血管性血友病因子(von Willebrand factor, VWF)是血浆中参与止血和凝血过程的重要蛋白分子。在初期止血中,VWF一头连接在受损的内皮细胞表面,一头锚定血小板表面的糖蛋白Ⅰb,介导血小板在血管损伤部位发生黏附反应。在二期止血中,VWF作为凝血因子Ⅷ(FⅧ)的载体,保护血液循环中的FⅧ不被降解,从而延长了FⅧ的半衰期。VWF的前导肽(VWF propeptide, VWFpp)在细胞合成、分泌等过程中发挥重要作用,VWFpp突变可导致血管性血友病。近年来研究表明,VWFpp在VWD和其他疾病的诊断中也具有重要价值。
一、VWF的分子结构
前原VWF单体相对分子质量约350×103,由22个氨基酸组成的信号肽、741个氨基酸组成的VWFpp、以及2 050个氨基酸组成的成熟亚单位组成。VWFpp从VWF分子全长的第23位氨基酸开始,到763位氨基酸结束,相对分子质量约80×103[1]。VWFpp包括D1和D2区两个结构域,在电镜下每个D区可见VWD、C8、TIL和E四个亚单位,每个D区各有32个半胱氨酸[2],这些半胱氨酸形成链内或链间二硫键,发挥重要作用。
二、VWFpp在VWF合成和分泌过程中的作用
VWFpp在VWF的多聚化过程中至关重要。首先,VWFpp作为内源性的非共价性氧化还原酶[3]–[4],催化相邻D′区的半胱氨酸进行二硫键重排,从而完成VWF的多聚化。Purvis等[1]还发现在VWF多聚化过程中,VWFpp和D′D3区之间还短暂地形成链内二硫键,相邻的VWFpp之间也形成二硫键,这样的结构有助于缩短两个不同VWF链上的D′ D3区的空间距离,从而有助于多聚化的发生。D1和D2区各包含一个CXXC基序,这个基序是许多氧化还原酶的活性部位。在这两个CXXC基序中任意一个插入一个多余的甘氨酸,VWF的多聚化功能受到抑制,而将CXXC基序相邻的氨基酸替换成甘氨酸则不影响多聚化[5]。其次,VWFpp不仅富含半胱氨酸,而且还有很多组氨酸,这些组氨酸发挥类似于pH感受器的作用,如果将这些组氨酸突变为甘氨酸,VWF多聚化也会或多或少受到抑制[6]。此外,VWFpp的D1和D2区在VWF多聚化过程中缺一不可,单独构建D1区或D2区连接成熟VWF,VWF都无法完成多聚化过程[7]。有趣的是,体外实验显示将VWFpp和成熟VWF分装在两个不同的质粒上,共同转染细胞并表达,居然不影响VWF分子的多聚化功能。这说明VWFpp即便不与成熟VWF直接相连,也可以在VWF多聚化过程中发挥作用[1],[8]。
VWFpp不仅在VWF多聚化过程中不可或缺,对VWF细胞内储存也是必须的。VWFpp中任何一个D结构域的缺失,都会导致VWF不能正常贮存[7]。在荧光共聚焦显微镜下,犬的VWFpp虽然自己可以转运到储存小体中,但是不能将人类成熟的VWF分子转运到细胞内正常的位置储存。通过比较人和犬VWFpp的氨基酸序列,发现VWFpp的第416和第869位氨基酸对VWF细胞内储存非常关键[9]。成熟VWF多聚体储存在Weibel-Palade小体(WPB)中,压缩形成小管状结构。保证这种螺旋状小管结构的形成,至少需要D1-D2-D′-D3四个结构域[10]。在pH 6.2的酸性环境和钙离子存在条件下,即便没有其他蛋白的帮助,D1D2区也可自发诱导D′D3区形成螺旋小管[11]。虽然在WPB中,VWFpp已经被Furin酶切除,但是并未和成熟VWF分子分离,而以非共价键的方式仍然和D′D3区连在一起,这种共存方式对于稳定VWF小管状结构非常重要[11]。此外,这种储存结构的稳定除了依赖于VWFpp之外,还要求一定的钙离子浓度和酸性环境[11]–[12]。
WPB中VWF以右手螺旋压缩的小管状结构排列,这对于VWF的调节分泌非常重要。在刺激剂作用下,VWF小管被运送到细胞表面,环境中pH值升高至7.4,VWFpp与成熟VWF分离[11]。VWF多聚体解螺旋,形成VWF丝带。在血液循环中,如果VWFpp仍然与成熟VWF相连,将会抑制VWF与血小板的结合和黏附[13]。因此,VWFpp与VWF多聚体的分离,对于VWF的调节分泌、VWF多聚体解螺旋从而在血液循环中发挥止血作用非常关键。
三、VWFpp的基因突变导致血管性血友病
