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. 2020 Jul 29;25(15):3452. doi: 10.3390/molecules25153452

Advances in Saponin Diversity of Panax ginseng

Xiangmin Piao 1,2,†, Hao Zhang 1,2,†, Jong Pyo Kang 3, Dong Uk Yang 3, Yali Li 2, Shifeng Pang 2, Yinping Jin 2, Deok Chun Yang 3,*, Yingping Wang 1,*
Editor: Luisella Verotta
PMCID: PMC7435442  PMID: 32751233

Abstract

Ginsenosides are the major bioactive constituents of Panax ginseng, which have pharmacological effects. Although there are several reviews in regards to ginsenosides, new ginsenosides have been detected continually in recent years. This review updates the ginsenoside list from P. ginseng to 170 by the end of 2019, and aims to highlight the diversity of ginsenosides in multiple dimensions, including chemical structure, tissue spatial distribution, time, and isomeride. Protopanaxadiol, protopanaxatriol and C17 side-chain varied (C17SCV) manners are the major types of ginsenosides, and the constitute of ginsenosides varied significantly among different parts. Only 16 ginsenosides commonly exist in all parts of a ginseng plant. Protopanaxadiol-type ginsenoside is dominant in root, rhizome, leaf, stem, and fruit, whereas malonyl- and C17SCV-type ginsenosides occupy a greater proportion in the flower and flower bud compared with other parts. In respects of isomeride, there are 69 molecular formulas corresponding to 170 ginsenosides, and the median of isomers is 2. This is the first review on diversity of ginsenosides, providing information for reasonable utilization of whole ginseng plant, and the perspective on studying the physiological functions of ginsenoside for the ginseng plant itself is also proposed.

Keywords: ginsenoside, Panax ginseng, chemical structure, tissue spatial distribution

1. Introduction

Panax ginseng Meyer (P. ginseng), known as the king of all herbs, has been frequently used as traditional medicine and healthy food in China, Korea, and Japan. In 2012, P. ginseng was approved as a new food resource by Chinese government, and it has been widely used as the raw material of healthcare products [1]. Ginseng contains a large amount and number of ginsenosides. More than 289 saponins were reported from eleven different Panax species [2]. In addition, at least 123 ginsenosides have been identified in different P. ginseng species, and these include both naturally occurring compounds and those from steaming and biotransformation [3]. In addition, 112 saponins were reported from raw or processed ginseng, including hydrolysates, semisynthetic, and metabolites [4]. Ginsenosides are known to possess a lot of biological activities including regulatory effects on immunomodulation, protection functions in the central nervous and cardiovascular systems, anti-diabetic, anti-aging, anti-carcinogenic, anti-fatigue, anti-pyretic, anti-stress, boosting physical vitality, and promotion of DNA, RNA, and protein synthesis activities [5,6,7,8,9]. In addition, the biosynthesis of triterpenoid is an important factor of saponin diversity. Consequently, biosynthetic mechanisms for the backbone synthesis [4] and structural diversification and genes/enzymes involved in the biosynthesis [10] were reviewed in the cited references. Therefore, ginsenosides are recognized as the main bioactive components and a key index for quality evaluation of ginseng.

Due to the complexity of the ginsenosides and their structures, multi-platform analytical techniques are used in the detection of ginseng products, such as thin layer chromatography (TLC), high performance thin layer chromatography (HPTLC), gas chromatography (GC), high performance liquid chromatography (HPLC), ultra performance liquid chromatography (UPLC) [3,11,12]. However, these methods detect only small numbers of ginsenosides and lack in provision of structural information. Liquid chromatography coupled with tandem mass spectrometry can provide structural information with high sensitivity, specificity, and versatility in characterizing complex natural product samples. It has been successfully used as a powerful tool for ginsenoside analysis with high throughput [1]. In recent years, a number of novel ginsenosides have been detected in aerial parts of the ginseng plant using the HPLC-MS/MS method, such as stems, leaves, rhizomes, flowers, and flower buds, which enlarged the number of ginsenoside family members [13,14,15]. Several reviews have summarized the progress from a viewpoint of structural features, and conclude that ginsenosides are generally classified into four groups: protopanaxadiol type (PPD), protopanaxatriol type (PPT), C17 side-chain varied type (C17SCV), and oleanolic acid type (OA) [2,16,17,18]. However, spatial distribution of ginsenoside in different parts of P. ginseng is not yet summarized. This information will make better use of the whole ginseng plant and provide clues for studying the biological function of saponins. This review updates the ginsenoside list (from P. ginseng) to 170 by the end of 2019, and aims to highlight the diversity of ginsenosides in multiple dimensions, including chemical structure, tissue spatial distribution, time, and isomeride.

