	Whole plant	Decoction; medicinal bath for dissipate blood stasis detumescence	451225130311017
Ligustrum lucidum Ait.	Nvzhen女贞	tsɔŋ1tsən5la:k8	Oleaceae	Tree	both	Fruit	Decoction; taken orally for liver ascites, soreness and weakness of waist and knees, tinnitus and dizziness	451225130718011
Ligustrum quihoui Carr.	Xiaoyenvzhen小叶女贞	–	Oleaceae	Shrub	Wild	Stem and leaf	Medicinal bath, treating for clearing away heat and toxic materials	451225130311048
Lilium brownii F. E. Br. ex Miellez	Yebaihe野百合	–	Liliaceae	Herb	Wild	Bulb	Stewed with meat and taken orally directly for cough with lung heat, expectoration, dysphoria, palpitation, insomnia	451225130518030, 451225130519050
Lindera aggregata (Sims) Kosterm.	Wuyao乌药	u1kɣa2	Lauraceae	Tree	Wild	Root	Decoction; taken orally for abdominal distention, abdominal pain, urinary frequency	451225130312003
Liquidambar formosana Hance	Fengxiangshu枫香树	mai4hɣəu1la:k8	Altingiaceae	Tree	Wild	Fruit	Medicinal liquor; taken orally for rheumatism, removing blood, spasm of hand and foot. Decoction; taken orally for stomachache, edema, carbuncle, anal fistula, eczema	451225130312012
Liriope spicata (Thunb.) Lour.	Shanmaidong山麦冬	–	Asparagaceae	Herb	Wild	Whole plant	Decoction; taken orally for hepatopathy. Stewed with meat and drank the soup for treating jaundice hepatitis	451225130312016
Litchi chinensis Sonn.	Lizhi荔枝	li6tsi1la:k8	Sapindaceae	Tree	Home garden	Aril, Seed	Seed: taken orally directly for epigastralgia, hernia, dysmenorrhea, eliminating stagnation. Fruit: taken orally directly for polydipsia, hiccup	451225130730006
Litsea cubeba (Lour.) Per.	Shanjijiao山鸡椒	–	Lauraceae	Tree	Wild	Root, Stem, Leaf	Stewed with meat and drunk the soup, treating for removing wind and dispersing cold, smooth circulation and stop pains	451225130310026, 451225130430046, 451225130519032, 451225130610028
Litsea pungens Hemsl.	Mujiangzi木姜子	ja4mai4tsja:ŋ5la:k8	Lauraceae	Tree	Wild	Fruit	Decoction; taken orally for anemofrigid cold, abdominal distention, poor appetite. Pounded fresh part applied on the affected area, treating for bleeding wound	451225130421018
Lobelia chinensis Lour.	Banbianlian半边莲	mɣa:ŋ6pjen1ljen2	Campanulaceae	Herb	Wild	Whole plant	Decoction; taken orally for jaundice, edema, abdominal distension, diarrhea, diarrhea. Pounded fresh part applied on the affected area, treating for snake bite, furuncle abscess, sprain	451225130501028, 451225130606026
Lonicera confusa (Sweet) DC.	Huananrendong华南忍冬	cəm1ȵen2ça:u1	Caprifoliaceae	Liana	both	Stem, Bud	Stem: Medicinal bath, treating for abscess, rheumatism. Flower: Decoction; taken orally for treating for fever, bloody flux, carbuncle, swollen toxin, scrofula, hemorrhoid complicated by anal fistula	451225130422035
Lonicera hypoglauca Miq.	Guxianrendong菰腺忍冬	–	Caprifoliaceae	Liana	Both	Whole plant	Decoction; taken orally or applied on the affected area, treating for headache, liver ascites, skin disease	451225130421045, 451225130719005
Lophatherum gracile Brongn.	Danzhuye淡竹叶	kwan1ta:m6fa5	Poaceae	Herb	Wild	Whole plant	Decoction; taken orally for tongue and mouth sores, dysuria, cough with lung heat, infantile convulsions, insomnia, uterine bleeding, apoplexy, threatened abortion	451225130422050
Loranthus sp.	Sangjishengshuyizhong桑寄生属一种	–	Loranthaceae	Shrub	Wild	Stem and leaf	Decoction; taken orally for treating inchacao, rheumatoid arthritis, postpartum hypogalactia	451225130423005
Loranthus sp.	Sangjishengshuyizhong桑寄生属一种	–	Loranthaceae	Shrub	Wild	Whole plant	Decoction; taken orally for cough, cold	451225130423015
Luffa cylindrica (L.) Roem.	Sigua丝瓜	thjen1la2hɣə:n5	Cucurbitaceae	Liana	Home garden	Peel	Decoction; taken orally for cough with lung heat, testicle painful swelling, amenorrhoea, promoting lactation	451225130423016
Lycopodium japonicum Thunb.	Shisong石松	hɣɔk8hɣaŋ4cen1	Lycopodiaceae	Herb	Wild	Whole plant	Medicinal liquor ; taken orally or applied on the affected area, for treating rheumatoid arthritis, numbness of limbs, edema, traumatic injury	451225130424032
Lycopus lucidus Turcz. ex Benth.	Disun地笋	tsek8la:m2	Lamiaceae	Herb	Wild	Stem, Leaf	Pounded fresh part applied on the affected area, treating for amenorrhea abdominal pain, edema, traumatic injury, carbuncle, swelling and pain	451225130425002
Lycoris radiata (L’Hey.) Herb.	Shisuan石蒜	hɣɔ2mən1	Amaryllidaceae	Herb	Wild	Bulb	Decoction; taken orally for anemofrigid cold, cough. Pounded fresh part applied on the affected area, treating for edema	451225130425021
Lygodium japonicum (Thunb.) Sw.	Haijinsha海金沙	–	Lygodiaceae	Herb	Wild	Whole plant	Decoction; taken orally for kidney stone, clearing heat and diuresis, stranguria. Pounded fresh part applied on the affected area for anaesthesia	451225121204033, 451225130311055, 451225130606031
Lygodium microphyllum (Cav.) R. Br.	Xiaoyehaijinsha小叶海金沙	–	Lygodiaceae	Herb	Wild	Whole plant	Decoction; taken orally for kidney stone, heat-clearing and diuresis, stranguria	451225130425040
Lysionotus pauciflorus Maxim.	Diaoshijutai吊石苣苔	–	Gesneriaceae	Shrub	Wild	Whole plant	Pounded fresh part applied on the affected area, treating for traumatic injury	451225130723003
Maclura cochinchinensis (Lour.) Corner	Gouji构棘	ta:ŋ1lyn1cet7	Moraceae	Shrub	Wild	Root	Medicinal liquor; taken orally or applied on the affected area, treating for rheumatoid arthralgia, traumatic injury. Decoction; taken orally for jaundice, turbidity, menostasis, hemoptysis, furuncle abscess	451225131108028
Magnolia liliflora Desr.	Xinyi辛夷	çin5tshən6hwa1	Magnoliaceae	Tree	Home garden	Flower	Decoction; taken orally for headache, nasosinusitis	451225130426014
Mahonia bealei (Fortune) Carrière	Kuoyeshidagonglao阔叶十大功劳	ŋa:n3mai4ljen2	Berberidaceae	Shrub	Wild	Leaf	Decoction; taken orally for clearing away heat and resolving fire, treating for headache, cough, jaundice	451225130728014
Mahonia sp.	Shidagonglaoshu十大功劳属	–	Berberidaceae	Shrub	Wild	Stem	Decoction; taken orally for clearing away heat and reducing fire, internal thermal, pneumonia	451225130427006
Mallotus paniculatus (Lam.) Muell. Arg.	Baiqiu白楸	fa5ləu2pa:k8	Euphorbiaceae	Tree	Wild	Root, Leaf	Root: Decoction; taken orally for leukorrhea, infertility. Leaf: pounded fresh part applied on the affected area, treating for bleeding wound, traumatic injury, thrush, bedsore	451225130427007
Malva verticillata L. var. crispa L.	Dongkui冬葵	tɔŋ6thəu5fan1	Malvaceae	Herb	Home garden	Seed	Decoction; taken orally for constipation, poor urination, insufficient lactation	451225130427013
Marsilea quadrifolia L. Sp.	Ping苹	–	Marsileaceae	Herb	Wild	Whole plant	Decoction; taken orally for liver ascites	451225130425012, 451225130519011
Melastoma dodecandrum Lour.	Dinie地菍	–	Melastomataceae	Herb	Wild	Whole plant	Decoction; taken orally for hepatopathy	451225130422007
Melastoma malabathricum L.	Yemudan野牡丹	–	Melastomataceae	Shrub	Wild	Root	Medicinal bath for painful swelling of feet	451225130422005, 451225130610026, 451225131109025
Melia azedarach L.	Lian楝	mai4khu1ljen6ta:ŋ1ŋɣa2	Meliaceae	Tree	Wild	bark	Decoction; taken orally or medicinal bath for treating for depriving ascarid, enterobiasis, measles, hemorrhoids	451225130611026
Mentha canadensis L.	Baohe薄荷	po6o5	Lamiaceae	Herb	both	Whole plant	Taken orally directly for treating affection of exogenous wind-heat, headache, fever, red eyes, measles	451225130427024
Millettia pachyloba Drake	Hainanyadouteng海南崖豆藤	ça:u1tɔk8məm6	Fabaceae	Liana	Wild	Root, Stem, Leaf	Medicinal liquor; taken orally or applied on the affected area, treating for scabies, wet leprosy, rheumatic arthritis	451225130428018
Mimosa pudica L.	Hanxiucao含羞草	hɣɔk8khɣə:n5jɛ6	Fabaceae	Herb	Wild	Whole plant	Decoction; taken orally or medicinal bath for gastritis, enteritis, insomnia, infantile malnutrition, herpes zoster	451225130428034
Miscanthus sinensis Andersson	Mang芒	–	Poaceae	Herb	Wild	Whole plant	Decoction; taken orally for relieve pain, stanching bleeding, enteritis	451225130310057
Momordica charantia L.	Kugua苦瓜	ku1li5fa5	Cucurbitaceae	Liana	Home garden	Leaf	Decoction; taken orally for stomachache, diarrhea. Pounded fresh part applied on the affected area, treating for eczema, prickly heat	451225130718020
Morinda officinalis How.	Bajitian巴戟天	hɣɔk8ci1khɣe3	Rubiaceae	Liana	Wild	Root	Powdered; taken orally with water or liquor, treating for impotence, aconuresis, rheumatoid arthritis, soreness and weakness of waist and knees	451225130428047
Morus alba L.	Sang桑	saŋ5la:k8	Moraceae	Shrub	Home garden	Whole plant	Root: Decoction; taken orally for diuresis. Branch: medicinal liquor; taken orally or rinsed the affected area, treating for rheumatism. Leaf: Decoction; taken orally for clear wind-heat. Fruit: taken orally directly or medicinal liquor and taken orally for tonifying liver and kidney	451225130311060, 451225130421060
Murraya paniculata (L.) Jack.	Qianlixiang千里香	–	Rutaceae	Shrub	Wild	Root, Stem	Decoction; taken orally for heart disease	451225121231001, 451225130311022
Musa basjoo Sieb. et Zucc.	Bajiao芭蕉	fja:k7ta:ŋ1	Musaceae	Herb	Home garden	Rhizome	Decoction; taken orally or medicinal bath for jaundice, edema, inchacao, bloody stranguria, metrorrhagia, furuncle, erysipelas	451225130429011
Mussaenda erosa Champ. ex Benth.	Nanteng楠藤	–	Rubiaceae	Liana	Wild	Stem and leaf	Decoction; taken orally or medicinal bath for clearing away heat and relieving exterior syndrome, infertility	451225130421042, 451225130430005
Nandina domestica Thunb.	Nantianzhu南天竹	–	Berberidaceae	Shrub	both	Stem and leaf	Decoction; taken orally for cooling blood	451225130102005, 451225130426025
Nelumbo nucifera gaerth.	Lian莲	ŋau4la:k8təm1	Nelumbonaceae	Herb	Home garden	Leaf, Seed, Germ	Leaf: Decoction; taken orally for diarrhea, vertigo, edema, internal hemorrhage. Seed: Taken orally directly for upset, spitting blood, spermatorrhea, swelling and pain of eye	451225130429017
Neolepisorus fortunei (T. Moore) Li Wang	Jiangnanxingjue江南星蕨	–	Polypodiaceae	Herb	Wild	Whole plant	Decoction; taken orally for rheumatism	451225121205019
Nepeta cataria L.	Jingjie荆芥	mai4jin1	Lamiaceae	Herb	Wild	Whole plant	Decoction; taken orally for fever commom cold, headache, sore throat, internal hemorrhage, metrorrhagia and metrostaxis, postpartum anemic fainting, abscess, sores, scrofula	451225130430022
Nervilia plicata (Andrews) Schltr.	Maoyeyulan毛叶芋兰	həu1ljen2	Orchidaceae	Herb	Wild	Leaf, Tuber	Decoction; taken orally for tuberculosis, cough with lung heat, hemoptysis. Pounded fresh part applied on the affected area, treating for scrofula, swollen toxin, traumatic injury	451225130430041
Ocimum basilicum L.	Luole罗勒	–	Lamiaceae	Herb	Wild	Whole plant, Seed	Pounded fresh part applied on the affected area, treating for dispelling wind detumescence, dissipate blood stasis relieve pain	451225130430048
Onychium japonicum (Thunb.) Kze.	Yezhiweijinfenjue野雉尾金粉蕨	–	Pteridaceae	Herb	Wild	Whole plant	Decoction; taken orally for calculosis	451225130102002
Ophiopogon intermedius D. Don	Jianxingyanjiecao间型沿阶草	mε:k8tɔŋ1	Asparagaceae	Herb	Wild	Rhizome	Stewed with meat and taken orally directly for treating irritating dry cough, hemoptysis, angina, abscess of lung, diabetes, constipation due to intestinal dryness	451225130501003
Opuntia dillenii (Ker Gawl.) Haw.	Xianrenzhang仙人掌	tɔŋ6pən6tsja:ŋ3	Cactaceae	Shrub	both	Root, Stem	Pounded fresh part applied on the affected area, treating for abdominal pain, diarrhea, scald, snake bite	451225130728015
Oryza sativa L.	Dao稻	hu3kɔk7ŋa2	Poaceae	Herb	Home garden	Seed-bud	Decoction; taken orally for treating dyspeptic retention, indigestion	451225130501036
Oxalis corniculata L.	Zhajiangcao酢浆草	ma1khɣəm3	Oxalidaceae	Herb	Wild	Whole plant	Decoction; taken orally for diarrhea, gonorrhea, leukorrhea, measles, internal hemorrhage, sore throat, abscess, piles, rectal prolapse. Pounded fresh part applied on the affected area, treating for traumatic injury, scald	451225130721007
Paederia scandens (Lour.) Merr.	Jishiteng鸡矢藤	ça:u1cɛ3ci1	Rubiaceae	Liana	Wild	Whole plant	Pounded fresh part applied on the affected area, treating for snake bite, itching	451225130102016
Paederia scandens (Lour.) Merr. var. tomentosa (Bl.) Hand.-Mazz.	Maojishiteng毛鸡矢藤	ça:u1ci1cɛ3pa:k8	Rubiaceae	Liana	Wild	Root or Whole plant	Decoction; taken orally for jaundice, diarrhea, dyspeptic retention, amenorrhea	451225130501037
