Finding the forgotten gems: revisiting the butterflies of Matheran after 125 years with introduction to novel colour barcode for depicting seasons and activity of the Indian butterflies

Abstract

We present here an updated checklist for the butterflies of Matheran, Maharashtra, India, an eco-sensitive zone, with identification remarks for locally rare or very rare butterflies. This is the first dedicated checklist for butterflies of Matheran after 125 years. A total of 140 species of butterflies were recorded belonging to six families. Amongst them, 15 species were either listed under Schedule I, II or IV of the Indian Wildlife (Protection) Act, 1972. We also list the habitats of the species along with the data for their activity at the time of recording the observation. We propose a uniform colour code system for representing season and activity for the Indian butterflies. Examples of colour barcodes are provided with the images of rare and very rare butterflies. The lack of abundance data is a limitation of the study for which we propose long term monitoring with dedicated efforts.

Introduction

Butterflies are an ideal taxonomic group for ecological studies of landscapes (Thomas and Malorie 1985) and their value as indicators of biotope quality is being increasingly recognised because of their sensitivity to minor changes in micro-habitat, particularly to the luminosity (Kremen 1992). Further, the butterflies are good biological indicators of habitat quality, as well as for the general health of the environment (Larsen 1988; Kocher and Williams 2000; Sawchik et al. 2005). Long-term diversity studies could, therefore, indicate the health of the habitat and ecosystems therein.

Here, we provide a checklist for butterflies of Matheran surveyed between the years 2011 and 2019. Ours is the first dedicated checklist for the butterflies of Matheran after Betham (1894). He listed 78 species of butterflies, combining the list of sixty butterflies provided by Smith (1882) and the list of butterflies recorded by him between April and May 1892. Padhye et al. (2013) provided a list of 27 butterflies from Matheran, while compiling the checklists for the butterflies of Northern Western Ghats, which was far from complete when compared to that given by Betham (1894). Further, the data on the habitat and seasonal turnover for butterflies of Matheran are particularly lacking from all these studies. Our checklist is accompanied with data on habitat, seasonal turnover and behavioural observations taken at the time of recording the species. We provide a novel coloured barcode approach for indicating the season/s and types of behaviour which could be used for all Indian butterflies. Representative colour barcodes are provided with the images of rare and scheduled species.

Materials and Methods

Study Area

Matheran (18.9866°N 73.2679°E, 772 m a.s.l., WGS 84) is a small hill station located in Karjat Tehsil of Raigad District in the Indian State of Maharashtra (Fig. 1). It is spread over an area of 7 sq. km. Matheran literally means forest on the top of the mountains. Geologically, it is a basaltic mesa separated from the main escarpment of Western Ghats by the low lying plains of Konkan and is an example of regressive erosion (Pascal 1988). Matheran gained the status of an Eco-Sensitive Zone (ESZ) in 2003 from the Ministry of Environment, Forest and Climate Change, Government of India [S. O. 133 (E)]. The ESZ of the Matheran comprises an area of 214.73 sq. km. All types of industrial, developmental and vehicular activities are restricted by this governmental order, making Matheran unique amongst hill stations of Asia. It experiences a cooler climate throughout the year (23.2°C mean annual temperature) compared to the surrounding low lying area and experiences heavy rainfall during the monsoon (4073 mm mean annual rainfall). The landscapes of Matheran are represented by open or forested laterite plateaus, hill-slopes, dense valley forests, non-perennial streams, manmade lakes, clearings near forest paths and human habitation. The flora of Matheran is represented by tree species found in mid elevation type wet evergreen forest (Ramesh et al. 1997), dominated by Memecylon umbellatum, Syzygium cumini and Actinodaphne lanceolata (Birdwood 1886, Ramesh et al. 1997). The plateau also hosts species like Carallia integerrima, Glochidion lanceolarium, Olea dioica, Garcinia indica and Carissa carandas (Birdwood 1886). The area also shows the presence of many endemic species of orchids, grasses and other herbaceous plants (Kothari and Moorthy 1993).

Figure 1.

Study area with its location in Maharashtra, India. Sampling sites are shown in green filled circles. Additionally, the survey was conducted on two trails, Neral-Dasturi Road (pink line) and Neral-Matheran Railway (green line).

Field Survey and Data Collection

The area was visited in all the three seasons, namely summer (Feb-May), monsoon (Jun-Sept) and winter (Oct-Jan) throughout the year from September 2011 to March 2019. Intermittent observations were taken between 06.00 hrs and 17.00 hrs for around three days a month. The butterflies were observed in all possible habitats at six localities and on two trails in and around Matheran (Table 1). A total of 22833 observations were made during nine years of the study (https://indiabiodiversity.org/dataTable/show/1755286) which are available as a data table on the India Biodiversity Portal (Vattakaven et al. 2016). To ascertain the identity of butterflies, photographs were taken and identifications were made with the keys provided by Evans (1932), Wynter-Blyth (1957), Kunte (2000), Kehimkar (2008), Kehimkar (2016) and Bhakare and Ogale (2018). The classification and nomenclature follows Kehimkar (2008), Van Gasse (2013) and Varshney and Smetacek (2015). The local status of the butterflies was decided, based on the number of records as very rare (≤ 5 records), rare (between 5 and 10), not common (between 10 and 20), common (between 20 and 50) and very common (> 50). This status does not correlate to the entire geographical distribution status of a corresponding species. The habitat, occurrence and behaviour of butterflies were noted and photo documented. The photo documentation was made with Nikon d500, d3200 and Cannon EOS 70d, Sony HX 100v digital cameras. The species were noted along with the date and location.

Table 1.

Survey sites in and around Matheran, India with their geographical, climatic and vegetation characteristics.

Site code	Study area	Characteristics
1	Simpson Tank	Small water barrage built on fast flowing stream surrounded by dense forest. Low canopy cover immediately over the barrage.
2	Charlotte Lake	Large artificial barrage enclosing artificial lake. Surrounded by dense forest.
3	Panorama Point	Mixed vegetation containing semi-evergreen forested patches and grasslands. High ambient moisture during monsoon accompanied by high wind currents.
4	Garbett Point	A small plateau associated with Matheran. Mixed vegetation containing semi-evergreen forested patches and grasslands. A small hamlet sustaining a human population prevalently that of the 'Dhangar' (Shepherd) tribe.
5	Rustumjee Point	Thick semi-evergreen vegetation. High ambient moisture during monsoon accompanied by high wind currents.
6	One tree hill point	Gradual hill slopes and edge of the valley. Thick semi-evergreen vegetation. High ambient moisture during monsoon accompanied by high wind currents. A torrential stream flows near this area.
7	Neral-Matheran Rail Route	Various types of vegetation elements with patches of wet evergreen, semi-evergreen forests and grasslands. Entire trail has valleys on one side and cliffs on the other. Many torrential streams intersect this area at various points during the monsoon. Cliffs seep with a thin film of water during the monsoon and early winter months. Gutters made for drainage of water hold it until late winter. Shutting down of railway transport during the monsoon leave this area more or less undisturbed from human interference for around four months.
8	Neral-Matheran Road way	Heavily-disturbed area with human interference holding patches of evergreen, semi-evergreen forests, monoculture of Acacia auriculiformis and grasslands. Entire trail has valleys on one side and cliffs on the other. Many torrential streams intersect this area at various points during the monsoon. Cliffs seep with a thin film of water during the monsoon and early winter months. Gutters made for drainage of water hold it until late winter and early summer.

Data Analysis

Based on the occurrence data, a species accumulation curve (SAC) was prepared in R (R Core Team 2020) using the SpecAccum function in vegan (Oksanen et al. 2019). Expected (mean) species richness was calculated using the data collected from eight sites (Table 1). Further, the occurrence data of the species were analysed for calculating Similarity-Richness difference-Species replacement simplex (SDR Simplex) using SDRSimplex (a stand-alone computer programme) (Podani and Schmera 2011). Ternary plots were plotted using NonHier platform of SYNTAX 2000 (Podani 2001). The number or percentage of the species recorded per family, during each season, at each site was calculated in Microsoft Excel 2007 and visualised using pie and bar charts.