2. History of Saponins Isolated from P. ginseng

The history of ginsenoside isolation can be divided into three periods (before 1980 for Period I, 1980–2000 for Period II, after 2000 for Period III) based on the development of analytical techniques. The study on ginsenoside started in 1854. A ginsenoside-containing constituent was firstly isolated from American ginseng by American scholar Garriques [19], and subsequently, Japanese chemists reported panaquilon, panacon, panaxasapogenol, and ginsenin preliminarily separated from P. ginseng. For almost 100 years since the middle of the nineteenth century, it was difficult to obtain a pure ginsenoside due to the under development of separation techniques. In the early 1950s, with the development of separation technology and the invention of modern analytical instruments, such as GC, TLC, etc., the studies on the chemical ingredient of ginseng made remarkable progress. In 1963, for the first time, Shibata et al. reported the chemical property and structure of the panaxadiol separated from ginseng root [20]. In the 1970s, 17 ginsenosides were detected in ginseng, named as ginsenoside Ro, Ra, Rb1, Rb2, Rc, Rd, Re, Rf, Rg1, Rg2, Rg3, F1, F2, F3, Rb3, Rh, and 20-glucoginsenoside-Rf [21,22,23,24,25,26]. The second period began when the 13C NMR technique was introduced into the structure analysis of ginsenosides. By comparison of the measured 13C NMR spectroscopic data with known compounds, the accurate structure of new ginsenosides (G-Rh1, Rh2, Rh3, Rg4, Ra1, Ra2, Ra3, La, Rf2, Rs3, Ia, Ib, etc.) could be resolved from different parts of ginseng (root, steamed root, flower bud, stem, and leaf). In this period, more and more scientists focused on ginsenoside isolation, and most of ginsenosides were found in the aerial parts of ginseng [27,28,29,30,31,32,33,34,35,36]. The third period was defined by high-efficiency separation methods, as methods such as high-speed counter current chromatography (HSCCC), high performance centrifugal partition chromatography (HPCPC), and 2D NMR spectroscopic techniques were used for separating and identifying ginsenosides. The application of these powerful new techniques helps to identify the complex chemical structure, for instance, C17 side-chain variation and malonyl group. More than 50 new ginsenosides were isolated from 2000 to 2019, among which most of those possessed variations in the C17 side-chain, besides a part of malonyl ginsenosides [37,38,39,40,41].

3. Classification of Saponins Identified from P. ginseng

Although most ginsenosides have a rigid four-trans-ring steroid skeleton, they produce multiple pharmacological and biological effects that are different from one another due to minor variations on: (1) Type of sapogenins; (2) number, type, and site of glycosyl units; and (3) modification of C17 side-chains [11,42,43]. Therefore, the study of ginsenoside structure will help to elucidate the mechanism of multiple functions of ginsenosides. The reported ginsenosides are classified into protopanaxadiol type (PPD), protopanaxatriol type (PPT), oleanolic acid type (OA), and C17 side-chain varied (C17SCV) subtypes according to their determined sapogenin structures (Figure 1). The glycosyl components of saponin were mainly β-d-glucopyranosyl group, followed by α-l-rhamnopyranosyl group, a few binding α-l-arabinopyranosyl group and β-d-xylopyranosyl group, and the β-d-glucopyranosiduronyl group only appears in saponins with oleanolic acid-type (OA) sapogenin. In dammarane-type triterpenoid saponins, β-d-glucopyranosyl group (2→1)-β-d-glucopyranosyl oligosaccharide chains occur more frequently, and are mostly bound to C-3 of sapogenin to generate oxyglycoside; β-d-glucopyranosyl group (2→1)→α-l-rhamnopyranosyl group oligosaccharide chains are mostly bound to C-6 of sapogenin to form oxyglycoside. The tetracyclic parent nucleuses are relatively stable, whether they are PPT and/or PPD type. Moreover, the substituents that occur in the C17 side-chains often undergo oxidation, reduction, cyclization, and epimerization, contributing to diversity in chemical structure [12,16]. Table 1 displays the molecular formulas, molecular masses, and structural categories of 170 ginsenosides, isolated from different parts of P. ginseng. As a result, four ginsenosides are OA type, 59 ginsenosides are PPD type, 42 ginsenosides are PPT type, and 65 ginsenosides are C17CSV type. Among them, four PPD-type ginsenosides (Rb1, Rb2, Rc, Rd), three PPT-type ginsenosides (Re, Rf, Rg1), and one OA-type ginsenoside Ro (the structures are shown in Figure 2) are the most abundant in P. ginseng, and account for more than 70% of the total saponins [5].

Figure 1.