Pandanus austrosinensis T. L. Wu	Ludongcao露兜草	–	Pandanaceae	Herb	Wild	Fruit	Leaf: Decoction; taken orally or medicinal bath for renomegaly, diuresis, sweating, anti-inflammatory. Fruit: Decoction; taken orally for cough, nephritis	451225130310036
Paris polyphylla Sm. var. chinensis (Franch.) Hara	Qiyeyizhihua七叶一枝花	thət7fa5ljen2	Trilliaceae	Herb	both	Rhizome	Powdered, taken orally or applied on the affected area for abscess furuncle, scrofula, sore throat, chronic tracheitis, infantile convulsion, snake bite	451225130518006
Passiflora papilio H. L. Li	Hudieteng蝴蝶藤	–	Passifloraceae	Liana	Wild	Whole plant	Medicinal liquor or decoction; taken orally for rheumatism, paralysis, indigestion	451225130726016
Patrinia villosa (Thunb.) Juss.	Pandaozeng攀倒甑	hɣɔk8ja:ŋ6tsja:ŋ5	Caprifoliaceae	Herb	Wild	Whole plant	Decoction; taken orally or medicinal bath for treating intestinal carbuncle, diarrhea, leukorrhea, abdominal pain, red eyes swollen toxin, abscess, hemorrhoids	451225130718007, 451225131108012
Paulownia fortunei (Seem) Hemsl.	Baihuapaotong白花泡桐	mai5phɔ5tɔŋ2	Scrophulariaceae	Tree	Wild	Bark	Decoction; taken orally for treating rheumatism, arthritis, edema, toxic heat, scabies	451225130518011
Pentarhizidium orientale Hayata	Dongfangjiaguojue东方荚果蕨	–	Onocleaceae	Herb	Wild	Whole plant	Decoction; taken orally for hepatitis, carditis	451225130518012
Penthorum chinense Pursh	Chegencai扯根菜	–	Penthoraceae	Herb	Wild	Whole plant	Pounded fresh part applied on the affected area, treating for traumatic injury	451225130518034
Pericampylus glaucus (Lam.) Merr.	Xiyuanteng细圆藤	ça:u1nam2fɔŋ1	Menispermaceae	Liana	Wild	Stem or root	Decoction; taken orally for infantile convulsions	451225130423031, 451225130611009
Perilla frutescens (L.) Britton	Zisu紫苏	–	Lamiaceae	Herb	Home garden	Stem, Leaf, Seed	Taken orally directly for dissipate wind-cold, relieve stasis and dissipate phlegm, ichthyotoxin, fish poison, turtle poison	451225130519025
Perilla frutescens (L.) Britton var. purpurascens (Hayata) H. W. Li	Yeshengzisu野生紫苏	–	Lamiaceae	Herb	both	Whole plant	Taken orally directly for cold. Pounded fresh part applied on the affected area, promoting wound healing	451225130518038
Perilla frutescensc (L.) Britt. var. crispa (Thunb.) Hand-Mazz.	Huihuisu回回苏	lau5ma1fa5	Lamiaceae	Herb	Home garden	Whole plant	Root: Decoction; taken orally for anemofrigid cold, cough, abdominal distention, threatened abortion, fish poison, turtle poison. Seed: Taken orally directly for cough and asthma, constipation due to intestinal dryness. Stem: Decoction; taken orally for threatened abortion, abdominal distension	451225130426018
Pholidota chinensis Lindl.	Shixiantao石仙桃	hwi1tɔ2fa5	Orchidaceae	Herb	Wild	Tuber or Whole plant	Decoction; taken orally for cough, hemoptysis, cough with lung heat, nocturnal emission. Pounded fresh part applied on the affected area, treating for scrofula, traumatic injury	451225130101026
Phragmites australis (Cav.) Trin. ex Steud.	Luwei芦苇	kɣo3ŋɔ4	Poaceae	Shrub	Wild	Rhizome	Decoction; taken orally for prostatitis, nephritis, vomiting due to stomach heat, nausea, abscess of lung, oliguria with reddish urine	451225130606041
Phyllanthus urinaria L.	Yexiazhu叶下珠	–	Phyllanthaceae	Herb	Wild	Whole plant	Decoction; taken orally or medicinal bath for detumescence improving eyesight, diuresis	451225130611023, 451225130718026, 451225130611023
Phyllodium pulchellum (L.) Desv.	Paiqianshu排钱树	pa:i2tjen2hɣɔk8	Fabaceae	Shrub	Wild	Root, Leaf	Decoction; taken orally for clearing away heat and relieving exterior syndrome. Medicinal liquor; taken orally for treating removing blood and dissipate blood stasis	451225130607012
Physalis angulata L.	Kuta苦蘵	–	Solanaceae	Herb	Wild	Whole plant	Decoction; taken orally for clearing away heat and toxic materials, expectorants up pressing cough	451225130718031
Physalis peruviana L.	Denglongguo灯笼果	tɔŋ6kwi5pɔm1	Solanaceae	Herb	both	Whole plant	Decoction; taken orally for common cold, sore throat, hernia. Pounded fresh part applied on the affected area, treating for poisoned sore	451225130429006
Phytolacca acinosa Roxb.	Shanglu商陆	lən1ləm6tjeu1	Phytolaccaceae	Herb	Wild	Root	Decoction; taken orally for edema, antral gastritis, gastric bleeding, constipation, diuresis, abscess	451225130429035, 451225130518026
Phytolacca americana L.	Chuixushanglu垂序商陆	–	Phytolaccaceae	Herb	Wild	Root	Decoction; medicinal bath for skin disease	451225130609004
Pilea cavaleriei H. Lév.	Shiyoucai石油菜	pi2ma1mu5	Urticaceae	Herb	Wild	Whole plant	Decoction; taken orally for cough due to tuberculosis, cough with lung heat. Pounded fresh part applied on the affected area, treating for scald, sores painful swelling	451225130608032
Pinellia ternata (Thunb.) Breit.	Banxia半夏	ma1ɣa:k7la:k8	Araceae	Herb	Wild	Tuber	Pounded fresh part applied on the affected area, treating for furuncle abscess	451225130306013
Pinus massoniana Lamb.	Maweisong马尾松	tsuŋ6pε:k7jəu2	Pinaceae	Tree	Wild	Stem tubercle, Leaf	Branchlet tubercle: medicinal liquor, taken orally or rinsed the affected area, treating for rheumatic arthritis, tuberculous arthritis, blood stasis. Leaf: Decoction; taken orally and rinsed for rheumatoid arthritis, traumatic injury, insomnia, edema, eczema, hemorrhoids	451225130610011
Piper kadsura (Choisy) Ohwi.	Fengteng风藤	ta6pɣa1lɔŋ2fa5lo4	Piperaceae	Herb	Wild	Stem	Medicinal liquor; taken orally or applied on the affected area, treating for rheumatoid arthritis, joint pain, vessel contracture syndromes etc., traumatic injury	451225130610012
Piper nigrum L.	Hujiao胡椒	hu2tjeu1	Piperaceae	Herb	Wild	Fruit	Taken orally directly for cold phlegm and dyspepsia, nausea, vomit, diarrhea, cold type dysentery, food-poisoning	451225130610017
Piper wallichii (Miq.) Hand.-Mazz.	Shinanteng石南藤	–	Piperaceae	Liana	Wild	Whole plant	Medicinal liquor; taken orally for treating rheumatism, ostealgia, waist-leg weakness, cough and asthma	451225130310071, 451225130425006
Plantago asiatica L.	Cheqian车前	tu3mu5ma1	Plantaginaceae	Herb	Wild	Whole plant	Decoction; taken orally for enriching blood, clearing away heat and dampness, diuresis stranguria, hematuria, urinary tract infection, nephritis	451225130309004
Platycladus orientalis (L.) Franco	Cebai侧柏	pə6fa5	Cupressaceae	Tree	both	Stem and leaf	Decoction; taken orally for piles, internal hemorrhage, hemorrhoidal hamorrhage, metrorrhagia and metrostaxis, bacillary dysentery, cough, seborrhoeic dermatitis, alopecia	451225130611007
Plumbago zeylanica L.	Baihuadan白花丹	–	Plumbaginaceae	Herb	both	Whole plant	Decoction; medicinal bath, treating for edema, infantile malnutrition	451225121205037, 451225130606038
Pogostemon cablin (Blanco) Benth.	Guanghuoxiang广藿香	khɔ6mɣa:ŋ1	Lamiaceae	Herb	Wild	Whole plant	Taken orally with saline water for abdominal distention, poor appetite, nausea, vomit	451225130611029
Polygala japonica Houtt.	Guazijin瓜子金	hɣɔk8kwa1la:k8	Polygalaceae	Herb	Wild	Whole plant or Root	Decoction; taken orally for sore throat, cough with copious phlegm, pertussis cough, abscess, traumatic injury, insomnia	451225130804002
Polygonatum cyrtonema Hua	Donghuahuangjing多花黄精	ci1ŋa:n3ma1	Asparagaceae	Herb	Wild	Rhizome	Slicing and decoction; taken orally directly for tuberculosis hemoptysi, weakness, soreness and weakness of waist and knee, rheumatoid arthritis	451225000000000
Polygonum chinense L.	Huotanmu火炭母	–	Polygonaceae	Herb	Wild	Whole plant	Decoction; taken orally for relieve pain and inflammation, ulcer	451225130501031
Polygonum hydropiper L.	Shuiliao水蓼	–	Polygonaceae	Herb	Wild	Whole plant	Decoction; medicinal bath for killing parasites to relieve itshing, eczema	451225130718008
Polygonum multiflorum Thunb.	Heshouwu何首乌	ma1tap7twi2	Polygonaceae	Liana	Wild	Rhizome	Decoction; taken orally for insomnia, profuse sweating, skin eruption, kidney deficiency, premature graying of the hair, dizzy of the head and dim of sight, soreness and weakness of waist and knees, spermatorrhea, chronic hepatitis, abscess, constipation due to intestinal dryness	451225130428007
Polygonum orientale L.	Hongliao红蓼	la:n3la6lja:u5	Polygonaceae	Herb	Wild	Whole plant	Decoction; taken orally for hyperosteogeny, abdominal distension, ascites due to cirrhosis, gastric distention, diarrhea, neck lymphatic tuberculosis	451225130718024
Polygonum Perfoliatum L.	Gangbangui杠板归	hɣɔk8twi2khu5ta6	Polygonaceae	Herb	Wild	Whole plant	Decoction; taken orally for damp and hot jaundice, diarrhea, bacillary dysentery, poor urination, stranguria with turbid discharge, hemorrhoids, eczema, pemphigus, anti-itch	451225000000000
Polygonum plebeium R. Br.	Xijianliao习见蓼	pjen5jøn6	Polygonaceae	Herb	Wild	Whole plant	Decoction; taken orally for pyretic stranguria, jaundice, leukorrhea, depriving ascarid, malnutrition, hemorrhoids, eczema	451225130721005
Portulaca oleracea L.	Machixian马齿苋	tɔŋ6fan1ma4	Portulacaceae	Herb	Wild	Whole plant	Decoction; taken orally for bacillary phthisis, diarrhea, bacillary dysentery, fever, cough, internal hemorrhage, eczema	451225130718010
Pothos chinensis (Raf.) Merr.	Shiganzi石柑子	–	Araceae	Herb	Wild	Whole plant	Medicinal liquor; taken orally or applied on the affected area, treating for rheumatism, traumatic injury, numbness of meridians and collaterals	451225130308016
Prunella vulgaris L.	Xiakucao夏枯草	ha5khu1hɣɔk8	Lamiaceae	Herb	Wild	Infructescence	Decoction; taken orally for scrofula, mammary abscess, breast cancer, dizziness, arthralgia and myalgia, tuberculosis, acute icteric hepatitis, metrorrhagia, leukorrhea. Pounded fresh part applied on the affected area, treating for bleeding wound	451225130420001, 451225130425023
Psidium guajava L.	Fanshiliu番石榴	–	Myrtaceae	Tree	both	Leaf, Fruit, Bark	Taken orally directly for stanching bleeding, hepatitis, hepatopathy	451225130724006
Psychotria rubra (Lour.) Poir.	Jiujie九节	mai4ta:n5lo4	Rubiaceae	Shrub	Wild	Stem and leaf	Pounded fresh part applied on the affected area, treating for traumatic injury, bone fracture, rheumatism, ostealgia, swollen toxin, sore throat	451225130307033, 451225130501013, 451225130519040, 451225130608001
Pteridium aquilinum (L.) Kuhn var. latiusculum (Desv.) Underw. ex Heller	Jue蕨	–	Dennstaedtiaceae	Herb	Wild	Leaf	Medicinal bath for clearing heat and toxic materials	451225130726011
Pteris vittata L.	Wugongcao蜈蚣草	–	Pteridaceae	Herb	Wild	Whole plant	Decoction; taken orally for eczema, epilation	451225130727001
Pteris multifida Poir.	Jinglanfengweijue井栏凤尾蕨	hɣɔk8ci1jem1	Pteridaceae	Herb	Wild	Whole plant or Root	Decoction; taken orally for abdominal pain, diarrhea, bacillary dysentery, hemafecia, dysuria, urinary urgency. Pounded fresh part applied on the affected area, treating for bleeding wound	451225130311019
Pterolobium punctatum Hemsl.	Laohuci老虎刺	–	Fabaceae	Liana	Wild	Root	Decoction; taken orally for hepatitis, duodenal ulcer	451225130727011
Pueraria montana (Loureiro) Merrill var. lobata (Willdenow) Maesen & S. M. Almeida ex Sanjappa & Predeep	Ge葛	ɔ6mε:k8ça:u1	Fabaceae	Liana	Wild	Rhizome	Decoction; taken orally for alleviate a hangover, vertebral syndrom, clearing away heat and relieving exterior syndrome, stimulate saliva and reduce thirst, measles, diarrhea	451225130804006
Punica granatum L.	Shiliu石榴	sik8ləu2ŋɣa2	Lythraceae	Tree	Home garden	Peel	Taken orally directly for diarrhea, bacillary dysentery, protracted dysentery, hemafecia, rectal prolapse, leukorrhea, metrorrhagia and metrostaxis, parasitic accumulation abdominal pain	451225130805001
Pyrrosia lingua (Thunb.) Farwell	Shiwei石韦	twi2hwi2	Polypodiaceae	Herb	Wild	Whole plant	Pounded fresh part applied on the affected area, treating for bleeding wound, gunshot wounds. Decoction; taken orally for clearing heat, calculosis, promoting diuresis and relieving stranguria	451225130806004
Pyrrosia tonkinensis (Giesenh.) Ching	Zhongyueshiwei中越石韦	–	Polypodiaceae	Herb	Wild	Whole plant	Decoction; taken orally for nephritis, urinary stone	451225131107008
Pyrrosia calvata (Baker) Ching	Guangshiwei光石韦	–	Polypodiaceae	Herb	Wild	Whole plant	Medicinal liquor; taken orally for treating rheumatism	451225121205015
Quisqualis indica L.	Shijunzi使君子	–	Combretaceae	Liana	both	Seed	Decoction; taken orally for stomachache	451225131107011
Raphanus sativus L.	Luobo萝卜	lak8pak8la:k8	Brassicaceae	Herb	Home garden	Seed	Taken orally directly for treating cough, dyspeptic retention and qi stagnatio, bosom frowsty abdominal distension, diarrhea	451225131107013