血管性血友病(von Willebrand disease, VWD)是由于VWF质或量的异常导致。VWD分为3型:1型VWD的VWF抗原(VWF antigen, VWF:Ag)部分缺乏,3型VWD的VWF缺如,2型VWD是由于VWF功能异常所致[13]–[14]。其中,2型又进一步分成2A、2B、2M和2N四个亚型。
截止到2015年3月,ISTH-VWD数据库(http://www.ragtimedesign.com/vwf/mutation/mutationtableresults.php)共登记了65个VWFpp基因突变,包括错义突变32个(占65%)、无义突变16个、缺失突变11个、插入突变4个、重复突变2个。D1区突变导致1型或3型VWD, D2区的突变大部分表现为1型、2A型和3型,还有1个2M和1个2N型的报道。
迄今为止,D1区突变导致VWD发病机制的研究仅有6例,包含5个错义突变(p.Y87S、p.D141Y、p.R273W、p.C275S和p.C275R)及1个缺失突变(c.729_735del)。Rosenberg等[16]报道了患1型VWD的一对母女(均为p.Y87S杂合子),患者血浆VWF多聚体分析仅见一个明显增浓的二聚体条带,提示突变体VWF多聚化明显受损,但是这种中大分子量多聚体缺乏与ADAMTS13酶无关。体外细胞表达实验证实,突变体多聚化功能障碍,但是VWFpp介导的成熟VWF在细胞内储存正常。突变体p.D141Y、p.C275S和p.C275R表现为多聚化障碍和VWF分泌减少[17]–[18]。c.729_735del缺失突变导致VWF在第454位氨基酸处提前终止,这种截短型VWF合成减少,VWF的功能基本丧失[19]。纯合突变p.R273W患者表现为3型VWD,除了多聚化功能障碍外,还有内质网(endoplasmic reticulum, ER)内滞留现象,细胞表达实验中形成的假性WPB减少,VWF基础分泌和调节分泌均减少[20]–[21]。进一步的实验结果显示,p.R273W-VWF在ER内滞留,与ERp57和钙联接蛋白作用时间较野生型VWF明显延长[22]。上述所有D1区突变体VWF均表现为分泌减少,多聚化障碍。体外表达实验中VWF多聚体分析仅见到VWF二聚体条带,这可能与VWF分泌量少有关。有学者增加了突变体的上样体积,发现少许低分子量VWF多聚体,但是大、中分子量VWF多聚体仍缺乏[20]。
D2区突变导致VWD发病的病例仅有10例,分别为D437-R442del、F404insNP、N528S、C570S、C584F、C623W、G624_A625insG、R760C、R760H和R763G[19],[23]–[30]。D2区VWF突变体可导致2A型突变,在既往的分类中也称作为2C型突变。其特点为:①大多数表现为隐性遗传,先证者为VWFpp区纯合突变或者双杂合突变。少数杂合子表现为1型VWD。②患者血浆中缺少中大分子量VWF多聚体,但是二聚体条带明显增浓。携带者虽然多聚体分布正常,也可见到增浓的二聚体条带。VWF多聚体的条带缺少副条带。③VWF多聚化障碍是细胞内合成过程中产生的,与ADAMTS13酶无关。④患者出血症状、VWF抗原水平、VWF瑞斯托霉素辅因子活性等实验室检测结果有很大的异质性[31]。D2区突变体VWF除了引起多聚化异常外,有些还导致VWF细胞内储存异常,突变体VWFpp不与成熟VWF多聚体共存于细胞内的储存颗粒中[25],[27]。突变体p.R760C则不影响VWF的细胞内储存,患者的1-脱氨-8-右旋精氨酸血管加压素(DDAVP)实验正常。但是,由于Furin酶切位点靠近VWFpp,有部分未剪切的前体VWF也出现在患者血浆中。该突变体最突出的特点是影响了VWF和FⅧ的结合功能,患者表现为2N型VWD[24],[32]–[34]。突变体p.R763G突变位于Furin酶切位点,导致VWFpp无法与成熟VWF分离,在患者血浆中检测到的是突变的前体VWF。患者VWF与FⅧ无法正常结合,也导致2N型VWD的发生[23],[35]。与D1区突变相比,D2区突变也影响了VWF多聚化功能和VWF的分泌,有些还影响VWF细胞内的正常储存。此外,靠近furin酶切位点的D2区突变还影响VWPpp的切除及和FⅧ的结合能力。