Preparation of Colour codes

The colour codes (Table 2) were prepared for easy and uniform representation of seasons and various behavioural activities of the Indian butterflies. Summer, monsoon and winter were given basic red, green and indigo colours in the CMYK scheme. These colours also correspond to temperature shifts in the seasons from hotter to cooler weather conditions. For combination of seasons, the corresponding combination of colours was used. Colours were mixed online through Color Mixer platform of Color Designer (https://colordesigner.io/color-mixer). Grey colour represents the occurrence of the species in all seasons. All other colours were selected from the RGB scheme for it provides a wider range of colours. These colours were selected in such a way that they represent the correponding activity, for example, brown for mud puddling, honey colour (orange palette) for nectaring, amber colour for tree sap feeding etc., except basking which is represented by magenta.

Table 2.

Colour scheme for colour barcodes with CMYK and RGB ratios and HEX numbers.

		Colour	CMYK Ratio (C:M:Y:K)	RGB Ratio (R:G:B)	HEX	Colour Name
Seasons	Summer		0:100:100:0	227:30:36	#E31E24	Red
	Monsoon		100:0:100:0	0:152:70	#009846	Green
	Winter		100:100:0:0	57:49:133	#393185	Indigo
	Summer+Monsoon		9:24:100:46	151:126:22	#977E16	Tan
	Summer+Winter		24:100:2:13	175:0:113	#AF0071	Purple
	Monsoon+Winter		86:36:9:20	0:115:162	#0073A2	Teal
	Summer+Monsoon+Winter		47:38:38:24	128:128:128	#808080	Grey (50% Black)
	Mud Puddling		19:52:85:37	153:102:51	#996633	Brown
	Basking		57:100:0:0	153:0:153	#990099	Magenta
Feeding	Nectaring		0:45:10:4	235:150:5	#EB9605	Honey (Orange)
	Tree Sap		0:28:98:0	255:191:0	#FFBF00	Amber
	Animal Carcass		11:99:100:50	121:06:04	#790604	Kryon Cherry Red
	Animal Waste		3:0:93:0	255:255:0	#FFFF00	Yellow
	Bird Droppings		95:95:45:95	0:00:00	#000000	Black
	Rotten fruits		17:56:48:12	193:123:113	#C17B71	Rose Brown

Results

Species Richness

The SAC gained a plateau and standard deviation for species richness declined from 97.75 ± 17.07 to 141.0 ± 0.0 as the number of sights increased from one to eight, predicting sufficient efforts to record all the species found in the area (Asym = 146.42, xmid = 0.58, slope = 3.60) (Fig. 2). A total of 140 species belonging to six families have been observed and identified during the entire period of the study (Fig. 3, Table 3). The family Lycaenidae with 46 species (32.86%), followed by Nymphalidae with 43 species (31.43%), were amongst the most species-rich families in the area. Species belonging to the family Hesperiidae (25 species), Pieridae (14 species) and Papilionidae (10 species) were amongst other common species found in the area. The range of Cheritra freja (Common Imperial) which was earlier recorded from Amboli, Sindhudurga, Maharashtra (15.9647°N, 74.0036°E) (Saji and Ogale 2020) is extended further north around 345 km linear distance (calculated on https://www.nhc.noaa.gov/gccalc.shtml). The family Riodinidae was represented by only one species namely, Abisara bifasciata (Double Banded Judy).

Figure 2.

Species Accumulation Curve (SAC) with asymptote model. Dark blue line indicates the expected (mean) species richness; shaded area denotes the standard deviation (Asym = 146.42, xmid = 0.58, slope = 3.60).

Figure 3.

Family-wise species composition pie of butterflies of Matheran.

Table 3.

List of butterflies of Matheran. Numeric codes of sites correspond to Table 1. Colour codes of season/s correspond to Table 2. VC- Very Common, C- Common, NC - Not Common, R - Rare, VR - Very Rare. Presence = 1; Absence = 0.