Reynoutria japonica Houtt.	Huzhang虎杖	cəu3lɔŋ2ta:ŋ1	Polygonaceae	Shrub	Wild	Rhizome	Medicinal liquor; taken orally for treating rheumatism, traumatic injury. Decoction; taken orally for damp and hot jaundice, stranguria, leukorrhea, menostasis, postpartum blood stasis. Pounded fresh part applied on the affected area, treating for traumatic injury, burn and scald, malignant sore and tinea	451225130608004
Rhodomyrtus tomentosa (Aiton) Hassk.	Taojinniang桃金娘	–	Myrtaceae	Shrub	Wild	Root, Leaf, Fruit	Taken orally directly or Medicinal liquor; taken orally for astringing to stop diarrhea, dispelling wind and activating collaterals	451225130608030
Rhus chinensis Mill.	Yanfumu盐肤木	kwa6hu3mai4	Anacardiaceae	Shrub	Wild	Whole plant	Decoction; taken orally or medicinal bath for cool the blood, cough, sore throat, jaundice, night sweat, diarrhea, kerion, carbuncle toxin, head-wind white scaling	451225131107018
Rhynchosia volubilis Lour.	Luhuo鹿藿	–	Fabaceae	Liana	Wild	Whole plant	Decoction; taken orally for aid digestion	451225130723004
Ricinus communis L.	Bima蓖麻	la:k8ma6la:k8	Euphorbiaceae	Shrub	both	Seed	Decoction after frying; taken orally for carbuncle, pharyngitis, edema, scrofula, constipation. Pounded fresh part applied on the affected area, treating for scabies	451225121230004
Rohdea japonica Roth.	Wannianqing万年青	hwa:n6mɛ1həu1	Asparagaceae	Herb	both	Whole plant	Decoction; taken orally for palpitation, pectoralgia, edema, sore throat. Pounded fresh part applied on the affected area, treating for bleeding wound	451225131107022
Rosa chinensis Jacq.	Yuejihua月季花	mwa:n4ci5hwa1	Rosaceae	Liana	Home garden	Bud	Decoction; taken orally for irregular menses, leukorrhea. Pounded fresh part applied on the affected area, treating for traumatic injury	451225131107025
Rosa laevigata Miehx.	Jinyingzi金樱子	la:k8muŋ3ta:ŋ1	Rosaceae	Liana	Wild	Root, Fruit	Root: Decoction; taken orally or rinsed for spermatorrhea, enuresis, diarrhea, diarrhea, metrorrhagia and metrostaxis, leukorrhea, uterine prolapse, hemorrhoid complicated by anal fistula, scald. Fruit: medicinal liquor; taken orally for treating spermatorrhea, enuresis, frequent micturition, diarrhea due to spleen deficiency, spontaneous sweating, night sweat, metrorrhagia and metrostaxis, leukorrhea, rectal prolapse	451225130517014, 451225130519046
Rosa multiflora Thunb.	Yeqiangwei野蔷薇	tshja:ŋ6wəi6ta:ŋ1	Rosaceae	Liana	Wild	Stem, Leaf	Decoction; taken orally or medicinal bath for abscess of lung, diarrhea, arthritis, internal hemorrhage, irregular menses, furuncle, hemorrhoids. Pounded fresh part applied on the affected area, treating for traumatic injury, acariasis	451225131108002
Rosa sp.	Meigui玫瑰	məi6ji1hwa1	Rosaceae	Shrub	Home garden	Flower	Taken orally directly for spitting blood, hemoptysis, irregular menses, leukorrhea, diarrhea, mastalgia, swollen toxin	451225131107030
Rotala rotundifolia (Buch.-Ham. ex Roxb.) Koehne	Yuanyejiejiecai圆叶节节菜	–	Lythraceae	Herb	Wild	Whole plant	Decoction; taken orally for cough	451225130425036
Rubia cordifolia L.	Qiancao茜草	hɣɔk8la:n3ta:ŋ1	Rubiaceae	Herb	Wild	Whole plant	Decoction; taken orally for treating rheumatism, internal hemorrhage, amenorrhea, jaundice, chronic bronchitis. Pounded fresh part applied on the affected area, treating for rheumatoid arthritis, traumatic injury, painful swelling	451225130311033
Rubus alceifolius Poir.	Cuyexuangouzi粗叶悬钩子	–	Rosaceae	Liana	Wild	Root, Leaf	Decoction; taken orally or medicinal bath for clearing heat, stanching bleeding, promoting blood circulation for removing blood stasis	451225130608042, 451225130730004
Rubus corchorifolius L. f.	Shanmei山莓	–	Rosaceae	Liana	Wild	Root	Decoction; taken orally for ascites due to cirrhosis, prostatitis, tracheitis	451225130308013, 451225130310029, 451225130425022
Rubus phoenicolasius Maxim.	Dongxianxuangouzi多腺悬钩子	–	Rosaceae	Liana	Wild	Root	Medicinal liquor; taken orally for treating rheumatism	451225131108010
Rubus rosifolius Smith	Kongxinpao空心泡	–	Rosaceae	Herb	Wild	Root	Decoction; taken orally for ascites due to cirrhosis	451225131108017
Salix babylonica L.	Chuiliu垂柳	ja:ŋ6liu3ŋa5	Salicaceae	Tree	Home garden	Stem	Decoction; taken orally for rheumatoid arthritis, gonorrhea, gonorrhea, urinary stoppage, infectious hepatitis B, pemphigus, erysipelas, decayed tooth, swelling and aching of gum	451225131109002
Salvia chinensis Benth.	Huashuweicao华鼠尾草	twi2nən1tshøn1	Lamiaceae	Herb	Wild	Whole plant	Decoction; taken orally for menostasis, leukorrhea, swelling and pain, costalgia, damp and hot jaundice	451225140504030
Sambucus chinensis Lindl.	Jiegucao接骨草	–	Adoxaceae	Herb	Wild	Whole plant	Decoction; medicinal bath for dispelling wind and remove dampness	451225130426004
Sanguisorba offieinalis L.	Diyu地榆	tsi3phɣə:t7kɣa2	Rosaceae	Herb	Wild	Root, Rhizome	Decoction; taken orally for internal hemorrhage, diarrhea, anal fistula. Pounded fresh part applied on the affected area, treating for scald	451225140505011
Sapium sebiferum (L.) Roxb.	Wujiu乌桕	u4tsin5	Euphorbiaceae	Tree	Wild	Bark	Pounded fresh part applied on the affected area, treating for furuncle, eczema, pruritus, bleeding wound. Decoction; taken orally for edema, constipation, abdominal distension, eczema	451225130519026
Sarcandra glabra (Thunb.) Nakai	Caoshanhu草珊瑚	cəu3kwət7tsa2	Chloranthaceae	Shrub	Wild	Stem and leaf	Decoction; taken orally for sore throat, wind-heat type common cold, diarrhea bacillary dysentery. Pounded fresh part applied on the affected area, treating for rheumatism, traumatic injury	451225130518041
Sargentodoxa cuneata (Oliv.) Rehder et E. H. Wilson	Daxueteng大血藤	ça:u1phɣə:t7lo4	Lardizabalaceae	Liana	Wild	Stem	Medicinal liquor; taken orally for treating rheumatism, ostealgia, backache, traumatic injury, beadache due to deficiency of blood, intestines carbuncle	451225131108025
Saururus chinenisi (Lour.) Baill.	Sanbaicao三白草	hɣɔk8ta:m1pɛ:k8	Saururaceae	Herb	Wild	Whole plant	Decoction; medicinal bath for damp and hot, edema, stranguria with turbid discharge, leukorrhea, carbuncle, inchacao	451225130426027
Schefflera heptaphylla (L.) Frodin	Ezhangchai鹅掌柴	–	Araliaceae	Tree	Wild	Bark, Leaf	Decoction; taken orally or medicinal bath for rheumatism, rheumatoid, sweating	451225121204025, 451225130309015
Tacca plantaginea (Hance) Drenth	Lieguoshu裂果薯	nəm4lak8pak8	Dioscoreaceae	Herb	Wild	Rhizome	Decoction; taken orally for gastrosis	451225130422026, 451225130429009
Scutellaria barbata D.Don.	Banzhilian半枝莲	mɣa:ŋ6ŋa5ljen6	Lamiaceae	Herb	Wild	Whole plant	Decoction; taken orally for cancer, ascites due to cirrhosis, internal hemorrhage, sore throat, jaundice. Pounded fresh part applied on the affected area, treating for snake bite, carbuncle toxin, traumatic injury	451225130718028
Scutellaria baicalensis Georgi	Huangqin黄芩	–	Lamiaceae	Herb	Wild	Rhizome	Decoction; taken orally for hepatitis, nephritis	451225140504021
Sedum lineare Thunb.	Fojiacao佛甲草	hɣɔk8fu6cap7	Crassulaceae	Herb	both	Whole plant	Decoction; taken orally for sore throat, jaundice, diarrhea. Pounded fresh part applied on the affected area, treating for abscess, furuncle, erysipelas, scald, snake bite	451225130422042
Sedum sarmentosum Bge.	Chuipencao垂盆草	hɣɔk8pa:i2pən2	Crassulaceae	Herb	Wild	Whole plant	Decoction; taken orally for damp and hot jaundice. Pounded fresh part applied on the affected area, treating for skin and external diseases, snake bite, scald	451225140506013
Selaginella tamariscina (Beauv.) Spring.	Juanbai卷柏	kon3pɛ:k8	Selaginellaceae	Herb	Wild	Whole plant	Decoction; taken orally for stimulating saliva, internal hemorrhage, cough, asthma, jaundice, leukorrhea, stranguria. Pounded fresh part applied on the affected area, treating for edema, scald	451225140508012
Selaginella uncinata (Desv.) Spring.	Cuiyuncao翠云草	tshəi4jyn6hɣɔk8	Selaginellaceae	Herb	Wild	Whole plant	Decoction; taken orally for jaundice, diarrhea, edema, rheumatoid arthritis, hemoptysis, sore throat, anal fistula, cold sweat. Pounded fresh part applied on the affected area, treating for bleeding wound, scald	451225121230022, 451225130311029, 451225130612003
Semiaquilegia adoxoides (DC.) Mak.	Tiankui天葵	mən1khwəi6la:k8	Ranunculaceae	Herb	Wild	Whole plant	Decoction; taken orally for cough, asthma, edema, stranguria. Pounded fresh part applied on the affected area, treating for furuncle and carbuncle, traumatic injury	451225130306014
Semiliquidambar cathayensis H. T. Chang	Banfenghe半枫荷	–	Altingiaceae	Tree	Wild	Root, bark	Medicinal liquor; taken orally or applied on the affected area, treating for rheumatoid arthritis, lumbar muscle degeneration	451225131109028
Senecio scandens Buch.-Ham. ex D. Don	Qianliguang千里光	ça:u1jɛ5	Asteraceae	Herb	Wild	Whole plant	Decoction; taken orally for rhinitis, hepatitis, clearing away heat and toxic materials, sore throat, swelling and pain, pruritus	451225121204007
Senna occidentalis (L.) Link	Wangjiangnan望江南	moŋ6ca:ŋ1na:m2	Fabaceae	Herb	Wild	Stem, Leaf	Decoction; taken orally for cough, asthma, bloody stranguria, constipation, headache, red eyes. Pounded fresh part applied on the affected area, treating for furuncle swollen toxin, snake bite	451225140507003
Senna tora (L.) Roxb.	Jueming决明	–	Fabaceae	Herb	both	Seed	Decoction; taken orally for clearing liver and eyesight, diuresis, anti-hypertensive	451225131107001
Serissa japonica (Thunb.) Thunb.	Liuyuexue六月雪	–	Rubiaceae	Shrub	Wild	Root	Decoction; taken orally for nephropathy, pharyngitis, urinary stone	451225140508032
Sesamum indicum L.	Zhima芝麻	yəu6ma2nam1	Pedaliaceae	Herb	Home garden	Seed	Powdered, taken orally with water for premature graying hair, dizzy of the head and dim of sight, constipation due to intestinal dryness	451225130726012
Setaria italica (L.) Beauv. var. germanica (Mill.) Schrad.	Su粟	–	Poaceae	Tree	Home garden	Stigma, Pulp of infructescence	Decoction; taken orally for diuresis stranguria, removing jaundice detumescence	451225130306003
Sigesbeckia pubescens (Makino) Makino	Xiangengxixian腺梗豨莶	çi1tshjen1hɣɔk8	Asteraceae	Herb	Wild	Whole plant	Decoction; taken orally or medicinal bath for rheumatism, numbness of limbs, apoplexy, abscess, eczema pruritus, hypertension	451225130429025
Smilax biumbellata T. Koyama	Xinanbaqia西南菝葜	ça:u1cəm1ka:ŋ1	Smilacaceae	Liana	Wild	Rhizome	Medicinal liquor; taken orally or applied on the affected area, for treating dispelling wind and remove dampness, rheumatism, traumatic injury, scrofula	451225130423029
Smilax china L.	Baqia菝葜	–	Smilacaceae	Liana	Wild	Tuber	Medicinal liquor; taken orally for tonifying kidney, general fatigue, cough	451225130430025
Smilax glabra Roxb.	Tufuling土茯苓	hu3kɔk7ta:ŋ1	Smilacaceae	Liana	Wild	Rhizome	Decoction; taken orally for syphilis, turbidity, inchacao, furuncle, abscess, scrofula	451225130501042, 451225130611002
Solanum melongena L.	Qie茄	ca6la:i4ta:ŋ1	Solanaceae	Herb	Home garden	Root, Stem	Decoction; taken orally or medicinal bath for rheumatic arthritis, protracted dysentery, hemafecia, inchacao. Pounded fresh part applied on the affected area, treating for chilblain, toothache	451225131109029
Solanum nigrum L.	Longkui龙葵	tɔŋ6taŋ1lɔŋ2	Solanaceae	Herb	Wild	Whole plant	Decoction; taken orally for clearing away heat and toxic materials, diuresis detumescence, anticancer. Pounded fresh part applied on the affected area, treating for furuncle, traumatic injury	451225130307003
Solanum verbascifolium L.	Jiayanyeshu假烟叶树	jen1ja4fa5	Solanaceae	Shrub	Wild	Whole plant	Decoction; taken orally or medicinal bath for rheumatism, toothache, scrofula, metrorrhagia. Pounded fresh part applied on the affected area, treating for traumatic injury, furuncle abscess, eczema	451225121205029
Solena heterophylla Lour.	Maogua茅瓜	–	Cucurbitaceae	Liana	Home garden	Whole plant	Pounded fresh part applied on the affected area or medicinal bath, treating for pedal edema	451225130606028
Solidago decurrens Lour.	Yizhihuanghua一枝黄花	nə5ŋa5ŋa:n3hwa1	Asteraceae	Herb	Wild	Whole plant	Decoction; taken orally for common cold with headache, sore throat, cough, jaundice; medicinal bath, treating for infantile convulsions, traumatic injury, furuncle, eczema itch	451225130307026