Figure 1

Figure 1

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Structures of PPD, PPT, OA, and C17SCV sapogenins. The typical glycosylation sites for these sapogenins are marked in blue frame. (a) 20(S)-PPD: Protopanaxadiol type; (b) 20(R)-PPD: Protopanaxadiol type; (c) 20(S)-PPT: Protopanaxatriol type; (d) 20(R)-PPT: Protopanaxatriol type; (e) OA: Oleanolic acid type; (f) C17SCV: C17 side-chain variation type. R1 in C17SCV: -H, -OH, -OR. R2 in C17SCV: The variations in the C17 side-chain mainly comprise H2O-addition, hydroxylation, methoxylation, peroxidization, dehydration at C-20, carbonylation, dehydrogenation, cyclization, oxidation (at the double bond), and degradation. The stereochemistry of chiral centers are shown in (a) and (b).

Table 1.

The 170 ginsenosides isolated from P. ginseng.

No. Subtype Saponins Formula Molecular Mass Plant Part Refs
1 OA 1 Polyacetylene ginsenoside Ro C65H100O21 1216.6757 Root [44]
2 OA Ginsenoside Ro methyl ester C49H78O19 970.5137 Root(steamed) [45]
3 OA Calenduloside B C48H78O18 942.5188 Root [46]
4 OA Ginsenoside Ro C49H80O18 956.5345 Root, flower, fruit, leaf [16,47]
5 PPD Ginsenoside Ra1 C58H98O26 1210.6346 Root [48]
6 PPD Ginsenoside Ra2 C58H98O26 1210.6346 Root [49]
7 PPD Ginsenoside Ra3 C59H100O27 1240.6452 Root [50]
8 PPD Ginsenoside Rs1 C55H92O23 1120.6029 Root(steamed) [51]
9 PPD Ginsenoside Rs2 C55H92O23 1120.6029 Root(steamed) [51]
10 PPD Malonyl-ginsenoside Ra3 C62H102O30 1326.6456 Root(fresh) [52]
11 PPD Malonyl-notoginsenoside R4 C62H102O30 1326.6456 Root [52]
12 PPD Ginsenoside Ra4 C62H102O27 1278.6608 Root [53]
13 PPD Ginsenoside Ra5 C60H99O27 1251.6373 Root [53]
14 PPD Ginsenoside Ra6 C58H96O24 1176.6292 Root [53]
15 PPD Ginsenoside Ra7 C57H93O23 1145.6108 Root [53]
16 PPD Ginsenoside Ra8 C57H94O23 1146.6186 Root [53]
17 PPD Ginsenoside Ra9 C57H94O23 1146.6186 Root [53]
18 PPD 20(S)-ginsenoside Rg3 C42H72O13 784.4973 Root(steamed), fruit, leaf [54]
19 PPD Ginsenoside Rs3 C44H74O14 826.5079 Root(steamed) [55]
20 PPD Ginsenoside IV C58H96O24 1176.6292 Root [47]
21 PPD Ginsenoside V C54H92O24 1124.5979 Root [47]
22 PPD Gypenoside-V C54H92O22 1092.6080 Root [46]
23 PPD 20(R)-ginsenoside Rs3 C44H74O14 826.5079 Root(steamed) [45]
24 PPD Acetyl-ginsenoside Rd C50H84O19 988.5607 Root(mountain ginseng) [56]
25 PPD Ginsenoside F2 C42H72O13 784.4973 Root, fruit, leaf [57]
26 PPD Pseudoginsenoside Rc1 C50H84O19 988.5607 Fruit [57]
27 PPD Gypenoside XVII C48H82O18 946.5501 Fruit, leaf [57]
28 PPD Gypenoside IX C47H80O17 916.5396 Fruit, leaf [57]
29 PPD Quinquenoside L10 C47H80O17 916.5396 Fruit [57]
30 PPD 25-Hydroxyprotopanaxadiol C30H54O4 478.4022 Fruit [58]
31 PPD 20(S)-protopanaxadiol C30H52O3 460.3916 Fruit, leaf [41,59]
32 PPD 20(R)-protopanaxadiol C30H52O3 460.3916 Fruit [59]
33 PPD Notoginsenoside Fd C47H80O17 916.5396 Fruit [60]
34 PPD Ginsenoside Rd2 C47H80O17 916.5396 Leaf [61]
35 PPD 20(R)-ginsenoside Rg3 C42H72O13 784.4973 Root(steamed), fruit, leaf [62,63]