Common Name	Scientific Name	Season	Local Status	Study Sites
				1	2	3	4	5	6	7	8
Family: Hesperiidae (N = 25)
Vindhyan Bob	Arnetta vindhiana	All	VC	1	1	1	1	1	1	1	1
Brown Awl	Badamia exclamationis	All	C	1	1	1	1	1	1	1	1
Orange-Tailed Awlet	Bibasis sena	Monsoon	VR	0	0	1	0	1	1	0	0
Orange Awlet	Burara jaina	Monsoon	VR	0	1	1	0	0	1	0	0
Blank Swift	Caltoris kumara	Monsoon	VC	0	1	1	1	1	1	1	1
Golden Angle	Caprona ransonnetii	All	C	1	0	1	1	1	0	1	0
Malabar Flat	Celaenorrhinus ambareesa	All	VC	1	1	1	1	1	1	1	1
Common Spotted Flat	Celaenorrhinus leucocera	All	VC	1	1	1	1	1	1	1	1
Tamil Spotted Flat	Celaenorrhinus ruficornis	Monsoon	VR	0	0	0	1	0	1	0	0
Tricolor Pied Flat	Coladenia indrani	Monsoon+Winter	VC	1	0	1	1	1	1	1	1
Common Awl	Hasora badra	Winter	NC	0	1	1	1	1	1	0	0
Common Banded Awl	Hasora chromus	All	VC	0	1	1	1	1	1	1	1
Plain Banded Awl	Hasora vitta	Monsoon	VR	0	1	1	0	1	0	0	0
Chestnut Bob	Iambrix salsala	All	VC	1	1	1	1	1	1	1	1
Common Redeye	Matapa aria	Monsoon+Winter	R	1	0	1	1	0	1	0	0
Conjoined Swift	Pelopidas conjuncta	Monsoon	VC	1	1	1	1	0	1	1	1
Variable Swift	Pelopidas mathias	Monsoon+Winter	C	1	0	1	1	0	1	0	0
Common Small Flat	Sarangesa dasahara	All	VC	1	1	1	1	1	1	1	1
Spotted Small Flat	Sarangesa purendra	All	VC	1	1	1	1	1	1	1	1
Indian Skipper	Spialia galba	Monsoon	C	0	0	1	0	0	1	1	1
Indian Palm Bob	Suastus gremius	Winter	C	0	1	1	1	1	1	0	0
Black Angle	Tapena thwaitesi	Monsoon+Winter	C	1	0	1	1	1	1	1	0
Tamil Grass Dart	Taractrocera ceramas	Summer+Monsoon	VC	0	1	1	1	1	1	1	1
Dark Palm Dart	Telicota bambusae	All	C	1	1	1	1	1	1	1	1
Grass Demon	Udaspes folus	Monsoon+Winter	C	1	0	1	1	0	1	1	0
Family: Lycaenidae (N = 46)
Common Hedge Blue	Acytolepis puspa	All	VC	1	1	1	1	1	1	0	1
Purple Leaf Blue	Amblypodia anita	Summer+Winter	C	1	1	1	1	1	0	0	0
Pointed Ciliate Blue	Anthene lycaenina	All	VC	1	1	1	1	1	0	0	1
Large Oakblue	Arhopala amantes	Winter	VR	1	0	0	1	1	0	0	0
Centaur Oakblue	Arhopala centaurus	Winter	VR	1	0	1	0	1	0	0	0
Angled Pierrot	Caleta decidia	All	VC	1	0	1	1	1	0	0	1
Common Pierrot	Castalius rosimon	All	VC	1	1	1	1	1	1	0	1
Forgetmenot	Catochrysops strabo	All	VC	1	1	1	1	1	1	1	1
Common Imperial	Cheritra freja	Monsoon+Winter	VR	0	0	0	1	1	1	1	0
Lime Blue	Chilades lajus	Summer+Winter	NC	1	0	0	1	1	0	0	0
Orchid Tit	Chliaria othona	Winter	VR	1	0	0	0	0	0	0	0
Angled Sunbeam	Curetis dentata	Summer+Winter	C	1	0	0	1	1	0	1	0
Indian Sunbeam	Curetis thetis	Monsoon+Winter	C	1	0	0	0	1	0	0	0
Cornelian	Deudorix epijarbas	All	C	0	0	1	1	1	1	1	1
Gram Blue	Euchrysops cnejus	Summer+Winter	C	1	1	1	1	1	0	0	0
Indian Cupid	Everes lacturnus	Summer+Winter	NC	1	0	1	1	0	0	0	0
Small Grass Jewel	Freyeria putli	Summer+Winter	C	0	1	1	1	0	0	1	1
Silverstreak Blue	Iraota timoleon	Summer+Winter	VC	1	0	1	1	1	1	0	0
Dark Cerulean	Jamides bochus	All	VC	1	1	1	1	1	1	1	1
Common Cerulean	Jamides celeno	All	VC	1	1	1	1	1	1	1	1
Peablue	Lampides boeticus	Winter	C	1	0	1	1	1	1	0	1
Zebra Blue	Leptotes plinius	Summer+Winter	C	1	0	1	1	1	0	1	1
Yamfly	Loxura atymnus	Monsoon+Winter	NC	0	1	1	1	1	1	0	0
Plains Cupid	Luthrodes pandava	Winter	C	1	1	0	1	1	0	0	0
Malayan	Megisba malaya	Winter	C	1	0	0	0	1	1	0	1
Opaque Six Lineblue	Nacaduba beroe	Summer+Winter	VC	1	0	0	0	1	1	0	0
Transparent Six Lineblue	Nacaduba kurava	Summer+Winter	VC	1	0	0	0	1	1	0	0
Dingy Lineblue	Petrelaea dana	Winter	C	1	0	0	0	1	0	0	0
Tailless Lineblue	Prosotas dubiosa	Summer+Winter	VC	1	1	1	1	1	1	0	1
Common Lineblue	Prosotas nora	Summer+Winter	VC	1	1	1	1	1	1	0	1
Common Red Flash	Rapala iarbus	Summer+Winter	C	1	1	1	1	1	0	0	1
Slate Flash	Rapala manea	Summer+Winter	VC	1	1	1	1	1	1	0	1
Indigo Flash	Rapala varuna	Summer+Winter	VC	1	0	0	0	1	0	0	0
Monkey Puzzle	Rathinda amor	All	VC	0	1	1	1	1	1	1	0
Common Apefly	Spalgis epius	Winter	VR	1	0	0	0	0	0	0	0
Long Banded Silverline	Spindasis lohita	Winter	NC	1	0	1	1	1	0	0	0
Common Silverline	Spindasis vulcanus	Summer	VR	0	1	1	1	1	0	0	0
Common Acacia Blue	Surendra quercetorum	Monsoon	NC	0	0	1	1	1	1	1	0
Peacock Royal	Tajuria cippus	Winter	C	1	0	0	0	1	1	0	0
Red Pierrot	Talicada nyseus	Summer+Winter	C	0	0	1	1	1	0	0	1
Dark Pierrot	Tarucus ananda	Winter	VR	0	0	0	0	1	0	0	0
Common Guava Blue	Virachola isocrates	All	C	1	0	0	0	1	1	0	0
Large Guava Blue	Virachola perse	All	VC	1	0	0	0	1	1	0	0
Dark Grass Blue	Zizeeria karsandra	All	VC	1	1	1	1	1	1	1	1
Lesser Grass Blue	Zizina otis	All	VC	1	1	1	1	1	1	1	1
Tiny Grass Blue	Zizula hylax	Summer+Winter	VC	1	1	1	1	1	1	1	1
Family: Nymphalidae (N = 44)
Angled Castor	Ariadne ariadne	All	C	0	1	1	1	1	1	1	1
Common Castor	Ariadne merione	All	NC	1	1	1	1	1	1	1	1
Color Sergeant	Athyma inara	Winter	VR	1	0	0	0	1	1	1	0
Common Sergeant	Athyma perius	Winter	VR	1	0	0	0	1	1	1	0
Tawny Rajah	Charaxes psaphon	Winter	R	1	1	1	1	0	0	1	0
Black Rajah	Charaxes solon	Winter	NC	1	0	0	1	1	0	0	0
Rustic	Cupha erymanthis	Monsoon+Winter	VR	1	0	1	0	1	1	1	0
Common Map	Cyrestis thyodamas	Summer+Winter	NC	1	0	1	0	1	1	1	1
Plain Tiger	Danaus chrysippus	All	C	1	1	1	1	1	1	1	1
Striped Tiger	Danaus genutia	All	C	1	1	1	1	1	1	1	1
Common Crow	Euploea core	All	C	1	1	1	1	1	1	1	1
Brown King Crow	Euploea klugii	Summer+Winter	R	1	0	1	1	1	0	0	0
Double Branded Crow	Euploea sylvester	Summer	VR	1	0	0	0	0	0	0	0
Common Baron	Euthalia aconthea	All	VC	1	1	1	1	1	0	1	1
Gaudy Baron	Euthalia lubentina	Winter	C	1	1	1	1	1	0	1	1
Great Eggfly	Hypolimnas bolina	All	C	1	1	1	1	1	1	1	1
Danaid Eggfly	Hypolimnas misippus	All	VC	1	1	1	1	1	1	1	1
Peacock Pansy	Junonia almana	All	C	1	1	1	1	1	1	1	1
Grey Pansy	Junonia atlites	Summer	NC	1	1	1	1	1	1	1	1
Chocolate Pansy	Junonia iphita	All	C	1	1	1	1	1	1	1	1
Lemon Pansy	Junonia lemonias	All	C	1	1	1	1	1	1	1	1
Blue Oakleaf	Kallima horsfieldii	Monsoon+Winter	C	1	1	1	1	1	1	1	0
Bamboo Treebrown	Lethe europa	All	NC	0	1	1	0	1	1	1	0
Common Treebrown	Lethe rohria	All	VC	0	1	1	0	1	1	1	1
Club Beak	Libythea myrrha	Winter	NC	1	0	0	0	1	0	1	0
Common Evening Brown	Melanitis leda	All	VC	1	1	1	1	1	1	1	1
Commander	Moduza procris	All	VC	1	1	1	1	1	1	1	1
Dark Brand Bushbrown	Mycalesis mineus	Monsoon+Winter	NC	1	1	1	0	1	0	0	0
Common Bushbrown	Mycalesis perseus	Monsoon+Winter	C	1	1	1	1	1	1	1	1
Long Brand Bushbrown	Mycalesis visala	Monsoon+Winter	VC	1	1	1	0	1	0	0	0
Common Sailer	Neptis hylas	All	C	1	1	1	1	1	1	1	1
Chestnut Streaked Sailer	Neptis jumbah	Winter	C	1	1	1	0	1	0	0	1
Glassy Tiger	Parantica aglea	Monsoon+Winter	C	1	1	1	1	1	1	1	1
Short Banded Sailer	Phaedyma columella	Winter	NC	1	0	0	0	1	0	0	0
Common Leopard	Phalanta phalantha	All	VC	1	1	1	1	1	1	1	1
Cryptic Nawab	Polyura bharata	Winter	R	0	0	1	1	0	0	0	0
Black Prince	Rohana parisatis	Summer+Winter	C	1	0	0	0	1	1	1	0
Baronet	Symphaedra nais	Summer+Winter	NC	1	0	1	1	0	0	0	0
Grey Count	Tanaecia lepidea	Monsoon+Winter	R	0	0	0	0	1	1	1	0
Blue Tiger	Tirumala limniace	Monsoon	C	1	1	1	1	1	1	1	1
Dark Blue Tiger	Tirumala septentrionis	Summer+Winter	R	1	0	1	1	1	0	0	0
Painted Lady	Vanessa cardui	All	C	0	1	1	1	1	1	1	1
Common Fivering	Ypthima baldus	All	C	1	1	1	1	1	1	1	1
Common Fourring	Ypthima huebneri	All	C	1	1	1	1	1	1	1	1
Family: Papilionidae (N = 10)
Tailed Jay	Graphium agamemnon	Monsoon	VC	1	1	1	1	1	1	1	1
Common Jay	Graphium doson	Summer+Winter	C	1	1	1	1	1	0	0	1
Bluebottle	Graphium teredon	Winter	C	1	0	1	1	1	0	0	1
Common Rose	Pachliopta aristolochiae	Winter	R	0	1	0	1	1	0	1	0
Crimson Rose	Pachliopta hector	Winter	R	0	1	1	1	1	0	1	0
Common Mime	Papilio clytia	Winter	NC	1	0	1	1	1	0	0	0
Lime	Papilio demoleus	Summer+Winter	NC	0	1	1	1	1	0	1	1
Red Helen	Papilio helenus	Summer+Monsoon	R	0	0	1	0	1	1	1	0
Blue Mormon	Papilio polymnestor	All	VC	1	1	1	1	1	1	1	1
Common Mormon	Papilio polytes	All	VC	1	1	1	1	1	1	1	1
Family: Pieridae (N = 14)
Common Albatross	Appias albina	Summer+Winter	R	0	1	1	1	1	0	0	0
Plain Pufin	Appias indra	Winter	VR	1	0	0	0	0	0	0	0
Striped Albatross	Appias libythea	Winter	R	0	0	0	1	1	0	0	0
Common Emigrant	Catopsilia pomona	All	VC	1	1	1	1	1	1	1	1
Mottled Emigrant	Catopsilia pyranthe	Winter	NC	1	1	1	1	1	0	0	0
Common Gull	Cepora nerissa	All	VC	1	1	1	1	1	1	1	1
Common Jezebel	Delias eucharis	All	C	1	1	1	1	1	1	1	1
Common Grass Yellow	Eurema hecabe	All	VC	1	1	1	1	1	0	1	1
Spotless Grass Yellow	Eurema laeta	Summer+Winter	NC	1	0	1	1	1	0	1	0
Great Orange Tip	Hebomoia glaucippe	All	NC	1	1	1	0	1	1	1	0
White Orange Tip	Ixias marianne	Summer+Winter	C	1	1	1	1	1	0	1	0
Yellow Orange Tip	Ixias pyrene	Summer+Winter	C	1	1	1	1	1	0	1	0
Psyche	Leptosia nina	All	C	1	1	1	1	1	1	1	1
Common Wanderer	Pareronia hippia	All	VC	1	1	1	1	1	1	1	0
Family: Riodinidae (N = 1)
Double Banded Judy	Abisara bifasciata	Monsoon+Winter	C	1	0	1	1	1	1	0	0