Sophora flavescens Alt.	Kucan苦参	sən5kam1	Fabaceae	Herb	both	Root	Medicinal liquor; taken orally for treating rheumatism, ostealgia. Decoction; taken orally or medicinal bath for infantile malnutrition, toxic heat, discharging fresh blood stool, jaundice, leukorrhea, acute tonsillitis, hemorrhoid complicated by anal fistula, rectal prolapse, pruritus, scald	451225130719007
Sophora japonica L.	Huai槐	hwa:i6mai4hwa1	Fabaceae	Shrub	Home garden	Flower	Decoction; taken orally for piles, internal hemorrhage, hypertension. Stewed with tail of pig intestine and drunk the soup, treating for syphilis	451225130428048
Sophora tonkinensis Gagnep.	Yuenanhuai越南槐	–	Fabaceae	Shrub	Wild	Root	Taken orally directly for sore throat, gastric cancer, stomachache, gastric ulcer, prostatitis, diuresis	451225130311063
Spatholobus suberectus Dunn.	Mihuadong密花豆	ça:u1ci1phɣə:t7	Fabaceae	Liana	Wild	Stem	Medicinal liquor; taken orally for treating dizziness due to deficiency of blood, soreness of waist, paralysis, irregular menses	451225130429024
Speranskia cantonensis (Hance) Pax et Hoffm.	Guangdongdigouye广东地构叶	–	Euphorbiaceae	Shrub	Wild	Whole plant	Decoction; medicinal bath, treating for ague or fever	451225130428050
Spirodela polyrhiza (Linnaeus) Schleiden	Ziping紫萍	ȵai3	Araceae	Herb	Wild	Whole plant	Decoction; taken orally or medicinal bath for affection of exogenous wind-heat, measles, pruritus, edema	451225130429034
Stachytarpheta jamaicensis (L.) Vahl	Jiamabian假马鞭	–	Verbenaceae	Herb	Wild	Whole plant	Decoction; taken orally for clearing away heat and toxic materials, diuresis stranguria, stone, urinary tract infection	451225131108026
Stahlianthus involucratus (King ex Bak.) Craib	Tutianqi土田七	–	Zingiberaceae	Herb	Home garden	Tuber	Stewed with meat and eated directly for bodily weakness	451225130607010
Stellaria alsine Grimm	Queshecao雀舌草	–	Caryophyllaceae	Herb	Wild	Whole plant	Decoction; taken orally for clearing away heat and toxic materials, diuresis, detumescence relieve pain	451225130307021
Stemona tuberosa Lour.	Dabaibu大百部	–	Stemonaceae	Herb	Wild	Rhizome	Decoction; taken orally for relieving thirst and asthma, insecticidal relieve pain, cough with lung heat, tuberculosis	451225130423020
Stephania japonica (Thunb.) Miers	Qianjinteng千金藤	ça:u1thjen1can1	Menispermaceae	Liana	Wild	Stem or root, Leaf	Decoction; taken orally for sore blister, diarrhea, rheumatism, edema, stranguria with turbid discharge, sore throat, abscess, furuncle	451225130805003
Striga asiatica (L.) O. Ktze.	Dongjiaojin独脚金	na:u3tin1cəm1	Orobanchaceae	Herb	Wild	Whole plant	Decoction; taken orally for infantile malnutrition, edema	451225130721002
Strobilanthes cusia (Nees) Kuntze	Banlan板蓝	lo4həu1fa5	Acanthaceae	Herb	Wild	Stem and leaf	Pounded fresh part applied on the affected area, treating for protrusion of lumbar intervertebral disc, snake bite, traumatic injury. Decoction; taken orally or medicinal bath for fever, headache, sore throat, mumps, furuncle, miliaria, eczema	451225130726001
Strychnos nux-vomica L.	Maqianzi马钱子	–	Loganiaceae	Shrub	both	Seed	Chewing, treating for toothache	451225130501039
Talinum paniculatum (Jacq.) gaertn.	Turencan土人参	tɔŋ6ma1pi2	Talinaceae	Herb	Wild	Whole plant	Stewed with meat and drunk the soup, treating for weakness of spleen and stomach, poor appetite, cough hemoptysis, spontaneous sweating, palpitation, irregular menses	451225130422044
Taraxacum mongolicum Hand.-Mazz.	Pugongying蒲公英	ma1pa:k8hɣɔk8	Asteraceae	Herb	Wild	Whole plant	Decoction; taken orally or medicinal bath for treating toxic heat, abscess of lung, intestinal carbuncle, mammary abscess	451225130519001
Taxillus chinensis (DC.) Danser	Guangjisheng广寄生	–	Loranthaceae	Shrub	Wild	Whole plant	Medicinal liquor; taken orally for rheumatism, activate collaterals, lumbar muscle degeneration, paralysis	451225130424027
Taxus wallichiana Zucc. var. mairei (Lemée et H. Lév.) L. K. Fu et Nan Li	Nanfanghongdongshan南方红豆杉	–	Taxaceae	Tree	both	Stem pith	Decoction; taken orally for heart disease, hepatopathy	451225131108003
Tetrastigma planicaule (Hook. f.) Gagnep.	Biandanteng扁担藤	ça:u1pjɛn3	Vitaceae	Liana	Wild	Stem, Root	Medicinal liquor; taken orally or rinsed, treating for ischialgia, rheumatism, hemiplegia	451225130727009
Teucrium viscidum Bl.	Xuejianchou血见愁	–	Lamiaceae	Herb	Wild	Whole plant	Decoction; taken orally for difficult labour	451225130718001
Tinospora sagittata (Oliv.) Gagnep.	Qingniudan青牛胆	–	Menispermaceae	Liana	Wild	Rhizome	Decoction; taken orally for hepatitis, prostatitis. Taken orally directly for abdominal pain	451225130423033
Tinospora sinensis (Lour.) Merr.	Zhonghuaqingniudan中华青牛胆	ça:u1hɣa:ŋ4cen1	Menispermaceae	Liana	Wild	Stem	Pounded fresh part applied on the affected area, treating for breaking of muscle and tendon, rheumatism, ostealgia. Medicinal liquor; taken orally for activate collaterals	451225121231021
Toddalia asiatica (L.) Lam.	Feilongzhangxue飞龙掌血	lən1phɣə:t7ta:n5	Rutaceae	Liana	Wild	Root or Root bark	Medicinal liquor; taken orally for treating rheumatism, traumatic injury. Powder and applied on the affected area, treating for bleeding wound	451225121205031
Toona sinensis (Juss.) Roem.	Xiangchun香椿	mai4jam4ŋɣa2pa:k8	Meliaceae	Tree	both	Bark or Root bark	Decoction; taken orally for chronic diarrhea, protracted dysentery, hemorrhoidal hemafecia, metrorrhagia and metrostaxis, leukorrhea, spermatorrhea, gonorrhea, malnutrition, depriving ascarid, tinea sores	451225130611026
Torilis scabra (Thunb.) DC.	Qieyi窃衣	–	Apiaceae	Herb	Wild	Seed	Stewed with pork liver and taken orally directly for treating blurred vision, heloma	451225130420004
Toxicodendron succedaneum (L.) Kuntze	Yeqi野漆	–	Anacardiaceae	Tree	Wild	Leaf	Decoction; Medicinal bath for treating dermatitis	451225130311047
Toxicodendron vernicifluum (Stokes) F. A. Barkley	Qi漆	–	Anacardiaceae	Tree	both	Leaf	Decoction; Medicinal bath for treating dermatitis	451225130519035
Trachelospermum jasminoides (Lindl.) Lem.	Luoshi络石	lɔ6twi2ça:u1	Apocynaceae	Liana	Wild	Stem and leaf	Medicinal liquor; taken orally or applied on the affected area, treating for rheumatism, traumatic injury, muscle and vessel contracture etc syndromes, swelling and pain. Decoction; taken orally for spitting blood, postpartum lochia	451225121205021, 451225130429013
Tradescantia pallida (Rose) D. R. Hunt	Zizhumei紫竹梅	–	Commelinaceae	Herb	Wild	Whole plant	Medicinal bath for sterilization and anti-itch	451225130607017
Trichosanthes kirilowii Maxim.	Gualou栝楼	thjen1la2pən5	Cucurbitaceae	Liana	both	Root	Root: Decoction; taken orally for cough with lung heat, jaundice, pemphigus; Fruit: Decoction; taken orally for cough, palpitation, costalgia, marasmus, frequent micturition	451225130518025
Tripterygium wilfordii Hook. f.	Leigongteng雷公藤	ça:u1ləi6pɣa3	Celastraceae	Liana	Wild	Root, Leaf, Flower	Medicinal liquor; Applied on the affected area, treating for scabies, eczema, rheumatic arthritis	451225130309033
Tupistra sp.	Kaikoujian开口箭	–	Asparagaceae	Herb	both	Whole plant	Pounded fresh part applied on the affected area, treating for bone injury	451225131108040
Typha domingensis Persoon	Changbaoxiangpu长苞香蒲	pu2ŋa:n3	Typhaceae	Herb	Wild	Whole plant	Decoction; taken orally for internal hemorrhage, metrorrhagia and metrostaxis, dysmenorrhea, menostasis, postpartum blood stasis, bloody stranguria	451225130608027
Uncaria rhynchophylla (Miq.) Miq. ex Havil.	Gouteng钩藤	ça:u1kau1	Rubiaceae	Liana	Wild	Hooked stem	Hooked stem: Decoction; taken orally for blood pressure lowering, epilepsy, dizziness. Root: Medicinal liquor; taken orally for treating rheumatism	451225130430001
Urena lobata L.	Ditaohua地桃花	–	Malvaceae	Shrub	Wild	Root, Leaf	Decoction; taken orally for bacillary phthisis, cough, anti-inflammato	451225130427023, 451225130606027
Verbena officinalis L.	Mabiancao马鞭草	hɣɔk8ma4pjen1	Verbenaceae	Herb	Wild	Whole plant	Decoction; taken orally for commom cold, tonsillitis, acute nephritis, sore throat, damp and hot jaundice. Pounded fresh part applied on the affected area, treating for mastitis, edema, rheumatoid arthritis, traumatic injury	451225130421046, 451225130427025
Vernicia fordii (Hemsl.) Airy Shaw	Youtong油桐	mai4tɔŋ6lau5	Euphorbiaceae	Tree	both	Whole plant	Decoction; taken orally for scrofula, hemorrhoids, scald, crusted tetter, erysipelas, dyspeptic retention abdominal distension, urinary stoppage and constipation, rheumatism, ostealgia	451225130425010
Viburnum taitoense Hayata	Taidongjiasan台东荚蒾	–	Adoxaceae	Shrub	Wild	Stem and leaf	Pounded fresh part with salt applied on the affected area, treating for hyperosteogeny, protrusion of lumbar intervertebral disc, relieve pain, traumatic injury	451225130429025
Vigna radiata (L.) Wilczek	Lvdong绿豆	lɔk8tau6	Fabaceae	Liana	Home garden	Seed	Taken orally directly or pounded fresh part applied on the affected area, treating for polydipsia, carbuncle, crotonism	451225130606005
Vigna umbellata (Thunb.) Ohwi et H. Ohashi	Chixiaodong赤小豆	tau6la:n3niŋ5	Fabaceae	Liana	Home garden	Seed	Pounded fresh part applied on the affected area, treating for edema, inchacao, jaundice, toxic heat, carbuncle	451225130723004
Viola japonica Langsd.	Litoucao犁头草	hɣɔk8kɣo3khɣəi1	Violaceae	Herb	Wild	Whole plant or Root	Pounded fresh part applied on the affected area, treating for furuncle, acute mastitis, intestinal carbuncle, erysipelas, red eyes, snake bite	451225130306012
Viscum articulatum Burm. F.	Bianzhihujisheng扁枝槲寄生	–	Santalaceae	Shrub	Wild	Whole plant	Pounded fresh part with the feet of crab applied on the affected area, treating for fractura	451225130612005
Vitex negundo L.	Huangjing黄荆	mai4jin1la:k8	Lamiaceae	Shrub	Wild	Fruit	Decoction; taken orally for commom cold, cough, asthma, rheumatoid arthritis, stomachache, hernia, malaria, anal fistula	451225130729004
Vitex negundo L. var. cannabifolia (Sieb. et Zucc.) Hand.-Mazz.	Mujing牡荆	–	Lamiaceae	Shrub	Wild	Stem	Decoction; taken orally or medicinal bath for commom cold, cough, rheumatism, eliminating stagnation	451225130729006
Vitis balansana Planchon	Xiaoguoputao小果葡萄	pɣa2pɣa1məm4	Vitaceae	Liana	Wild	Tendril	Medicinal liquor; taken orally or rinsed, for treating swollen sore, traumatic injury, rheumatism	451225130309044
Vitis heyneana Roem. et Schult.	Maoputao毛葡萄	ça:u1lak8jyt7ja4	Vitaceae	Liana	Wild	Stem	Medicinal liquor; taken orally or applied on the affected area, treating for rheumatoid arthritis, traumatic injury, sore swollen toxin	451225130722008
Vitis vinifera L.	Putao葡萄	–	Vitaceae	Liana	Home garden	Fruit	Taken orally directly for anti-inflammatory, hepatopathy, hepatitis	451225130518017
Wikstroemia indica (L.) C. A. Mey	Liaogewang了哥王	–	Thymelaeaceae	Shrub	Wild	Stem and leaf	Decoction; medicinal bath for killing parasites to relieve itshing	451225130428014
Xanthium sibiricum Patr. ex Widd	Cangdong苍耳	hɣɔk8tsha:ŋ5khɣa1	Asteraceae	Herb	Wild	Seed, Stem, Leaf	Seed: Decoction; taken orally or medicinal bath for anemofrigid headache, nasosinusitis, rheumatoid arthritis, scabies, pruritus. Stem and leaf: Decoction; medicinal bath, treating for rheumatoid arthritis	451225130607021
Zanthoxylum nitidum (Roxb.) DC.	Liangmianzhen两面针	–	Rutaceae	Shrub	Wild	Whole plant	Medicinal liquor; taken orally for rheumatism, relieve pain. Decoction; taken orally for gastric ulcer, stomachache, prostatitis	451225130312018
Zanthoxylum bungeanum Maxim.	Huajiao花椒	hwa5tsja:u5	Rutaceae	Shrub	both	Peel	Stewed with meat and Taken orally directly for invigorating spleen, cold pain in abdomen, vomit, diarrhea, rheumatoid arthritis, colic; taken orally directly for depriving ascarid, enterobiasis; Medicinal bath for pruritus vulvae, pemphigus	451225130421062
Zea mays L.	Yushushu玉蜀黍	jəu6mɛ4mut8	Poaceae	Herb	Home garden	Stigmata	Decoction; taken orally for nephrotic syndrome, edema, jaundice, hypertension, damp and hot jaundice, diabetes	451225130518032
Zephyranthes carinata Herbert	Jiulian韭莲	–	Amaryllidaceae	Herb	Wild	Bulb	Pounded fresh part applied on the affected area, for stanching bleeding	451225130517016
Zingiber lingyunense D. Fang	Wujiang乌姜	–	Zingiberaceae	Herb	Wild	Tuber	Pounded fresh part applied on the affected area, treating for traumatic injury	451225130607040
Zingiber officinale Roscoe	Jiang姜	çiŋ1khɣɔ3	Zingiberaceae	Herb	Home garden	Tuber	Decoction; taken orally or medicinal bath for cough, hemoptysis, hiccough, anemofrigid cold, vomit, cough, reduce phlegm	451225130519031