36 PPD 20(S)-ginsenoside Rh2 C36H62O8 622.4445 Root(steamed), fruit, leaf [64]
37 PPD 20(R)-ginsenoside Rh2 C36H62O8 622.4445 Fruit, leaf [65]
38 PPD Notoginsenoside Fe C47H80O17 916.5396 Fruit, leaf [61]
39 PPD Acetyl-ginsenoside Rb1 C56H96O24 1152.6292 Root(mountain ginseng), leaf [56]
40 PPD Acetyl-ginsenoside Rc C55H92O23 1120.6029 Root(mountain ginseng), leaf [56]
41 PPD Acetyl-ginsenoside Rb3 C55H92O23 1120.6029 Root(mountain ginseng), leaf [56]
42 PPD Ginsenoside compound O C47H80O17 916.5396 Root, fruit, leaf [16,66]
43 PPD Malonyl-ginsenoside Rb2 C56H92O25 1164.5928 Root, flower, fruit, leaf [16]
44 PPD Ginsenoside Mc C41H70O12 754.4867 Leaf [16,66]
45 PPD Ginsenoside compound Y C41H70O12 754.4867 Leaf [16]
46 PPD Ginsenoside compound K C36H62O8 622.4445 Root, fruit, leaf [16]
47 PPD Ginsenoside Rb1 C54H92O23 1108.6029 Root, flower, fruit, leaf [16,67]
48 PPD Malonyl-ginsenoside Rb1 C57H94O25 1178.6084 Root, flower, fruit, leaf [16,67]
49 PPD Ginsenoside Rc C53H90O22 1078.5924 Root, flower, fruit, leaf [16,67]
50 PPD Malonyl-ginsenoside Rc C56H92O25 1164.5928 Root, flower, fruit, leaf [16,67]
51 PPD Ginsenoside Rb2 C53H90O22 1078.5924 Root, flower, fruit, leaf [16,67]
52 PPD Ginsenoside Rb3 C53H90O22 1078.5924 Root, flower, fruit, leaf [16,67]
53 PPD Malonyl-ginsenoside Rb3 C56H92O25 1164.5928 Root, flower, leaf [16,67]
54 PPD Ginsenoside Rd C48H82O18 946.5501 Root, flower, fruit, leaf [16,67]
55 PPD Malonyl-ginsenoside Rd C51H84O21 1032.5505 Root, flower, fruit, leaf [16,67]
56 PPD Malonyl-floralginsenoside Rd2 C51H84O21 1032.5505 Flower [68]
57 PPD Malonyl-floralginsenoside Rd3 C51H84O21 1032.5505 Flower [68]
58 PPD Malonyl-floralginsenoside Rd4 C51H84O21 1032.5505 Flower [68]
59 PPD Malonyl-floralginsenoside Rd5 C51H84O21 1032.5505 Flower [68]
60 PPD Malonyl-floralginsenoside Rd6 C54H87O24 1119.5587 Flower [68]
61 PPD Malonyl-floralginsenoside Rc2 C56H92O25 1164.5928 Flower [68]
62 PPD Malonyl-floralginsenoside Rc3 C56H92O25 1164.5928 Flower [68]
63 PPD Malonyl-floralginsenoside Rc4 C56H92O25 1164.5928 Flower [68]
64 PPT 20(S)-ginsenoside Rg2 C42H72O13 784.4973 Root, fruit, leaf [54,69]
65 PPT Koryoginsenoside R1 C46H76O15 868.5184 Root [36]
66 PPT Ginsenoside Re6 C46H76O15 868.5184 Root [70]
67 PPT Ginsenoside Re2 C48H82O19 962.5450 Root [70]
68 PPT Ginsenoside Re3 C48H82O19 962.5450 Root [70]
69 PPT Ginsenoside Re4 C47H80O18 932.5345 Root [70]
70 PPT Notoginsenoside Rt C44H74O15 842.5028 Root [46]
71 PPT Majoroside F6 C48H82O19 962.5450 Root [46]
72 PPT Pseudoginsenoside Rt3 C42H70O13 782.4816 Root [46]
73 PPT Vinaginsenoside R15 C42H72O15 816.4871 Root [46]
74 PPT 20(R)-ginsenoside Rf C42H72O14 800.4922 Root [45]
75 PPT 20(R)-notoginsenoside R2 C41H70O13 770.4816 Root [45]
76 PPT Ginsenoside Ia C42H72O14 800.4922 Fruit [71]
77 PPT Chikusetsusaponin LM1 C41H70O13 770.4816 Fruit [57]
78 PPT 25-Hydroxyprotopanaxatriol C30H54O5 494.3971 Fruit [58]
79 PPT 20(S)-protopanaxatriol C30H52O4 476.3866 Fruit, leaf [59]
80 PPT 20(R)-protopanaxatriol C30H52O4 476.3866 Fruit [59]