Seasonal turnover

The maximum numbers of species (N = 125) were recorded during winter, while minimum numbers of species (N = 80) were recorded during the monsoon (Fig. 4). Maximum numbers of species for all the families were recorded during winter, except the family Hesperiidae for which the maximum numbers of species (N = 23) were recorded during the monsoon (Fig. 5). The species of the family Lycaenidae dominated the local butterfly species richness during the months of summer and winter with 36.05% (N = 31) and 34.40% (N = 43) of total species of butterflies recorded during respective seasons (Fig. 6). Members of the family Nymphalidae shared fairly equal percentages during all seasons. The percentage of the papilionids was the lowest during all seasons.

Figure 4.

Seasonal variations in species richness.

Figure 5.

Family-wise percent species richness per season.

Figure 6.

Season-wise percent species richness per family.

Spatial turnover

Members of the family Nymphalidae and Lycaenidae dominated the species diversity at all the sites studied in and around Matheran. Members of the family Lycaenidae were particularly present in higher numbers at Charlotte Lake while those of Hesperiidae were particularly present in higher numbers at Garbett Point (Fig. 7). The Similarity-Richness difference-Species replacement simplex for all the families indicated high similarity, although with different patterns tending towards perfect nestedness (Fig. 8a-e, Suppl. material 1). Similarity was the highest for the family Nymphalidae (70.58%) with 78.22% of relativised strict nestedness (nestedness without considering the effect of species replacement) and lowest relativised beta diversity of 29.42%. Relativised strict nestedness was the highest (85.67%) for the family Hesperiidae with a similarity of 65.91% and beta diversity of 34.10%, while relativised nestedness (nestedness considering the effect of species replacement) was the highest (93.56%) for the family Pieridae. Similarity of species composition between the sites was the lowest (49.10%) for the family Lycaenidae with the highest relativised richness difference (31.99%) indicating more site specific species composition for the members of the family Lycaenidae, unlike the members of other families.

Figure 7.

Site-wise percent species richness for each family

Figure 8.

Similarity-Richness difference-Species replacement simplex plot for a. Hesperiidae; b. Lycaenidae; c. Nymphalidae; d. Papilionidae; e. Pieridae. S - Species Shared (Similarity); D - Richness difference; R - Species replacement. Squares indicate true simplex scores for each pairs of sites (N = 28 for 8 sites).

Activity of butterflies

No seasonal activity pattern could be observed (Table 3, Table 4). Most of the species were observed while mud puddling, basking or feeding on the nectar. Other common activities included feeding on bird droppings, tree sap, animal waste (other than that of birds) and/or animal carcasses.

Table 4.

Activity chart for butterflies of Matheran observed during the survey. Colour codes correspond to Table 2.

Scientific Name	Mud Puddling	Basking	Feeding
			Nectaring	Tree Sap	Carcass	Animal Waste (other than that of birds)	Bird Droppings	Rotten Fruits
Family Hesperiidae
Arnetta vindhiana	+	+	+				+	+
Badamia exclamationis	+		+		+		+
Bibasis sena			+
Burara jaina	+		+				+	+
Caltoris kumara			+				+
Caprona ransonnetti	+	+	+				+	+
Celaenorrhinus ambareesa	+	+	+				+	+
Celaenorrhinus leucocera		+	+
Celaenorrhinus ruficornis		+	+
Coladenia indrani	+	+	+				+	+
Hasora badra			+		+		+
Hasora chromus	+		+				+	+
Hasora vitta			+
Iambrix salsala		+	+				+
Matapa aria	+		+				+
Pelopidas conjuncta	+	+	+				+
Pelopidas mathias	+	+	+				+
Sarangesa dasahara	+	+	+				+	+
Sarangesa purendra	+	+	+				+	+
Spialia galba		+	+				+
Suastus gremius			+				+
Tapena thwaitesi	+	+	+		+	+	+	+
Taractrocera ceramas		+	+				+
Telicota bambusae	+	+	+				+
Udaspes folus	+	+	+		+		+	+
Family Lycaenidae
Acytolepis puspa	+	+	+		+	+	+	+
Amblypodia anita	+	+	+		+	+	+
Anthene lycaenina	+	+	+
Arhopala amantes	+	+						+
Arhopala centaurus	+	+						+
Caleta decidia	+		+	+	+	+	+
Castalius rosimon	+	+	+	+	+	+	+
Catochrysops strabo	+	+	+		+	+		+
Cheritra freja		+	+
Chilades lajus	+	+	+
Chliaria othona	+	+	+
Curetis dentata	+	+						+
Curetis thetis	+	+						+
Deudorix epijarbas	+	+	+				+	+
Euchrysops cnejus	+		+
Everes lacturnus	+		+			+
Freyeria putli	+	+	+
Iraota timoleon	+	+	+		+	+		+
Jamides bochus	+		+			+	+
Jamides celeno	+		+			+	+
Lampides boeticus	+	+	+		+	+	+	+
Leptotes plinius	+	+	+			+	+	+
Loxura atymnus		+						+
Luthrodes pandava	+		+
Megisba malaya	+		+			+
Nacaduba beroe	+					+
Nacaduba kurava	+					+
Petrelaea dana	+					+
Prosotas dubiosa	+		+			+
Prosotas nora	+		+			+
Rapala iarbus	+	+	+
Rapala manea	+	+
Rapala varuna	+	+			+
Rathinda amor		+	+					+
Spalgis epius	+						+
Spindasis lohita	+	+	+		+
Spindasis vulcanus	+	+	+		+
Surendra quercetorum	+		+		+
Tajuria cippus	+	+			+	+
Talicada nyseus	+	+	+
Tarucus ananda	+
Virachola isocrates	+	+	+		+	+	+	+
Virachola perse	+	+	+		+	+	+	+
Zizeeria karsandra	+	+	+			+
Zizina otis	+	+	+			+
Zizula hylax	+	+	+			+
Family Nymphalidae
Ariadne ariadne	+	+	+
Ariadne merione	+	+	+
Athyma inara	+	+
Athyma perius	+	+
Charaxes psaphon	+	+		+	+	+		+
Charaxes solon	+	+		+	+	+		+
Cupha erymanthis	+	+	+
Cyrestis thyodamas	+	+			+
Danaus chrysippus	+	+	+
Danaus genutia	+	+	+
Euploea core	+	+	+
Euploea klugii	+	+	+
Euploea sylvester	+	+	+
Euthalia aconthea	+	+	+	+	+	+	+	+
Euthalia lubentina	+	+	+	+	+	+	+	+
Hypolimnas bolina	+	+	+		+	+	+	+
Hypolimnas misippus	+	+	+		+	+	+	+
Junonia almana	+	+	+					+
Junonia atlites	+	+	+
Junonia iphita	+	+	+		+			+
Junonia lemonias	+	+	+					+
Kallima horsfieldii	+	+		+	+	+		+
Lethe europa					+	+		+
Lethe rohria					+	+		+
Libythea myrrha	+	+
Melanitis leda					+	+		+
Moduza procris	+	+	+		+	+	+	+
Mycalesis mineus	+	+	+		+		+	+
Mycalesis perseus	+	+	+		+		+	+
Mycalesis visala	+	+	+		+		+	+
Neptis hylas	+	+	+		+			+
Neptis jumbah	+	+	+		+			+
Parantica aglea	+	+	+
Phaedyma columella	+	+	+		+			+
Phalanta phalantha	+	+	+		+	+		+
Polyura bharata	+	+		+	+	+		+
Rohana parisatis	+	+				+		+
Symphaedra nais	+	+	+		+		+	+
Tanaecia lepidea	+	+		+	+	+	+	+
Tirumala limniace	+	+	+
Tirumala septentrionis	+	+	+
Vanessa cardui	+	+	+					+
Ypthima baldus		+	+					+
Ypthima huebneri		+	+					+
Family Papilionidae
Graphium agamemnon	+	+	+		+	+
Graphium doson	+		+		+	+
Graphium teredon	+		+		+	+
Pachliopta aristolochiae		+	+
Pachliopta hector		+	+
Papilio clytia	+		+
Papilio demoleus	+	+	+
Papilio helenus	+	+	+
Papilio polymnestor	+	+	+
Papilio polytes	+	+	+
Family Pieridae
Appias albina	+	+	+
Appias indra	+	+	+
Appias libythea	+	+	+
Catopsilia pomona	+		+
Catopsilia pyranthe	+		+
Cepora nerissa	+	+	+
Delias eucharis		+	+
Eurema hecabe			+			+	+
Eurema laeta			+			+	+
Hebomoia glaucippe	+	+	+
Ixias marianne		+	+
Ixias pyrene		+	+
Leptosia nina			+
Pareronia hippia	+	+	+
Family Riodinidae
Abisara bifasciata	+	+