Mulam name: as written in the international phonetic alphabet (IPA)

Among the families that contributed more medicinal species were Fabaceae and Asteraceae, represented by 29 species (6.36%) in each family, Lamiaceae with 21 species (4.61%), Rosaceae with 16 species (3.51%), Poaceae with 15 species (3.29%), Euphorbiaceae with 14 species (3.07%), Rubiaceae with 13 species (2.85%), and Rutaceae with ten species (2.19%). The other 309 species (67.76%) came from 124 families that were mostly represented by one or two species (Table 3).

Table 3.

Taxonomic diversity of medicinal plants in the study area

Family	Number of medicinal plant species	Percentage of species (%)	Number of genera	Percentage of genus (%)
Asteraceae	29	6.36	20	5.71
Fabaceae	29	6.36	21	6.00
Lamiaceae	21	4.61	15	4.29
Rosaceae	16	3.51	10	2.86
Poaceae	15	3.29	15	4.29
Euphorbiaceae	14	3.07	9	2.57
Rubiaceae	13	2.85	12	3.43
Rutaceae	10	2.19	6	1.71
Amaranthaceae	9	1.97	6	1.71
Cucurbitaceae	9	1.97	9	2.57
Moraceae	9	1.97	3	0.86
Malvaceae	8	1.75	6	1.71
Polygonaceae	8	1.75	3	0.86
Amaryllidaceae	7	1.54	4	1.14
Vitaceae	7	1.54	4	1.14
Apiaceae	6	1.32	6	1.71
Araceae	6	1.32	6	1.71
Asparagaceae	6	1.32	6	1.71
Polypodiaceae	6	1.32	4	1.14
Solanaceae	6	1.32	3	0.86
Zingiberaceae	6	1.32	4	1.14
Acanthaceae	5	1.10	4	1.14
Berberidaceae	5	1.10	4	1.14
Lauraceae	5	1.10	4	1.14
Menispermaceae	5	1.10	4	1.14
Orchidaceae	5	1.10	4	1.14
Primulaceae	5	1.10	2	0.57
Anacardiaceae	4	0.88	3	0.86
Apocynaceae	4	0.88	3	0.86
Araliaceae	4	0.88	3	0.86
Brassicaceae	4	0.88	4	1.14
Celastraceae	4	0.88	3	0.86
Dioscoreaceae	4	0.88	2	0.57
Myrtaceae	4	0.88	3	0.86
Oleaceae	4	0.88	2	0.57
Phyllanthaceae	4	0.88	3	0.86
Urticaceae	4	0.88	4	1.14
Verbenaceae	4	0.88	4	1.14
Others	142	31.14	122	34.86
Total	456	100.00	350	100.00

Habit, plant parts used, and habitat

The results of the habit analysis of the medicinal plants showed that herbaceous plants constituted the highest proportion (246 species (54%)), while there were 76 (17%) shrubs, 75 (16%) lianas, and 59 (13%) tree species (Fig. 3).