81 PPT Notoginsenoside R3 C48H82O19 962.5450 Fruit [60]
82 PPT 20-glucoginsenoside Rf C48H82O19 962.5450 Root, flower, leaf [16]
83 PPT Saponin IIb C36H62O9 638.4394 Leaf [72]
84 PPT Saponin IIIc C37H62O10 666.4343 Leaf [72]
85 PPT 20(S)-ginsenoside Rh1 C36H62O9 638.4394 Leaf [62]
86 PPT 20(R)-ginsenoside Rh1 C36H62O9 638.4394 Root(steamed), leaf [21]
87 PPT Acetyl-ginsenoside Rg1 C44H74O15 842.5028 Root(mountain ginseng), leaf [56]
88 PPT Acetyl-ginsenoside Re C50H84O19 988.5607 Root(mountain ginseng), leaf [56]
89 PPT Notoginsenoside R2 C41H70O13 770.4816 Root, fruit, leaf [16]
90 PPT Notoginsenoside R1 C47H80O18 932.5345 Root, flower, fruit, leaf [16,67]
91 PPT Ginsenoside Rg1 C42H72O14 800.4922 Root, flower, fruit, leaf [16,67]
92 PPT Ginsenoside Re C48H82O18 946.5501 Root, flower, fruit, leaf [16,67]
93 PPT Malonyl-ginsenoside Rg1 C45H74O17 886.4926 Root, flower, leaf [16,67]
94 PPT Malonyl-ginsenoside Re C51H84O21 1032.5505 Root, flower, fruit, leaf [16,67]
95 PPT Ginsenoside Rf C42H72O14 800.4922 Root, flower, fruit, leaf [16,67]
96 PPT 20(R)-ginsenoside Rg2 C42H72O13 784.4973 Root(steamed), flower, fruit, leaf [16,67]
97 PPT Ginsenoside Rf3 C41H70O13 770.4816 Flower [67]
98 PPT Floralginsenoside M C53H90O22 1078.5924 Flower, leaf [73]
99 PPT Floralginsenoside N C53H90O22 1078.5924 Flower, leaf [73]
100 PPT Floralginsenoside P C53H90O23 1094.5873 Flower [73]
101 PPT Ginsenoside F1 C36H62O9 638.4394 Flower, fruit, leaf [74]
102 PPT Ginsenoside F3 C41H70O13 770.4816 Flower, fruit, leaf [74]
103 PPT Ginsenoside F5 C41H70O13 770.4816 Flower, fruit, leaf [74]
104 PPT Malonyl-floralginsenoside Re2 C51H84O21 1032.5505 Flower [68]
105 PPT Malonyl-floralginsenoside Re3 C51H84O21 1032.5505 Flower [68]
106 C17SCV Koryoginsenoside R2 C54H92O24 1124.5979 Root [36]
107 C17SCV Ginsenoside Re5 C42H72O15 816.4871 Root [70]
108 C17SCV Ginsenoside Rs4 C44H72O13 808.4973 Root(sun cured) [75]
109 C17SCV Dehydroprotopanaxadiol I C30H50O2 442.3811 Root(steamed) [2]
110 C17SCV Ginsenoside Rg5 C42H70O12 766.4867 Root(steamed) [76]
111 C17SCV Dehydroprotopanaxatriol I C30H50O3 458.3760 Root(steamed) [2]
112 C17SCV Ginsenoside Rs6 C38H62O9 662.4394 Root(sun cured) [75]
113 C17SCV Ginsenoside Rz1 C42H70O12 766.4867 Root(steamed) [77]
114 C17SCV Dehydroprotopanaxadiol II C30H50O2 442.3811 Root(steamed) [2]
115 C17SCV Ginsenoside Rs5 C44H72O13 808.4973 Root(sun cured) [75]
116 C17SCV Dehydroprotopanaxatriol II C30H50O3 458.3760 Root(steamed) [2]
117 C17SCV Ginsenoside Rg6 C42H70O12 766.4867 Root(steamed) [78]
118 C17SCV Ginsenoside Rk3 C36H60O8 620.4288 Root(steamed) [76]
119 C17SCV Ginsenoside Rs7 C38H62O9 662.4394 Root(sun cured) [75]
120 C17SCV Ginsenoside Rg9 C42H70O13 782.4816 Root(steamed) [79]
121 C17SCV 12-O-glucoginsenoside Rh4 C42H70O13 782.4816 Root(steamed) [80]
122 C17SCV Ginsenoside Rg10 C42H69O13 781.4738 Root(steamed) [79]
123 C17SCV Ginsenoside Rh10 C36H62O8 622.4445 Root(steamed) [80]
124 C17SCV Ginsenoside Rg11 C42H70O14 798.4766 Root(steamed) [80]