Locally rare and scheduled species

Our list contains 15 such species which are scheduled under the Wildlife (Protection) Act, 1972 of India (Table 5). Out of these, seven species were found rarely during the survey. Additionally, 20 species, which are not scheduled under the act, were observed rarely or very rarely during the survey (Figs 9, 10, 11, 12, 13)

Table 5.

List of scheduled species under the Wildlife (Protection) Act, 1972, India.

S r. No.	Common Name	Scientific Name	Schedule (Part)
1	Orange-tailed awlet	Bibasis sena	2 (2)
2	Plain Banded Awl	Hasora vitta	4
3	Striped Albatross	Appias libythea	4
4	Plain Puffin	Appias indra	2 (2)
5	Crimson Rose	Pachliopta hector	1 (4)
6	Long Banded Silverline	Spindasis lohita	2 (2)
7	Dark Pierrot	Tarucus ananda	4
8	Gram Blue	Euchrysops cnejus	2 (2)
9	Lime blue	Chilades lajus	2
10	Peacock Royal	Tajuria cippus	2 (2)
11	Orchid Tit	Chliaria othona	1 (4)
12	Indigo Flash	Rapala varuna	2 (2)
13	Gaudy Baron	Euthalia lubentina	4
14	Grey Count	Tanaecia lepidea	2 (2)
15	Danaid Eggfly	Hypolimnas misippus	1

Family Hesperiidae (a-e) and Family Lycaenidae (f). Colour barcodes depict season and activity of the species. Colour codes correspond to Table 2. Photo Credits: Gargi Geedh (a); Mandar Sawant & Sagar Sarang (b-f).

Figure 9a.

Bibasis sena

Figure 9b.

Burara jaina

Figure 9c.

Celenorrhinus ruficornis

Figure 9d.

Hasora vitta (inverted image)

Figure 9e.

Matapa aria

Figure 9f.

Arhopala amantes

Family Lycaenidae. Colour barcodes depict season and activity of the species. Colour codes correspond to Table 2. Photo Credits: Mandar Sawant & Sagar Sarang.

Figure 10a.

Arhopala centaurus

Figure 10b.

Cheritra freja

Figure 10c.

Chliaria othona

Figure 10d.

Spalgis epius

Figure 10e.

Spindasis vulcanus

Figure 10f.

Tarucus ananda

Family Nymphalidae. Colour barcodes depict season and activity of the species. Colour codes correspond to Table 2. Photo credits: Mandar Sawant & Sagar Sarang.

Figure 11a.

Athyma inara

Figure 11b.

Athyma perius

Figure 11c.

Charaxes psaphon

Figure 11d.

Cupha erymanthis

Figure 11e.

Euploea klugii

Figure 11f.

Euploea sylvester

Family Nymphalidae. Colour barcodes depict season and activity of the species. Colour codes correspond to Table 2. Photo credits: Mandar Sawant & Sagar Sarang.

Figure 12a.

Polyura bharata

Figure 12b.

Tanaecia lepidea

Figure 12c.

Tirumala septentrionis

Family Papilionidae (a-c) and Family Pieridae (d-f); (a) Pachliopta aristolochiae (Photo credit: Tejas Mehendale); (b) Pachliopta hector (Photo credit: Abhinav Nair); (c) Papilio helenus; (d) Appias albina; (e) Appias indra; (f) Appias libythea;. Colour barcodes depict season and activity of the species. Colour codes correspond to Table 2. Photo Credits: Tejas Mehendale (a); Abhinav Nair (b); Mandar Sawant & Sagar Sarang (c-f).

Figure 13a.

Pachliopta aristolochiae

Figure 13b.

Pachliopta hector

Figure 13c.

Papilio helenus

Figure 13d.

Appias albina

Figure 13e.

Appias indra

Figure 13f.

Appias libythea

Identification remarks for locally rare or very rare butterflies

Abbreviations: FW-Forewing, HW-Hindwing, UN-Underside, UNF-Underside of Forewing, UNH-Underside of Hindwing, UP- Upperside, UPF-Upperside of Forewing, UPH-Upperside of Hindwing

Family Hesperiidae Latreille, 1809

Genus Bibasis Moore, 1881

Bibasis sena (Moore, 1865) (Fig. 9a).

Common name: Orange-tailed awlet.

Identification remarks: Bright orange fringe on HW and on the tip of the abdomen. Broad, pure white, outwardly diffused, central band on UN. Wingspan 42–50 mm.

Season: Monsoon.

Habitat and activity: The species was observed in forested patches while nectaring.

Genus Burara Swinhoe, 1893

Burara jaina (Moore, 1865) (Fig. 9b).

Common name: Orange awlet.

Identification remarks: UN pale brown. UNH with orange stripes along veins and has orange fringe. UNF purplish. Wingspan 60–70 mm.

Season: Monsoon.

Habitat and activity: The species was observed in forested patches while nectaring.

Genus Celaenorrhinus Hübner, 1819

Celaenorrhinus ruficornis Hampson, 1889 (Fig. 9c).

Common name: Tamil spotted flat.