Fig. 3.

Habits of medicinal plants in the study area

Mulam people use different plant parts in the preparation of traditional drugs (e.g., leaves, stems, roots, seeds, bark, flowers, and fruits). Many of the herbal medicines are made by using whole plants (182 species, 33.46%), followed by roots (73 species, 13.42%), stems (46 species, 8.46%), leaves (44 species, 8.09%), a combination of stems and leaves (35 species, 6.43%), rhizomes (30 species, 5.51%), seeds (30 species, 5.51%), fruits (25 species, 4.60%), tubers (15 species, 2.76%), bark (13 species, 2.39%), and 26 other plant parts (e.g., bulbs, flowers, root bark, aril, stigma; 16%) (Fig. 4).

Fig. 4.

Plant parts used in the treatment of human ailments

A total of 456 species of medicinal plants were collected from the study area, most of which (335 species, 73.47%) were obtained from wild habitats; 68 (14.91%) species were from home gardens, and 53 (11.62%) species were both from home gardens and wild habitats (Fig. 5).

Fig. 5.

Habitats of medicinal plants in the study area

Preparation and application methods

There are numerous different ways to prepare medicinal plants to treat human ailments. In the study area, the most common methods of preparation of traditional medicines from plant material were decoction (54.11%), followed by pounding (20.48%), preparing a medicinal liquor (9.64%), raw (9.64%), stewing (2.75%), and others (Table 4).

Table 4.

Ways of preparation of medicinal plants

Method of preparation	Frequency	Percentage
Decoction	316	54.11
Pounded	119	20.48
Medicinal liquor	56	9.64
Natural	56	9.64
Stewed	16	2.75
Others (powdered, drying, frying, slicing)	18	3.48

Table 5 shows that the traditional medicines are used in four main ways. The most common method is oral administration (390 plant species, 62.70%), followed by external application (143 species, 22.99%), a medicated bath or rinsing (87 species, 13.99%), and chewing (two species, 0.32%).

Table 5.

Application method by local Mulam people

Application method	Frequency	Percentage
Oral taking	390	62.70
External application	143	22.99
Medicinal bath or rinsed	87	13.99
Chewing	2	0.32

Diseases treated in the study area

Based on our investigation and records, medicinal plants were used to treat 312 human ailments in the study area. Based on the statistical analysis, rheumatism was the most common disease treated with 84 medicinal plant species, followed by traumatic injury (71 species), cough (68 species), diarrhea (54 species), jaundice (47 species), abscesses (42 species), furuncles (38 species), edema (36 species), sore throat (34 species), carbuncles (33 species), and eczema (30 species).

Ranking and informant consensus factor of medicinal plants

Among all of the ailments in the study area, rheumatism was the most common disease and was treated by a high number of medicinal plants (82 species). Ten medicinal plant species were used effectively to treat rheumatism according to key informants. The results revealed that Semiliquidambar cathayensis was the most preferred medicinal plant for rheumatism, followed by Tetrastigma planicaule, Bauhinia championii, and Millettia lasiopetala (Table 6).

Table 6.

Preference ranking to medicinal plants used to treat rheumatism

List of medicinal plants	Informants										Total	Rank
	R1	R2	R3	R4	R5	R6	R7	R8	R9	R10
Ardisia crenata	2	1	2	1	6	9	5	4	5	2	37	8
Ardisia gigantifolia	5	4	5	2	5	6	4	5	3	4	43	6
Bauhinia championi	9	5	6	9	4	8	10	9	9	5	74	3
Cibotium barometz	3	3	4	3	3	3	1	3	4	3	30	9
Clerodendrum japonicum	4	7	1	8	10	1	3	2	1	1	38	7
Kadsura coccinea	6	6	7	4	2	5	7	8	6	8	59	5
Maclura cochinchinensis	1	2	3	5	1	2	2	1	2	7	26	10
Millettia lasiopetala	7	8	10	6	7	4	6	6	7	9	70	4
Semiliquidambar cathayensis	10	9	9	10	9	10	9	7	10	10	93	1
Tetrastigma planicaule	8	10	8	7	8	7	8	10	8	6	80	2

R represented respondents; scores in the table indicated ranks given to medicinal plants based on their scarcity. Highest number (10) is for the medicinal plants which informants thought most preferred in the area and the lowest number (1) for the least preferred medicinal plant

Twelve ailment categories were identified based on the eight systems of the human body and the medication characteristics of the Mulam people. The ICF was calculated for each ailment category, and the range was from 0.51 to 0.92 (Table 7). The highest ICF (0.92) was reported for gynecological ailments, with 12 species and 138 use reports, followed by nerves and psychosomatic problems (0.90), digestive system diseases (0.89), urinary system diseases (0.88), skin diseases (0.88), and circulatory system diseases (0.88).

Table 7.

Informant consensus factor by categories of diseases in the study area

Category	Specific conditions	nur	nt	ICF
Gynecological aliments	Leukorrhea (28), metrorrhagia and metrostaxis (8), irregular menses (12), dysmenorrhea (9), postpartum blood stasis (5), etc.	138	12	0.92
Nerves and psychosomatic problems	Headache (17), insomnia (10), dizziness (8), hemiplegia (5), etc.	83	9	0.90
Digestive system	diarrhea (54), jaundice (47), abdominal pain (18), stomachache (19), abdominal distension (18), constipation (17), etc.	314	36	0.89
Urinary system	diuresis (21), stranguria (19), calculosis (17), urinary frequency (13), dysuria (5), etc.	105	13	0.88
Skin diseases	abscess (42), pruritus (42), furuncle (38), eczema (30), scald (19), inchacao (12), piles (11), scabies (9), etc.	233	28	0.88
circulatory system	internal hemorrhage (25), clearing away heat and toxic materials (23), hypertension (13), hemoptysis (15) , etc.	124	16	0.88
Respiratory system	cough (68), sore throat (34), common cold (30), abscess of lung (8), etc.	189	42	0.78
Traumatic injury and sprain and bleeding wound	traumatic injury (71), bleeding wound (32), bone fracture (7), wound infection, etc.	129	33	0.75
Inflammation	nephritis (16), prostatitis (9), enteritis (10), tracheitis (10), erysipelas (9), cancer (7), dermatitis (5), gastritis (5), pneumonia (5), etc.	129	33	0.75
Rheumatic problems	Rheumatism (60), rheumatoid arthritis (24), etc.	92	43	0.53
Strong body and relieve pain	numbness of limbs (6), backache (8), soreness and weakness of waist and knees (4), stop pains (8), etc.	71	35	0.51
Other Uses	edema (36), male problems (36), pediatric disease (22), scrofula (15), toothache (8), hyperosteogeny (7), etc.	152	36	0.77

Fidelity levels of most commonly used plants by key informants

For each of the 15 most commonly used plant species as ranked by key informants, the fidelity level (FL) (Table 8) was calculated to quantify their importance in treating a major ailment [31, 35]. The results showed a high FL of greater than 50% for 12 plant species, which highlights the importance of these species in the treatment of the frequently mentioned diseases in the study area. Polygonum multiflorum, Semiliquidambar cathayensis, Zingiber officinale, and Striga asiatica had FLs of 100% for strengthening the body and treating rheumatism, infantile malnutrition and cough.

Table 8.

Fidelity Levels (FL) of most commonly used plants by key informants

Plant species	Therapeutic uses	Ip	Iu	FL%
Artemisia carvifolia	Malaria	11	33	33.33
Camellia oleifera	Scald	16	25	64.00
Curculigo orchioides	Impotence	12	21	57.14
Eriobotrya japonica	cough	36	38	94.74
Gynostemma pentaphyllum	Anti-inflammatory	34	42	80.95
Lygodium japonicum	Renal calculus	16	28	57.14
Polygonum multiflorum	Premature graying of the hair	39	39	100.00
Pueraria montana var. lobata	Hangover alleviation	16	44	36.36
Ricinus communis	Scabies	12	18	66.67
Rosa laeuigata	Spermatorrhea	18	44	40.91
Sarcandra glabra	Common cold	36	43	83.72
Semiliquidambar cathayensis	Rheumatism	35	35	100.00
Sophora tonkinensis	Stomachache	23	25	92.00
Striga asiatica	Malnutritional stagnation	26	26	100.00
Zingiber officinale	Cough	42	42	100.00

Threats to traditional medicinal knowledge and medicinal plants

According to our investigation (Table 1), more than 80% of key informants who showed mastery of rich traditional medicinal knowledge were over 50 years old, and more than 60% of key informants were illiterate or had only received a primary education. Currently, Mulam children spend most of their time in schools, where they receive mainstream culture and education and have no chance to study traditional medicinal knowledge. In addition, young people prefer to look for jobs in urban areas to earn higher incomes. Furthermore, Mulam healers are unwilling to pass on their traditional medicinal knowledge to young people under 30 years old. During our surveys, we found that one-third of doctors did not have a successor. The inheritance process of traditional Mulam medicinal knowledge is experiencing a dilemma. In addition, due to the lack of a written language, basic information on the use of plants, the parts used, drug preparation methods, diseases treated, and other information may be lost or discarded in the transmission process.

According to our field investigation and the group discussions, most of the medicinal plants were found to be under threat from anthropogenic pressure, such as agricultural activities, firewood collection, overgrazing, and logging. Most Mulam villages are located on small strips of flat land or slopes in karst mountainous areas, and most Mulam people engage in traditional agriculture (Fig. 1). Informants ranked agricultural activities as the most serious threat to medicinal plants, followed by firewood collection and overgrazing. The overharvesting of wild medicinal plants was also a key threat because Mulam people prefer to collect whole plants, roots, stems, and rhizomes. This collection method damages or totally destroys the plant and diminishes the sustainability of medicinal plant use.

Discussion

Characteristics of informants and their traditional knowledge

Our study included a similar number of men and women as general informants, who have less traditional medicinal knowledge than key informants. Most informants only knew a small number of medicinal plants for treating some common ailments, such as traumatic injuries, abdominal pain, and diarrhea. Every key informant knew more than 60 species and more therapeutic methods for different diseases than the general informants. Most of the key informants were male because Mulam women mainly perform housework and farm work. According to the customary inheritance practice, local traditional medicinal knowledge is typically passed on from an older herbalist to a male successor, rather than a female successor. The number and use methods of medicinal plants reported increased with informant age. Older informants possess more traditional knowledge of medicinal plants than younger people. Local herbalists are unwilling to pass on traditional medicinal knowledge to people who are under 30 years old because they believe that young people are too immature to seriously learn the traditional knowledge. Differences in knowledge of medicinal plants among age and gender groups were also reported in other studies from China and other countries [10, 14, 37, 38].

Most informants in our study have attained low levels of education. Only 33 informants received secondary education, and four informants received tertiary education. Currently, highly educated people tend to prefer modern medicinal technology to traditional knowledge. They are not interested in studying or practicing ethnomedicinal knowledge, especially younger generations. Similar results from other studies also reported that most traditional medicinal herbalists and inheritors worldwide have low formal education levels [10, 15, 17, 22].