125 C17SCV Vinaginsenoside R8 C48H82O19 962.5450 Fruit [57]
126 C17SCV Ginsenoside Rh4 C36H60O8 620.4288 Root(steamed), fruit [4,57]
127 C17SCV Ginsenoside Rh5 C36H60O9 636.4237 Root(steamed), fruit [4,57]
128 C17SCV Isoginsenoside-Rh3 C36H60O7 604.4339 Fruit [81]
129 C17SCV Ginsenoside Rf2 C42H72O14 800.4922 Fruit [82]
130 C17SCV Ginsenoside Rk2 C36H60O7 604.4339 Root(steamed), fruit [76,83]
131 C17SCV Pseudoginsenoside RT5 C36H62O10 654.4343 Fruit [83]
132 C17SCV Ginsenoside Rh3 C36H60O7 604.4339 Root(steamed), fruit [76,83]
133 C17SCV Ginsenoside Rg4 C42H70O12 766.4867 Root, fruit [16]
134 C17SCV Ginsenoside F4 C42H70O12 766.4867 Root, fruit, leaf [16]
135 C17SCV Ginsenoside Rg7 C36H60O9 636.4237 Leaf [39]
136 C17SCV Ginsenoside Rh6 C36H62O11 670.4292 Fruit, leaf [39]
137 C17SCV Ginsenoside Ki C36H62O10 654.4343 Leaf [39]
138 C17SCV Ginsenoside Km C36H62O10 654.4343 Leaf [84]
139 C17SCV Ginsenoside Rh9 C36H60O9 636.4237 Leaf [39]
140 C17SCV 12,23-Epoxyginsenoside Rg1 C42H70O14 798.4766 Leaf [85]
141 C17SCV Ginsenoside Rh7 C36H60O9 636.4237 Leaf [39]
142 C17SCV Ginsenoside Rh8 C36H60O9 636.4237 Leaf [39]
143 C17SCV Hexanordammaran C24H40O4 392.2927 Leaf [86]
144 C17SCV Floralginsenoside A C42H72O16 832.4820 Flower [87]
145 C17SCV Ginsenoside La C42H70O13 782.4816 Leaf [35]
146 C17SCV Vinaginsenoside R4 C48H82O19 962.5450 Root, fruit, leaf [16]
147 C17SCV Ginsenoside Rk1 C42H70O12 766.4867 Root(steamed), fruit, leaf [16]
148 C17SCV Floralginsenoside H C50H84O21 1020.5505 Flower [88]
149 C17SCV Floralginsenoside Tc C53H90O24 1110.5822 Flower [89]
150 C17SCV Floralginsenoside Td C53H90O24 1110.5822 Flower [84]
151 C17SCV Ginsenoside I C48H82O20 978.5400 Flower [90]
152 C17SCV Ginsenoside II C48H82O20 978.5400 Flower [90]
153 C17SCV Floralginsenoside C C41H70O15 802.4715 Flower [74]
154 C17SCV Floralginsenoside J C48H82O20 978.5400 Flower [88]
155 C17SCV Floralginsenoside Ka C36H62O11 670.4292 Flower [91]
156 C17SCV Floralginsenoside La C48H82O19 962.5450 Flower [88]
157 C17SCV Floralginsenoside Lb C48H82O19 962.5450 Flower [88]
158 C17SCV Floralginsenoside Ta C36H60O10 652.4187 Flower [89]
159 C17SCV Floralginsenoside E C42H72O15 816.4871 Flower [74]
160 C17SCV Floralginsenoside F C42H72O15 816.4871 Flower [74]
161 C17SCV Floralginsenoside G C50H84O21 1020.5505 Flower [88]
162 C17SCV Floralginsenoside K C48H82O21 994.5349 Flower [88]
163 C17SCV Floralginsenoside O C53H90O22 1078.5924 Flower [73]
164 C17SCV Floralginsenoside B C42H72O16 832.4820 Flower [74]
165 C17SCV Floralginsenoside D C41H70O15 802.4715 Flower [74]
166 C17SCV Floralginsenoside I C48H82O20 978.5400 Flower [88]
167 C17SCV Floralginsenoside Kb C45H76O19 920.4981 Flower [91]
168 C17SCV Floralginsenoside Kc C45H76O20 936.4930 Flower [91]
169 C17SCV Floralginsenoside Tb C35H62O11 658.4292 Flower [89]
170 C17SCV Ginsenoside III C48H80O19 960.5294 Flower [92]
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1 OA: Oleanolic acid; PPD: Protopanaxadiol; PPT: Protopanaxatriol; C17SCV: C17 side-chain varied.