四、VWFpp的临床价值
VWFpp和成熟VWF等比例地从细胞内分泌出来进入血液循环。VWFpp在体内的半衰期是2 h,成熟VWF的半衰期是8~12 h[36]。所以,VWFpp和VWF抗原之间的比值可以反映体内VWF合成、分泌及清除的状况[36]–[37]。由于VWFpp不含ABO血型抗原,所以VWFpp的清除不受血型的影响[38]。VWFpp与VWF:Ag在体内代谢途径不同,因此VWFpp/VWF:Ag增加提示VWF清除增快。目前VWFpp在体内的代谢途径、其清除受哪些因素的影响仍不明确。
1.VWFpp在VWD和获得性血管性血友病中的临床意义:起初研究者发现1型VWD患者VWFpp/VWF:Ag增高,提出VWF清除增快是导致1型VWD的机制之一[39]。有研究者发现VWFpp/VWF:Ag增高在1型VWD尤其是1C型中尤为显著[40]。患者DDAVP实验提示用药后VWF:Ag水平迅速下降,VWF半衰期缩短,相对应患者VWFpp/VWF:Ag增高。因此,有人提出检测VWFpp/VWF:Ag可代替DDAVP测试[41]。2013年,Eikenboom等[42]收集了欧洲来自154个家系的744例VWD患者及其家庭成员,发现患者的VWFpp/VWF:Ag较正常人和未累及的家系成员明显增高。同时,他还发现患者FⅧ:C/VWF:Ag明显增高,提出VWF合成减少、清除增快是1型VWD的主要发病机制。VWFpp/VWF:Ag越高,VWF半衰期越短,检出VWF基因突变的概率越高。
最近Sanders等[43]在804例不同类型的VWD患者中检测VWFpp、VWF:Ag、FⅧ:C等指标后,提出VWFpp在VWD分型诊断中具有重大价值。VWFpp/VWF:Ag比值在2型VWD(2N型除外)患者中显著高于1型VWD患者,这说明VWF在体内清除增快是导致2型VWD发病的一个重要因素。2N型VWD的VWFpp/VWF:Ag的比值和正常人及1型VWD相比,轻度增高,不像其他2型VWD那么显著。此外,他们还发现3型VWD患者VWF:Ag、VWFpp水平均明显下降,这部分患者通常为纯合或复合杂合无义突变。而对于D3、D4区错义突变的VWD患者由于VWF:Ag水平低,容易被误诊为3型VWD[39],[44]–[45]。这部分患者VWFpp水平通常正常,所以VWFpp水平可有助于低VWF水平的1型VWD和3型VWD患者的鉴别。患者VWFpp/VWF:Ag增高,VWF清除增快,通常出血症状重,出血积分高[43]。
在获得性血管性血友病(acquired von Willebrand syndrome,AVWS)中,由于VWF清除增快,导致VWF抗原水平下降。所以,VWFpp在AVWS中明显增高,只有当VWFpp降低到正常水平,才能说明AVWS获得完全缓解[46]。因此,监测VWFpp有助于病情判断。
2.VWFpp在其他疾病中的临床价值:血液循环中VWFpp和VWF:Ag主要来自于血管内皮细胞。许多研究表明增高的VWF抗原和FⅧ水平,是内皮细胞受损的标志[47],也是动静脉血栓性疾病的高危因素之一[48]–[49]。但是,VWF抗原水平受到血型因素的影响[50],而且通过校正FⅧ水平,VWF增高作为血栓性疾病的危险因素似乎也不是很显著[51]。但是,由于VWFpp受到的影响因素少,成为敏感的血栓指标[37]。
在获得性血栓性血小板减少性紫癜(TTP)中,初诊TTP患者VWFpp/VWF:Ag显著高于复发的TTP,复发TTP患者的VWFpp/VWF:Ag高于正常人。此外,如果TTP患者体内VWFpp和VWF:Ag持续增高,无论ATAMTS13酶活性处于何种水平,均提示患者内皮细胞一直处于激活状态[52]。
此外,在心肌梗死、脑梗死、糖尿病、疟疾、系统性硬化症等内皮细胞受损的疾病中,VWFp均明显增高[53]–[55]。在DIC、败血症等急性血管损伤疾病中,VWFpp也明显增高[56]。VWFpp在这些疾病发生、发展过程中的作用值得进一步研究。
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