Methods of medicinal plant collection and patient diagnosis and treatment

According to our investigation, local herbalists believe that it is much better to collect medicinal plants from noon to evening in autumn or winter because many medicinal plants may enter dormancy and have relatively dry bodies with the highest efficacy. The herbalists also said that if they met a pregnant woman or someone combing their hair on their way to pick medicinal plants, the collected medicinal plants would have a negative impact on the medication made from the plant. Therefore, the herbalist would not go to collect medicinal plants on that day. They reported that if the first herb were obtained very easily, all of the medicinal plants collected on the same day would have good efficacy. In addition, when Mulam healers collect medicinal plants, there is a tradition of “keeping a line,” that is, they will put money and rice under the roots of the collected plant and leave a few organs rather than collecting the whole plant.

The Mulam herbalists would let their patients rest for 10–20 min to allow their heart rhythm to normalize before feeling their pulse and inquiring about their condition. Many herbalists would diagnose the disease in combination with the hospital’s inspection report. They would ask patients to go to the hospital for a recheck to ensure that the disease would be cured by the end of their therapy. The key informants believed that when patients filled their prescriptions, if the herbalist were smoking or going out with a hoe, the medicine would not be effective. However, if the herbalist were eating or drinking, the medicine would have good efficacy. To prevent their prescriptions from being stolen and to maintain a sense of mystery, the doctors often made the medicines into granules or pills for patients.

Diversity of medicinal plants

A total of 456 medicinal plant species belonging to 350 genera and 132 families were documented and identified for treating human ailments. Both Fabaceae and Asteraceae (with 29 species) occupied the highest proportion (6.36%), followed by Lamiaceae, Rosaceae, Poaceae, Euphorbiaceae, Rubiaceae, and Rutaceae. Various studies in China showed a similar result, in which these families contain many medicinal species [19, 20, 22, 37, 39]. Most of the families were represented in the study area by one or two species, and the distribution of medicinal plant species in the various families was relatively scattered; this finding reflects the rich biodiversity of the medicinal plants used by Mulam people.

Mulam people believe that wild medicinal plants have stronger efficacy than those from home gardens; therefore, most of the mentioned medicinal plants were harvested from the wild (335 species, 73.47%). Similar findings were reported by other studies from southern China [22, 25, 37, 39]. The herbalists grew a few plants in their home gardens that have multiple uses, are critically endangered in the field, or are urgently needed, such as Paris polyphylla var. chinensis and Cynanchum atratum.

The medicinal plants most widely used by Mulam people were obtained from herbs, which constituted the largest habit category with 246 species (54%). This finding is consistent with other results [37, 39–41]. To explain this phenomenon, Moa et al. suggested that herbs are more widely distributed (roadsides, home gardens, farmlands, and wild habitats) than plants with other habits, such as trees, shrubs, and lianas [30]. In addition, herbs are more easily gathered than tree species [41].

Mulam people like to use whole plants (182 species, 33.46%) in the preparation of traditional drugs, and similar results were found in the neighboring Maonan, Yao, and Zhuang communities [24, 38, 40–42]. The use of roots (73 species, 13.42%), stems (46 species, 8.46%), and rhizomes (30 species, 5.51%) was also common in the study area. However, a clear relationship exists between plant parts collected or the collection method and the impact on the harvested plant [42]. The collection of whole plants, roots, stems, and rhizomes damages or totally destroys the plant and negatively affects the sustainable use of the species. Mulam healers believe that different parts of the same plant may have different medicinal efficacy. The root and stem of Kadsura longipedunculata, for example, are decocted and taken orally for gastritis, and a medicinal liquor made from the fruit is taken orally to treat rheumatism and stomachache. The herbalists also reported that different parts of different plants may have the same medicinal purpose. For instance, the stem of Sargentodoxa cuneata, the root of Semiliquidambar cathayensis, the stem of Tetrastigma planicaule, and the whole plant of Zanthoxylum nitidum could be used to treat rheumatism.

Mulam healers are skilled at using the principle of “lingqi” and have a tradition of “treating diseases using medicine with a similar shape or color.” The herbalists reported using medicines from hollow-stem plants such as Equisetum hyemale, Siegesbeckia orientalis, Leonurus japonicus, and Coix lacryma-jobi var. ma-yuen to treat edema based on the aeration of the hollow stems. The branch joints of Achyranthes bidentata, Polygonum capsicum, and Taxillus chinensis are similar to human joints and are often used to treat arthritis. Black soya bean, black sesame seed, mulberry, black ants, and black fungus have black “lingqi” and can be used for treating prematurely white hair.

Methods of medicinal plant preparation and application

In the study area, various methods used by the local Mulam people for the preparation and administration of medicinal plants were investigated and documented. Decoction (316 species involved, 54.11%) is the most common application method for Mulam people. Mulam people and herbalists believe that decoction accelerates the absorption of medicinal ingredients and improves the taste of medicinal plants. Decoction is cited as the most common method of preparation of herbal remedies and is used widely by other ethnic groups [10, 22, 43–47]. Pounding also had a high frequency (119) and percentage (20.48%).

Mulam people and herbalists prefer to prepare fresh materials directly through decoction or pounding. They believe that the raw medicinal plants possess better efficacy than cooked plants. In addition, the rich plant diversity around Mulam villages provides a material basis for the use of raw medicinal plants. Additionally, the raw material may maintain its volatile oils and other ingredients [22]. However, the utilization of fresh plant parts may threaten the plants due to frequent collection, including in dry seasons [30]. Certain measures and methods should be taken immediately to guide and encourage local people to grow medicinal herbs and to store commonly consumed medicinal materials.

Oral administration (390 species involved, 62.7%) is the most common method of administration of traditional medicine by Mulam people. Oral use was considered popular because it is a simple administration method. It has also been found to be widely applied in other studies [10, 22, 43–47]. Different additives, such as alcohol, honey, salt, and sugar, are widely used by Mulam healers to improve the flavor, taste, and general acceptability of certain orally administered remedies. In addition, Mulam people often stew animal bones, innards, or meat with medicinal plants. Mulam healers believe that animal organs can nourish the corresponding parts of the human body. For example, chicken liver and Buddleja officinalis, Senecio scandens, and Centipeda minima cooked together can be used to treat hepatitis. Pork kidney and Eucommia ulmoides and Allium tuberosum cooked together are used to improve renal function. They also believe that improving patient nutrition can improve the efficacy of medicinal plants for patients.

Medicinal baths were frequently mentioned during our investigations. Mulam people reported that medicinal baths are safe, simple to perform, and did not result in side effects as an external treatment method. A medicinal bath is usually used for sweating, fever reduction, activating blood circulation to dissipate blood stasis, expelling wind to relieve excess gas, and providing itching relief [18]. Medicinal baths can treat diseases and can also prevent diseases. When taking a medicinal bath, the skin is fully exposed to the medicinal bath water so that the bath constituents with medicinal value can be absorbed [48, 49]. Hot water can also stimulate blood capillaries and metabolism. Medicinal baths are commonly used by the Yao and Zhuang people who live in humid mountainous areas of southern and southwestern China [18, 37, 49–51].

Diseases, ranking, and informant consensus factor of medicinal plants

Based on our investigations, 312 human ailments are treated with medicinal plants by Mulam people. According to our statistical analysis, rheumatism had the highest number (84 species) of medicinal plants used for its treatment. Mulam people living in humid and mountainous areas engage in heavy manual labor to survive. Thus, rheumatism is the most common disease in the study area. Because of the complexity of rheumatism, its pathogenesis has not been fully clarified [52]. Rheumatism is common all over the world and has been studied by different research institutions and organizations [52–55]. Numerous medicinal plants are used by Mulam herbalists to treat rheumatism. Ten medicinal plant species are widely used to treat rheumatism according to the key informants. In the preference ranking exercise, Semiliquidambar cathayensis was the most preferred medicinal plant. S. cathayensis is mainly used to treat rheumatism, lumbar muscle injury, hemiplegia, traumatic injury, and other conditions [56]. It is a very popular and effective traditional local medicine for rheumatism in Yao communities [37]. Mulam healers prefer to use the roots and bark of S. cathayensis collected from the wild to treat rheumatism. The large-scale collection of roots and bark threatens the sustainable development of S. cathayensis. Alternative plant parts or species for treating rheumatism urgently need to be discovered and studied.

Most of the ailment categories had a high ICF value (greater than 0.7), such as gynecological ailments (0.92), nerves and psychosomatic problems (0.90), digestive system ailments (0.89), and urinary system ailments (0.88). The higher the ICF value is, the higher the diversity of plant species used by herbalists to treat the disease. The lower the ICF value is, the lower the number of plant species used by herbalists to treat the disease [31]. The high ICF for gynecological ailments can probably be attributed to the local people preferring to obtain medicinal plants from wild habitats nearby, inheriting traditional medicinal knowledge from their parents or grandparents, and having little communication with other people to prevent others from stealing relevant prescriptions. The category of plants used to strengthen the body and release pain had the lowest degree of consensus (0.51) because most of these medicinal plants are easily obtained and used for multiple purposes, such as foods, vegetables, and tea substitutes.

Fidelity levels of the most commonly used plants by key informants

Polygonum multiflorum, Semiliquidambar cathayensis, Zingiber officinale, and Striga asiatica have the highest fidelity level (FL) values (100.00%). Eriobotrya japonica (94.74%) and Sophora tonkinensis (92.00%) also have high FL values. The remedies for frequently reported ailments have the highest FL values, and those with a low number of reports have the lowest FL values [36]. Obviously, these medicinal plants were very effective in the treatment of premature hair graying, rheumatism, infantile malnutrition, cough, and stomachache, which are frequently reported in the Mulam district and widely used by Mulam healers. Additionally, E. japonica (38), Gynostemma pentaphyllum (42), P. multiflorum (39), Pueraria montana var. lobata (44), Rosa laevigata (44), Sarcandra glabra (43), and Z. officinale (42) have high I_u values, showing that these medicinal plants were widely applied by Mulam healers and have high medicinal value.

Comparison with traditional Chinese medicine and previous ethnobotanical studies

To assess the novelty of the ethnomedicinal use of the encountered species, we chose 33 frequently or uniquely used medicinal plant species and compared their use with traditional Chinese medicine (TCM) and previously published reports from neighboring areas of southern China (Table 9) [18–20, 22, 25, 37, 39, 50, 51, 57–66].

Table 9.

Comparison with traditional Chinese medicine (TCM) and previous ethnobotanical studies