Figure 2.

Figure 2

Figure 2

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Structures of eight high-abundance saponins in P. ginseng. (a) PPD-type ginsenoside Rb1; (b) PPD-type ginsenoside Rb2; (c) PPD-type ginsenoside Rc; (d) PPD-type ginsenoside Rd; (e) PPT-type ginsenoside Re; (f) PPT-type ginsenoside Rf; (g) PPT-type ginsenoside Rg1; (h) OA-type ginsenoside Ro.

4. Spatial Distribution of Ginsenosides in Different Parts

The Venn diagram (Figure 3) shows the number of ginsenosides commonly and separately shared by the following four groups: R&S (roots, rhizomes, and steamed roots), L&S (leaves and stems), F&P (fruits and fruit pedicels), and F&B (flowers and flower buds). Among them, the number of unique ginsenosides in group R&S, F&P, L&S, and F&B are 52, 15, 14, and 36, respectively, accounting for 30.6%, 8.8%, 8.2%, and 21.2% of the number of total ginsenosides, respectively. The result gives some explanation why ginseng root is designated as medicinal parts rather than the other parts. Sixteen ginsenosides are commonly existed in all tissues, and among them, there are nine PPD type (Rc, Rd, Rb2, Rb1, Rb3, m-ginsenoside Rb1, m-ginsenoside Rc, m-ginsenoside Rb2, m-ginsenoside Rd), six PPT type (Re, Rg1, Rf, 20(R)-ginsenoside Rg2, Notoginsenoside R1, m-ginsenoside Re), one OA type (Ro), and none of C17SCV type. Numbers of ginsenosides shared by R&S and F&P, F&P and L&S, L&S and F&B, R&S and F&B were 32 (18.8%), 37 (21.7%), 24 (14.1%), and 19(11.2%), respectively. In addition, 13 malonyl-ginsenosides were existing specifically in flowers and buds; however, none of them was observed in fruit. This implies that these malonyl-ginsenosides show not only spatial specificity, but also temporal specificity. Here in, we speculate that malonyl-ginsenosides may play a physiological role during tissue development.

Figure 3.

Figure 3

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Venn diagram of ginsenosides according to different parts of P. ginseng. R&S: Roots, rhizomes, and steamed roots; L&S: Leaves and stems; F&P: Fruits and fruit pedicels; F&B: Flowers and flower buds.

As indicated by Figure 4, the numbers of PPD-type ginsenosides (blue bar) are highest in R&S, F&P, and L&S, while the C17SCV-type ginsenoside is highest in F&B. Interestingly, C17SCV-type ginsenosides exhibit significant variation among different groups. Only nine C17SCV-type ginsenosides are shared by more than two groups, whereas the other 58 C17SCV-type ginsenosides are unique to a particular group. For the OA-type ginsenoside, three are specific to group R&S (Polyacetyleneginsenoside-Ro, Ginsenoside Ro methyl ester, Calenduloside-B) and one (Ginsenoside Ro) is commonly shared by all parts.

Figure 4.

Figure 4

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Structural categories of ginsenosides in different parts of P. ginseng. R&S: Roots, rhizomes, and steamed roots; F&P: Fruits and fruit pedicels; L&S: Leaves and stems; F&B: Flowers and flower buds; OA: Oleanolic acid; PPD: Protopanaxadiol; PPT: Protopanaxatriol; C17SCV: C17 side-chain varied.

5. Isomers of Ginsenosides

The total 170 ginsenosides are divided into 69 molecular formula groups. Therefore, it is common that one molecular formula corresponds to several ginsenosides. (Table 2). The molecular formula with the largest number of isomers is C48H82O19 (molecular weight 962.5450), with a total of nine isomers; followed by C51H84O21 (molecular weight 1032.5505) with a total of eight isomers, and C41H70O13 (molecular weight 770.4816) with a total of seven isomers. The isomers median of 69 molecular formulas is 2, which means that one molecular formula corresponds to two isomers equally. Optical and position isomerism are the dominant types of ginsenoside isomers, whilst cis-trans isomerism and tautomerism are detected occasionally.

Table 2.

Isomers of 170 ginseng saponins.