Identification remarks: Similar to common spotted flat, but UPF has semi-transparent white spots separated from each other. Markings on UPH indistinct or absent. Antennae chequered, club white in male, white at base only in female. Wingspan 45–50 mm.

Season: Monsoon.

Habitat and activity: The species was observed in forested patches while nectaring.

Genus Hasora Moore, 1881

Hasora vitta (Butler, 1870) (Fig. 9d).

Common name: Plain banded awl.

Identification remarks: Outwardly diffused broad white or bluish-white band on UNH. Female has an additional spot on UPF. UN paler, inner half has greenish gloss. Wingspan 45–55 mm.

Season: Monsoon.

Habitat and activity: The species was observed in forested patches while nectaring.

Genus Matapa Moore, 1881

Matapa aria (Moore, 1865) (Fig. 9e).

Common name: Common Redeye.

Identification remarks: Dark buff-brown with no markings on UP. HW has greyish fringe tinged with pale yellow. UN more yellowish orange-brown. Indistinct black brand on UPF of male. Wingspan 40–55 mm.

Season: Monsoon and winter.

Habitat and activity: The species was observed in forested patches while nectaring.

Family Lycaenidae Leach, 1815

Genus Arhopala Boisduval, 1832

Arhopala amantes (Hewitson, 1862) (Fig. 9f).

Common name: Large oakblue.

Identification remarks: Tailed with lobe. UNH has central squarish spots in spaces 4 and 5 at right angles. Metallic scales at UNH lower tip. Wingspan 45–57 mm.

Season: Winter.

Habitat and activity: The species was observed in forested patches while mud puddling, basking or feeding on rotten fruits.

Arhopala centaurus (Fabricius, 1775) (Fig. 10a).

Common name: Centaur oakblue.

Identification remarks: HW tailed. No HW lobe. Metallic scaling on UNH faint or absent. UNF band continuous and curved. UNF cell spots outlined by silver lines. Male UP brilliant violet-blue, narrow dark borders. Females UP paler blue, broad wing borders. Wingspan 53–62 mm.

Season: Winter.

Habitat and activity: The species was observed in forested patches while mud puddling, basking or feeding on rotten fruits.

Genus Cheritra Moore, 1881

Cheritra freja (Fabricius 1793) (Fig. 10b).

Common name: Common Imperial.

Identification remarks: Two tails. UN of both sexes white to pale brown; faint bars at cell-ends. Narrow dark outer central line on UNF. UNH with outer central and marginal lines and black spots crowned with metallic scales at lower tip. Wingspan 38–42 mm.

Season: Monsoon and winter.

Habitat and activity: The species was observed in forested patches while basking or nectaring.

Genus Chliaria Moore, 1884

Chliaria othona (Hewitson, 1865) (Fig. 10c).

Common name: Orchid Tit.

Identification remarks: Two tails. UN white, faint cell-end bars, black-edged brown markings. UNF band upper part wider than the lower part. UNH central band broken twice; prominent black spot near base. Wingspan 24–27 mm.

Season: Winter.

Habitat and activity: The species was observed in forested patches while mud puddling, basking or nectaring.

Genus Spalgis Moore, 1879

Spalgis epius (Westwood, 1851).

Common name: Apefly (Fig. 10d).

Identification remarks: HW Tailless. UN with several fine wavy vertical lines. Male FW has acute apex and straight outer edge. Female has rounded outer edge. Caterpillars feed on mealy bugs. Wingspan 20–30 mm.

Season: Winter.

Habitat and activity: The species was observed in forested patches while feeding on bird droppings.

Genus Spindasis Donzel, 1847

Spindasis vulcanus (Fabricius, 1775) (Fig. 10e).

Common name: Common silverline.

Identification remarks: Two tails, one lobe on HW. UN light yellow, black or brown bordered brilliant reddish bands with central silver lines. Separate spots at base of UNH and outer basal band of spots does not extend downwards to first costal vein. Orange-crowned black spot on UNH lobe. Female larger than male and with more rounded FW. Wingspan 26–34 mm.

Season: Summer.

Habitat and activity: The species was observed in plains and undulating terrains while either mud puddling, basking, nectaring or feeding on carcass.

Genus Tarucus Moore, 1881

Tarucus ananda (de Nicéville, 1884) (Fig. 10f).

Common name: Dark Pierrot.

Identification remarks: HW Tailed. Resembles Assam Pierrot, differs in having the central spot in space 5 joined to the band of spots near margin on UN. Wingspan 22–28 mm.

Season: Winter.

Habitat and activity: The species was observed in forested patches while mud puddling.

Family Nymphalidae Rafinesque, 1815

Genus Athyma Westwood, 1850

Athyma inara Westwood, 1850 (Fig. 11a).

Common name: Colour sergeant.

Identification remarks: UP dark brown with very broad orange bands. In male, UP velvety black with a white band and orange markings. UPF white band continues on UPH. Orange markings on UPF apex. UPH with orange band near outer edge. Wingspan 55–70 mm.

Season: Winter.

Habitat and activity: The species was observed in forested patches while mud puddling or basking.

Athyma perius (Linnaeus, 1758) (Fig. 11b)

Common name: Common sergeant.

Identification remarks: A prominent row of black spots always towards the inner edge of the white band on both sides of HW. UPF white cell streak divided into four parts. Wingspan 60–70 mm.

Season: Winter.

Habitat and activity: The species was observed in forested patches while mud puddling or basking.

Genus Charaxes Ochsenheimer, 1816

Charaxes psaphon Westwood, 1847 (Fig. 11c).

Common name: Plain Tawny Rajah.

Identification remarks: Male UN tawny with purple gloss. UPF tawny, broad black terminal border. UPH black terminal broad near apex. Female UN tawny with broad pale central band. UPH tawny with broad black terminal border and central white band. Wingspan 85–110 mm.

Season: Winter.

Habitat and activity: The species was observed in forested patches while mud puddling or basking, feeding on nectar, animal waste or carcasses.

Genus Cupha Billberg, 1820

Cupha erymanthis (Drury, 1773) (Fig. 11d).

Common name: Rustic.

Identification remarks: Basal area of UPF reddish-brown, a broad yellow or white central band and broad black apex. Two darker marginal lines of crescents on UPH. Sexes similar. Wingspan 50–60 mm.

Season: Monsoon and winter.

Habitat and activity: The species was observed in forested patches while mud puddling, basking or nectaring.

Genus Euploea Fabricius, 1807

Euploea klugii Moore, 1858 (Fig. 11e).

Common name: Brown king crow.

Identification remarks: Similar to Common Crow, but UN of either wing has no spots. All wings bordered with series of marginal and sub-marginal white spots. Male has a short, oval, dark band on UPF. UPH has greyish scales on apical half and pale-yellow scent scales patch. Wingspan 85–100 mm.

Season: Summer and winter.

Habitat and activity: The species was observed in forested patches while mud puddling, basking or nectaring.

Euploea sylvester (Fabricius, 1793) (Fig. 11f).

Common name: Double branded crow.

Identification remarks: Similar to Common Crow, but male has two parallel brands on UPF; female has two similar faint streaks near inner edge on UPF. Wingspan 95–105 mm.

Season: Summer.

Habitat: The species was observed in forested patches while mud puddling, basking or nectaring.

Genus Polyura

Polyura bharata Drury, 1773.

Common name: Cryptic Nawab (Fig. 12a).

Identification remarks: Pale greenish-yellow, wide central band on both sides. Large pale green spot near FW apex on both sides. Wingspan 60–75 mm.

Season: Winter.

Habitat: The species was observed in forested patches while mud puddling or basking, feeding on tree sap, animal waste or carcasses.

Genus Tanaecia Butler, 1869

Tanaecia lepidea (Butler, 1868) (Fig. 12b).

Common name: Grey Count.

Identification remarks: UP dark brown with pale grey border. Border broad on HW and narrow on FW, ending before apex. FW apex produced and outer edge incurved. Female, larger and duller coloured than male, with extra pale brown markings. Wingspan 65–85 mm.

Season: Monsoon and winter.

Habitat and activity: The species was found at forest edges while mud puddling or basking or feeding on tree sap, carcasses, animal waste, bird droppings or rotten fruits.