Plant species	Diseases treated by Mulam	Diseases treated in traditional Chinese medicine and previous ethnobotanical studies
Achyranthes longifolia	Calculosis	Traumatic injury, rheumatism, dysentery, diphtheria, sore throat, sore carbuncle, stranguria, edema, removing blood stasis, kidney empty lumbago, dysmenorrhea, hypertension
Acorus gramineus	Epilepsy, phlegm heat, abdominal distension, abdominal pain, traumatic injury	Epilepsy, phlegm heat, rheumatism, beautifying, bellyache, tummy bug, numbness of limbs, hemorrhoids, diarrhea, gall, injuries from falls, dysmenorrhea
Artemisia argyi	Tocolysis, dysmenorrhea, irregular menses, leukorrhea, metrorrhagia and metrostaxis	Irregular menstruation, spitting blood, uterine bleeding, postpartum hemorrhage, carbuncle and scabies, stopping bleeding by warming meridians, expel cold and alleviate pain
Artemisia carvifolia	Malaria, diarrhea, jaundice, scab capillaris ies, pruritus	Malaria, sunstroke, dysentery, jaundice, scabies, pruritus
Camellia oleifera	Abdominal pain, depriving ascarid, intestinal dryness, scabies, scald	Acute laryngopharyngitis, cold, diarrhea, stomachache, pruritus
Clerodendrum bungei	Tuberculosis, carbuncle, furuncle, eczema, piles, rectal prolapse, infantile convulsion	Carbuncle, furuncle, eczema, enriching the blood
Corydalis saxicola	Anti-inflammatory	Acute or chronic hepatitis, scabies swelling poison
Cupressus funebris	Liver ascites	Children with high fever, vomiting blood, burns, hemorrhoids, dysentery
Curculigo orchioides	Impotence, aconuresis, carbuncle, scrofula	Impotence, urinary incontinence, uterine bleeding, ulcer, scrofula, headache due to common cold, rheumatic arthritis, rheumatism, nourishing, strengthening muscles and bones
Dioscorea bulbifcra	Antral gastritis, enteritis, thyroid disease, cough with lung heat, pudendal ulcer	Goiter, lymphatic tuberculosis, sore throat, hematemesis, hemoptysis, whooping cough, cancer, sore furuncle, epistaxis, pneumonia
Eriobotrya japonica	Ascites due to cirrhosis, cough with lung heat, hemoptysis, clearing away heat and toxic materials	Pertussis, cough, hematemesis, emesis
Euphorbia esula	degerming, chills, fever	–
Ficus hirta	Stomachache, cough, abdominal distension, edema, leukorrhea, rheumatoid arthritis, lumbago	Consumption, cough, abdominal distention, edema, rheumatism arthralgia, hepatitis, leucorrhea, no milk after delivery
Flemingia macrophylla	Caligo of old people	Rheumatic, lumbar muscle strain, hemiplegia and impotence
Gynostemma pentaphyllum	Relieve fever, anti-inflammator, chronic tracheitis, cough, asthma, stomachache, insomnia, headache	Cough, chronic gastroenteritis, rheumatism, bronchitis, stomachache
Hedyotis diffusa	Lung heat, sore throat, jaundice, pelvic inflammation, carbuncle, snake bite	Appendicitis, sphagitis, jaundice, adverse urination, dysentery, tumors, boils swelling, snake bite, hepatitis, cough, bronchitis, tonsillitis, toothache, cancer
Laportea violacea	Ascites due to cirrhosis	Rheumatic arthritis, urticaria, eczema, stomachache, malnutrition, epilepsy, sciatica
Lygodium japonicum	Kidney stone, clearing heat and diuresis, stranguria. Pounded fresh part applied on the affected area for anaesthesia	Stranguria, gonorrhea, leukorrhea, hepatitis, sorethroat, enteritis, dysentery, eczema, shingles, hematemesis, bleeding wound, jaundice, itch, diuresis, calculus, rheumatism, chronic ulcer, skin infection, furuncle, foot rot
Pinus massoniana	Rheumatic arthritis, tuberculous arthritis, blood stasis, rheumatoid arthritis, traumatic injury, insomnia, edema, eczema, hemorrhoids	Vertigo, stomachache, dysentery, traumatic hemorrhage, eczema, skin erosion, measles
Polygonum multiflorum	Insomnia, profuse sweating, skin eruption, kidney deficiency, premature graying of the hair, dizzy of the head and dim of sight, soreness and weakness of waist and knees, spermatorrhea, chronic hepatitis, abscess, constipation due to intestinal dryness	Vertigo, tinnitus, premature graying of the hair, lumbar and knee pain, limb numbness, neurasthenia, hyperlipidemia, carbuncle, rubella, constipation, spermatorrhea, malaria, dysentery, chronic hepatitis, scrofula, intestinal wind, hemorrhoid, kidney deficit, dizziness, insomnia, postpartum bellyache, retention of blood in uteru
Pueraria montana var. lobata	Alleviate a hangover, vertebral syndrom, clearing away heat and relieving exterior syndrome, stimulate saliva and reduce thirst, measles, diarrhea	Fever, headache, diarrhea, hypertension, stenocardia, epicophosis
Ricinus communis	Carbuncle, pharyngitis, edema, scrofula, constipation, scabies	Rheumatoid arthralgia, tetanus, epilepsy, schizophrenia, ulcer, pharyngitis, scrofula, scald, scabies
Rosa laevigata	Spermatorrhea, enuresis, diarrhea, diarrhea, metrorrhagia and metrostaxis, leukorrhea, hemorrhoid complicated by anal fistula, scald, frequent micturition, diarrhea due to spleen deficiency, spontaneous sweating, night sweat, leukorrhea, rectal prolapse	Spermatorrhea, enuresis, diarrhea, metrorrhagia and metrostaxis, leukorrhea, uterine prolapse, rectal prolapse, hemorrhoid, scald, spontaneous sweating, night sweat, bone fracture, traumatic injury, appendicitis, enteritis, stomachache
Sarcandra glabra	Sore throat, wind-heat type common cold, diarrhea bacillary dysentery, rheumatism, traumatic injury	Rheumatic arthralgia, traumatic injury, fracture, pneumonia, appendicitis, tumour, bacillary dysentery, cholecystitis, abscess, sore throat, rheumatism, promoting blood circulation, heat clearing and detoxifying
Schefflera heptaphylla	Rheumatism, rheumatoid, sweating	Fever, rheumatism, traumatic injury, sore throat, for eczema, allergic dermatitis, dermatitis, eczema
Semiliquidambar cathayensis	Rheumatoid arthritis, lumbar muscle degeneration	Rheumatism, rheumatoid, traumatic injury, relaxing tendons and activating collaterals, promoting blood circulation, postpartum recovery, skin disease
Sophora tonkinensis	Sore throat, gastric cancer, stomachache, gastric ulcer, prostatitis, diuresis	Sorethroat, swelling and aching of gum, jaundice, diarrhea, hemorrhoids, scabies, snake bite, acute pharyngitis, tonsillitis, cough, constipation, clearing heat and detoxifying, diminishing inflammation, relieving pain
Striga asiatica	Nfantile malnutrition, edema	Pacify liver and clear heat, remove food retention, infantile malnutrition, dampness-heat constitution, diarrhea, jaundiced hepatitis
Toddalia asiatica	Rheumatism, traumatic injury, bleeding wound	Rheumatism, traumatic injury, stomachache, bleeding wound, amenorrhea, algomenorrhea, furuncle, intercostal neuralgia, skin disease, relieving pain, hemiplegia
Toxicodendron vernicifluum	Dermatitis	Traumatic injury, traumatic bleeding, sore carbuncle
Viburnum taitoense	Hyperosteogeny, protrusion of lumbar intervertebral disc, relieve pain, traumatic injury	–
Zanthoxylum nitidum	Rheumatism, relieve pain, gastric ulcer, stomachache, prostatitis	Traumatic injury, rheumatism, stomachache, toothache, snakebite, diarrhea, malaria, chronic gastricism
Zingiber officinale	Cough, hemoptysis, hiccough, anemofrigid cold, vomit, cough, reduce phlegm	Cold, vomiting, cough, release superficies, warm the middle, resolve phlegm and stop cough

The comparison showed that the diseases treated with the most frequently used plants by Mulam people were similar to those found in previous ethnobotanical studies and TCM. For example, Acorus tatarinowii was the most frequently used plant for epilepsy, phlegm heat, abdominal distension, abdominal pain, and traumatic injury in the study area. Similarly, it is used to treat epilepsy and phlegm heat in TCM [57]. In addition, this plant is used for rheumatism and beautification in the Yao communities of Longsheng County, Northern Guangxi [25], and it is used to treat stomachache, stomach flu, limb numbness, hemorrhoids, diarrhea, gall, injuries from falls, and dysmenorrhea and as an invigorant by Yao people in Jinping County, southeastern Yunnan [50]. In Guangdong, this plant is used to treat flu, detumescence, and pain by Hakka people [59]. There are some similarities and differences in the diseases treated with A. tatarinowii, and it is used in different places and by different groups of people. However, some unique medicinal plant species (e.g., Achyranthes longifolia, Cupressus funebris, Euphorbia esula, Flemingia macrophylla, Laportea violacea, Pinus massoniana, Toxicodendron vernicifluum, Viburnum taitoense) had completely novel medicinal functions reported in our study area that had never been reported in other investigations or recorded in TCM. For example, A. longifolia was reported in the present study as only being used for calculosis, whereas it is used for traumatic injury, rheumatism, dysentery, diphtheria, sore throat, sore carbuncle, stranguria, and edema in TCM [57]. In southern and southwestern China, this plant was used to treat blood stasis, empty-kidney lumbago, sore throat, dysmenorrhea, hypertension, and traumatic injury by Yao and Miao people [20, 58]. Euphorbia esula is another species mentioned for the first time. It was reportedly used as a disinfectant and to treat chills and fever in a medicinal bath or by placing it on the patient’s bed. Previous studies conducted in other areas mentioned the use of Euphorbia spp. to treat rheumatism, promote blood circulation, cure furuncles, and treat inflammations of unknown origin [22, 61]. V. taitoense is a Viburnum medicinal species mentioned for the first time. It was reported as being used to treat hyperosteogeny, protrusion of the lumbar intervertebral disc, pain, and traumatic injury in the current study. Previous studies conducted in other areas mentioned treatment with Viburnum spp. for toxicoderma, rheumatism, traumatic injury, and to stop bleeding [25, 61]. The pharmacological activity of these plants is a novel finding that has only been reported for such medicinal purposes in this area. Our investigation found that traumatic injury, bacterial infection, calculosis, hyperosteogeny, cough, and fever were the most common diseases in Mulam villages. Mulam people are skilled in using plants from their surroundings to treat diseases in their daily lives. They not only make full use of the surrounding plant resources but also continuously communicate and learn from other ethnic groups in their long-term struggle with the natural environment and diseases.

Threats to traditional medicinal knowledge and medicinal plants

Our investigation and group discussions revealed that traditional medicinal knowledge is greatly threatened due to the lack of a written record, conservative inheritance patterns, and low interest in traditional medicinal knowledge from young people. In addition, agricultural activities, firewood collection, overgrazing, logging, and overharvesting of medicinal plants resulted in a decrease in medicinal plant resources and associated traditional knowledge. Additionally, the superstition and the mystery surrounding the Mulam healers’ traditional medicinal knowledge are also regarded as obstacles to dissemination and promotion. Thus, policies to improve the conservation, development, and sustainable use of Mulam medicinal plants and associated traditional knowledge are essential. First, further investigation and documentation of traditional Mulam medicinal knowledge is imperative. Books and databases of medicinal plants, animals, and minerals should be published, with free access provided to local healers and those (especially young people) who are interested in Mulam ethnomedicine. Second, advanced theories and methods of pharmacology, chemistry, and molecular biology should be applied to study the traditional Mulam medicinal knowledge and enhance Mulam people’s understanding and confidence. Third, it is also necessary to encourage the Mulam people to conserve medicinal plants in situ and ex situ, such as by planting endangered and preferred medicinal species in their home gardens or farmlands.

Conclusions

A total of 456 medicinal plant species used by Mulam people to treat 312 human ailments were investigated and recorded. This result reflects the rich diversity of medicinal plants in the Mulam area. These medicinal plants play an important role in the Mulam healthcare system. Most of the plants (335 species, 73.47%) were obtained from wild habitats, and the herbaceous habit was the most common growth habit (246 species, 54%). The most common method of administration was oral administration, which was used for 390 species (62.70%), and the most common method of preparation was decoction (316 species, 54.11%). Mulam people are skilled in using the plants in their surroundings to treat diseases in their daily lives. Additionally, they continuously communicate and learn from other ethnic groups in their long-term struggle to survive the natural environment and diseases. However, traditional medicinal knowledge and medicinal plants are greatly threatened by rapid economic development for various reasons. Thus, policies and practices for the conservation of medicinal plants and their associated traditional knowledge are necessary.

Abbreviations

ICF

Informant consensus factor

FL

Fidelity levels

TCM

Traditional Chinese medicine

Authors’ contributions

YL and CLL conceived of and designed the study. RCH, CRL, and WBX conducted data collection. RCH and CRL integrated the inventory and its analysis. RCH, YL, CLL, CRL, and WBX identified the plants. HRC wrote the manuscript. All authors read and approved the final manuscript.

Funding

This research was supported by Special Funds for Local Science and Technology Development Guided by the Central Committee (ZY1949013), Ethnobotany Study of Baikuyao in Nandan, Guangxi (2018GXNSFBA281162), National Natural Science Foundation of China (31870316, 31560088 & 31761143001), Ministry of Ecology and Environment of China (2019HJ2096001006), Key Laboratory of Ethnomedicine (Minzu University of China) of Ministry of Education of China (KLEM-ZZ201904 & KLEM-ZZ201906), the 2018 Chinese Medicine Public Health Service Subsidy Special “National Chinese Medicine Resources Census Project” (GXZYZYPC18-3-2), Jiansheng Fresh Herb Medicine R & D Foundation (JSYY-20190101-043), and Biodiversity Survey, Observation and Assessment Program of Ministry of Ecology and Environment of China (8-3-7-20-5).

Availability of data and materials

We have already included all data in this manuscript.

Ethics approval and consent to participate

Permissions were provided by all participants in this study, including the local Mulam people and healers. Consent was obtained from the local communities prior to the field investigations. The authors have all copyrights.

Consent for publication

Not applicable.

Competing interests

The authors declare that they have no competing interests.