Genus Tirumala Moore, 1880

Tirumala septentrionis (Butler, 1874) (Fig. 12c).

Common name: Dark Blue Tiger.

Identification remarks: Similar to Blue Tiger, but markings narrower and darker. UNH has a long V-shaped pale blue marking in the cell. UN darker than Blue Tiger. Male UNH has scent scales pouch. Wingspan 75–95 mm.

Season: Summer and winter.

Habitat and activity: The species was observed in forested patches while mud puddling, basking or nectaring.

Family Papilionidae Latreille, 1802

Genus Pachliopta Reakirt, 1865

Pachliopta aristolochiae (Fabricius, 1775) (Fig. 13a).

Common name: Common Rose.

Identification remarks: HW tailed. UNF black with pale greyish stripes between veins. UNH has large white patch of five elongate spots around end-cell, series of bright red or brownish-red spots on outer edge. Body red. Wingspan 80–110 mm.

Season: Winter.

Habitat and activity: The species was observed at forests edges, scrubs and in grasslands while nectaring.

Pachliopta hector (Linnaeus, 1758) (Fig. 13b).

Common name: Crimson rose.

Identification remarks: HW tailed. Markings on both sides similar. Body bright crimson. Female duller, with larger crimson crescents and spots on HW. Wingspan 90–110 mm.

Season: Winter.

Habitat and activity: The species was observed at forests edges, scrubs and in grasslands while nectaring.

Genus Papilio Linnaeus, 1758

Papilio helenus Linnaeus, 1758 (Fig. 13c).

Common name: Red Helen.

Identification remarks: UPH with patch of three creamy white spots. UPH may have marginal series of indistinct red crescents. Wingspan 110–130 mm.

Season: Summer and monsoon.

Habitat and activity: The species was observed in forested patches while nectaring.

Family Pieridae Swainson, 1820

Genus Appias Hübner, 1819

Appias albina (Boisduval, 1836) (Fig. 13d).

Common name: Common Albatross.

Identification remarks: Male UPF with dark dusting in apical area and along outer edge, but may be absent. No dark spot on UPF. Pale dull yellow UNH unmarked. Seasonal variation seen in both sexes. In female, UPF apex, leading edge and outer edge bordered with black with four to five white spots near apex. No cell spot. UPH has toothed black border. Wingspan 60–75 mm.

Season: Monsoon and winter.

Habitat and activity: The species was observed in forested patches while nectaring.

Appias indra Moore, 1857 (Fig. 13e)

Common name: Plain Puffin

Identification remarks: Male UPF white with apical, outer and leading (half) edges black with two to five apical white spots. Males of northern population have complete row of four or five apical spots on UPF. UPF has black area along outer edge which extends inwards. In female, UPF black, with central white patch and two white spots at apex. UPH with black outer half and dusky grey or white basal half. UNF with broad dark band from leading edge to outer edge. UNH variable. Wingspan 60–70 mm.

Season: Winter.

Habitat and activity: The species was observed in forested patches while nectaring.

Appias libythea Fabricius, 1775 (Fig. 13f).

Common name: Striped Albatross.

Identification remarks: Female DSF white, UPF apex and outer edge broadly black and unspotted, leading edge broadly blackened from base to bar at end-cell. UPH with black spots along outer edge. Female WSF much darker, UN white with diffused greyish-brown markings.

Season: Winter.

Habitat and activity: The species was observed at forests edges, scrubs and in grasslands while nectaring.

Discussion

Species Richness

Betham (1894) had hoped that someone from Bombay (= Mumbai) would add to his list of 78 butterflies, quoting the fact that there must be many species which still could be obtained from Matheran. It is our honour to fulfil his wish and almost double the list of available butterflies at Matheran 125 years after his publication. Sixty three species of those recorded by us are common to the checklists of Smith (1882), Betham (1894) and Padhye et al. (2013) (Table 6). All the other 77 species are recorded for the first time from the region. Fifteen species recorded by Smith (1882) and three species recorded by Betham (1894) were not recorded during this study (Table 6). Seventeen species were recorded by Smith (1882) and us, but not by Betham (1894), while the same numbers of species were recorded by Betham (1894) and us, but not by Smith (1882). Our list contains all the species recorded by Padhye et al. (2013). Five specific names from Smith (1882) and Betham (1894) could not be traced and are mentioned as ‘Not Found’ in Table 6.

Table 6.

List of the butterfly species of Matheran common between Smith (1882), Betham (1894), Padhye et al. (2013) and the current study.

Accepted Name	Smith (1882)	Betham (1894)	Padhye et al. (2013)	Our list	Remarks
Abisara echerius	−	Abisara suffusa	−	−
Acytolepis puspa	−	Cyaniris puspa	−	Acytolepis puspa
Anthene lycaenina	−	−	Anthene lycaenina	Anthene lycaenina
Appias albina	Huphina albina	−	−	Appias albina	A doubtful generic allocation by Smith (1882)
Appias paulina	Catophaga paulina	−	−	−
Ariadne ariadne	Ergolis ariadne	Ergolis ariadne	−	Ariadne ariadne
Ariadne merione	−	−	Ariadne merione	Ariadne merione
Athyma perius	Athyma perius	Athyma perius	−	Athyma perius
Badamia exclamationis	−	Badamia exclamationis	−	Badamia exclamationis
Belenois aurota	Belenois mesentina	−	−	−
Bibasis sena	−	Bibasis sena	−	Bibasis sena
Byblia ilithyia	Byblia ilithyia	−	−	−
Caleta roxus	Castalius roxus	−	−	−
Castalius rosimon	Castalius rosimon	Castalius rosimon	−	Castalius rosimon
Catopsilia pomona	Catopsilia hilaria	Catopsilia catilia	Catopsilia pomona	Catopsilia pomona
Catopsilia pyranthe	Catopsilia phillipina	−	Catopsilia pyranthe	Catopsilia pyranthe
Celaenorrhinus ambareesa	−	Celenorrhinus ambareesa	−	Celaenorrhinus ambareesa
Cepora nerissa	Huphina phryne	Huphina phryne	−	Cepora nerissa
Charaxes psaphon	−	Charaxes imna	−	Charaxes psaphon
Cyrestis thyodamas	Cyrestis	−	−	Cyrestis thyodamas	Smith (1882) mentions only generic name. Possibly Cyrestis thyodamas
Danaus chrysippus	Danais chrysippus	Danais chrysippus	−	Danaus chryssipus	Erroneous generic name by Smith (1882) and Betham (1894)
Danaus genutia	Danais genutia	Danais genutia	Danaus genutia	Danaus genutia	Erroneous generic name by Smith (1882) and Betham (1894)
Delias eucharis	−	Delias eucharis	−	Delias eucharis
Deudorix epijarbas	−	Deudorix epijarbas	−	Deudorix epijarbas
Euchrysops cnejus	Catochrysops cnejus	Catochrysops cnejus	−	Euchrysops cnejus
Euploea core	−	Euploea core	−	Euploea core
Eurema brigitta	−	−	Eurema brigitta	−
Eurema hecabe	Terias hecabe	−	Eurema hecabe	Eurema hecabe
Graphium agamemnon	Papilio agamemnon	−	Graphium agamemnon	Graphium agamemnon
Graphium teredon	Papilio sarpedon	−	Graphium sarpedon	Graphium teredon
Hasora chromus	−	Parata chromus	−	Hasora chromus
Hebomoia glaucippe	Hebomia glaucippe	−	−	Hebomoia glaucippe	Erroneous generic name by Smith (1882)
Hypolimnas bolina	−	Hypolimnas bolina	Hypolimnas bolina	Hypolimnas bolina
Hypolimnas misippus	Hypolimnas misippus	Hypolimnas misippus	Hypolimnas misippus	Hypolimnas misippus
Iraota timoleon	Iraota mecenas	−	−	Iraota timoleon
Jamides bochus	−	−	Jamides bochus	Jamides bochus
Jamides celeno	−	−	Jamides celeno	Jamides celeno
Junonia almana	−	Junonia almana, v. asterie	Junonia almana	Junonia almana
Junonia iphita	Precis iphita	−	Junonia iphita	Junonia iphita
Junonia lemonias	Junonia lemonias	Junonia lemonias	Junonia lemonias	Junonia lemonias
Junonia oenone	Junonia oenone	Junonia oenone	−	−
Junonia orithyia	Junonia orithyia	−	−	−
Kallima horsfieldii	Kallima horsefieldii	Kallima horsefieldii	−	Kallima horsfieldii	Erroneous specific name in Smith (1882) and Betham (1894)
Leptosia nina	−	Leptosia xiphia	−	Leptosia nina
Leptotes plinius	Tarucus plinius	Tarucus plinius	−	Leptotes plinius
Lethe rohria	−	Lethe nilgheriensis	−	Lethe rohria
Luthrodes pandava	−	−	Chilades pandava	Luthrodes pandava
Matapa aria	Matapa aria	−	−	Matapa aria
Melanitis leda	Melanitis leda	−	Melanitis leda	Melanitis leda
Melanitis leda	Melanitis ismene	Melanitis ismene	−	Melanitis leda
Mycalesis mineus	Mycalesis mineus	−	−	Mycalesis mineus
Mycalesis perseus	−	Mycalesis perseus	−	Mycalesis perseus
Neptis hylas	Neptis varmona	Neptis varmona, v. eurymene	Neptis hylas	Neptis hylas
Neptis jumbah	−	Neptis jumbah	−	Neptis jumbah
Pachliopta aristolochiae	−	−	Pachiliopta aristolochae	Pachliopta aristolochiae	Erroneous generic and specific name in Padhye et al. (2013)
Pachliopta hector	Papilio hector	−	Pachliopta hector	Pachliopta hector
Papilio ambrax	Papilio epius	−	−	−
Papilio clytia form dissimilis	Papilio form dissimilis	−	−	Papilio clytia form dissimilis
Papilio clytia form clytia	Papilio form panope	−	Papilio clytia form clytia	Papilio clytia form clytia
Papilio deiphobus	Papilio deiophobus	−	−	−	This could be misidentification as the species is distributed in the Philippines, Moluccas and some parts of West Papua.
Papilio demoleus	−	−	Papilio demoleus	Papilio demoleus
Papilio iswara	Papilio iswara	−	−	−	This could be misidentification as the species is distributed over the Sundaland.
Papilio polymnestor	Papilio polymnestor	Papilio polymnestor	Papilio polymnestor	Papilio polymnestor
Papilio polytes	Papilio pammon	Papilio Polytes	Papilio Polytes	Papilio polytes
Parantica aglea	Danais aglea	Danais melanoides	Parantica aglea	Parantica aglea
Pareronia valeria	Eronia valeria	−	−	−
Pelopidas agna	Chapra agna	−	−	−
Pelopidas mathias	−	Chapra mathias	−	Pelopidas mathias
Phaedyma columella	−	Neptis ophiana	−	Phaedyma columella
Phalanta phalantha	Atella phalanta	Atella phalantha	−	Phalanta phalantha	Erroneous specific name by Smith (1882)
Polyura bharata	Charaxes athamas	−	−	Polyura bharata
Prosotas nora	−	−	Prosotas nora	Prosotas nora
Sarangesa purendra	Sarangesa purendra	Sarangesa purendra	−	Sarangesa purendra
Spialia galba	Hesperia galba	−	−	Spialia galba
Spindasis lohita	Aphneus lohita	−	−	Spindasis lohita
Tarucus theophrastus	Tarucus theophrastus	−	−	−
Tirumala limniace	Danais limniace	Danais limniace	Tirumala limniace	Tirumala limniace
Udaspes folus	Udaspes folus	Udaspes folus	−	Udaspes folus
Vanessa indica	Pyrameis indica	−	−	−
Ypthima philomela	Ypthima philomela	Ypthima philomela	−	−
Ypthima singala	Ypthima singala	−	−	−
Zeltus amasa	Zeltus etolus	−	−	−
Not found	Danais careta	−	−	−	Doubtful record by Smith (1882). Put ? by Betham (1894)
Not found	Poritia	−	−	−
Not found	Lampides elianus	−	−	−
Not found	−	Terias esiope	−	−
Not found	−	Isoteinon nilgheriensis	−	−	Monotypic genus contains Isoteinon lamprospilus

Seasonal Turnover

The butterfly diversity and distribution is known to be affected by seasons (Brower 1995, Kunte 2000, Tiple et al. 2009). This is especially true in the case of tropical butterflies which may experience extreme wet and dry seasons (Bonebrake et al. 2010). Further, it has also been observed in the case of southern Indian danaine butterflies that they avoid extreme wet and torrential monsoon conditions through longitudinal migration to drier areas (Kunte 2004). The highest number of butterflies in the winter (N = 125), observed during this survey, could be a result of the fact that winters have lower temperature, lower dampness and moderate water availability with no torrential precipitation in and around the study area. We also observe a dry season ‘pocket effect’ (similar to ‘ithomiine pocket’ observed by Vasconcellos-Neto (1991)) in butterflies of the genus Mycalesis, Lethe, Ypthima (Family Nymphalidae) and Celaenorrhinus, Taractrocera and Spialia (Family Hesperiidae). These butterflies could be observed in open areas on hill-tops and hill-slopes during monsoon and winter months, but their number becomes less in these areas during the months of summer when they could be observed in dark, shady habitats. We were, however, unable to determine the cause of the high number of hesperiid observations during the monsoon and this needs a detailed behavioural study.

Spatial Turnover

The patterns for the diversity of butterflies of Matheran are very similar to those of the California Channel Island Birds and Vanuatu Birds, mentioned by Podani and Schmera (2011). High overall similarity for the entire butterfly diversity (Suppl. material 2) and family-wise similarity between the sites (Fig. 8a-e) indicate the possibility of very stable diversity in the area with very low emigration to, or immigration from, surrounding areas. However, a detailed study from surrounding areas would be required to confirm this fact. The high overall similarity between the pairs of study sites (N = 28) also suggests a higher percentage of habitat generalist species surveyed in and around Matheran.

Colour coding

This novel approach is expected to improve the representation of the data for seasons and activities of the Indian butterflies. We encourage adding more activities and unique colour codes to make this system more universal, uniform and reader friendly. We also recommend its use while uploading records on open databases, such as Butterflies of India (Kunte et al. 2020) and iNaturalist (https://www.inaturalist.org/) for conveying information regarding the seasons and activities of butterflies.

Conclusions

A total of 140 species of butterflies belonging to six families were recorded from Matheran, India. This list includes 77 new records for Matheran. We observed a strong seasonal variation in butterfly diversity. The maximum diversity (N = 125) of butterflies was recorded during winter, while the least (N = 80) during monsoon. A high similarity of butterfly species composition was observed between the pairs of sites studied, tending towards perfect nestedness. This also emphasises the fact that the butterfly diversity in the region is quite stable and chances of emigration to, or immigration from, surrounding regions are very low. A strong seasonal gradient for activity patterns was not observed; however, we did observe a 'pocket effect' of dry season on butterflies. Butterflies during the dry season tend to aggregate near damp and shady places. Further, we introduce a novel barcode system for denoting seasons and activities of Indian butterflies and hope that this will help butterfly biologists to concisely and effectively present the data.

Supplementary Material

Supplementary material 1

Percentage matrix fill and percentage contributions from the SDR-simplex analyses of family-wise and overall species richness.

Sawant, M., Sarang, S., Modak, N.

Data type

Table

File: oo_429763.docx

Supplementary material 2

Similarity-Richness difference-Species replacement simplex plot for overall butterfly diversity of Matheran showing high similarity. Points denote pair of sites (N = 28)

Sawant, M., Sarang, S., Modak, N.

Data type

Image

File: oo_429764.docx

Conflicts of interest

Authors declare no conflict of interest.

Author contributions

MS and SS conducted the field survey. NM did data analysis. MS, SS and NM conceptualised and developed the colour code. MS, SS and NM wrote the manuscript.

Conflicts of interest

Authors declare no conflict of interest.