No. Formula Molecular Mass No. of Isomers No. Formula Molecular Mass No. of Isomers
1 C24H40O4 392.2927 1 36 C46H76O15 868.5184 2
2 C30H50O2 442.3811 2 37 C47H80O17 916.5396 6
3 C30H50O3 458.3760 2 38 C47H80O18 932.5345 2
4 C30H52O3 460.3916 2 39 C48H78O18 942.5188 1
5 C30H52O4 476.3866 2 40 C48H80O19 960.5294 1
6 C30H54O4 478.4022 1 41 C48H82O18 946.5501 3
7 C30H54O5 494.3971 1 42 C48H82O19 962.5450 9
8 C35H62O11 658.4292 1 43 C48H82O20 978.5400 4
9 C36H60O10 652.4187 1 44 C48H82O21 994.5349 1
10 C36H60O7 604.4339 3 45 C49H78O19 970.5137 1
11 C36H60O8 620.4288 2 46 C49H80O18 956.5345 1
12 C36H60O9 636.4237 5 47 C50H84O19 988.5607 3
13 C36H62O10 654.4343 3 48 C50H84O21 1020.5505 2
14 C36H62O11 670.4292 2 49 C51H84O21 1032.5505 8
15 C36H62O8 622.4445 4 50 C53H90O22 1078.5924 6
16 C36H62O9 638.4394 4 51 C53H90O23 1094.5873 1
17 C37H62O10 666.4343 1 52 C53H90O24 1110.5822 2
18 C38H62O9 662.4394 2 53 C54H87O24 1119.5587 1
19 C41H70O12 754.4867 2 54 C54H92O22 1092.6080 1
20 C41H70O13 770.4816 7 55 C54H92O23 1108.6029 1
21 C41H70O15 802.4715 2 56 C54H92O24 1124.5979 2
22 C42H69O13 781.4738 1 57 C55H92O23 1120.6029 4
23 C42H70O12 766.4867 6 58 C56H92O25 1164.5928 6
24 C42H70O13 782.4816 4 59 C56H96O24 1152.6292 1
25 C42H70O14 798.4766 2 60 C57H93O23 1145.6108 1
26 C42H72O13 784.4973 5 61 C57H94O23 1146.6186 2
27 C42H72O14 800.4922 5 62 C57H94O25 1178.6084 1
28 C42H72O15 816.4871 4 63 C58H96O24 1176.6292 2
29 C42H72O16 832.4820 2 64 C58H98O26 1210.6346 2
30 C44H72O13 808.4973 2 65 C59H100O27 1240.6452 1
31 C44H74O14 826.5079 2 66 C60H99O27 1251.6373 1
32 C44H74O15 842.5028 2 67 C62H102O27 1278.6608 1
33 C45H74O17 886.4926 1 68 C62H102O30 1326.6456 2
34 C45H76O19 920.4981 1 69 C65H100O21 1216.6757 1
35 C45H76O20 936.4930 1
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6. Mass Spectrometry-Based Metabolomics Analysis on P. ginseng

Recently, MS and its hyphenations with chromatographic separation techniques have emerged as an instrumental trend in ginsenoside analysis [93,94]. HPLC/MS can overcome the problems related to ginsenoside pre-analysis derivatization and the low abundance of molecular ions [95,96]. The use of on-line MS detection shows superior sensitivity and specificity compared with conventional UV and ELSD detection [97,98]. The sensitivity of MS detection can surpass 1000 times that of UV absorbance [99]. In addition, the possible matrix effects encountered with many Panax ginseng formulations may be compromised by MS [100]. Despite these advantages, MS remains costly for use in routine analysis. With the development of soft ionization techniques, HPLC/MS has been successfully applied for the qualitative and quantitative analyses of Panax ginseng [101]. Among the various mass spectrometry ionization techniques, electrospray mass spectrometry (ESI-MS) is the approach that is most commonly coupled with HPLC [15,102,103]. While ESI-MS suffers from matrix-induced ionization suppression difficulties [104], atmospheric pressure chemical ionization (APCI) can offer itself as one possible alternative [105]. Quadrupole time-of-flight mass spectrometry (QTOF-MS), a powerful tool for the identification of analytes, provides several advantages in structural analysis, such as a higher resolution and accuracy in mass measurements. Coupled with QTOF-MS, UPLC has been introduced for metabolite profiling and metabolomics purposes [99]. In recent years, orbitrap technology has achieved great breakthrough in resolution and scanning speed and realized the high-resolution detection of multi-stage mass spectrometry by combining the linear ion trap and quadrupole mass spectrometry, which can be widely applied in the development of new drugs [106].

According to the available literature, Wang et al. in 1999 [97] firstly identified ginsenosides by LC/MS/MS and differentiated P. ginseng and P. quinquefolius based on the ginsenoside Rg1/Rf and Rc/Rb2 ratios. A liquid chromatography-tandem mass spectrometry (LC/MS/MS) method was developed to distinguish Asian ginseng and North American ginseng. The method is based on the baseline chromatographic separation of two potential chemical markers: Rf and 24(R)-pseudo ginsenoside F11 [107]. Z X. et al. 2000 developed a similar LC/MS/MS method to determine ginsenoside in ginseng. Nine ginsenosides were determined, among which five of them were identified according to molecular weight [108]. In the late 1990s and early 2000s, the resolution of mass spectrometry was low and the number of identified ginsenosides was limited, which could be used for distinguishing Asian ginseng and American Ginseng, and identifying ginsenosides.

Chen et al. [109] established a chemical finger-print metabolomics approach using ultra-high-performance liquid chromatography combined with quadrupole time-of-flight mass spectrometry (UPLC-QTOF/MS). The method was successfully used to authenticate and evaluate Panax Ginseng of various commercial grades. Using UPLC-QTOF-MS/MS, Zhang et al. evaluated the overall quality of commercially available white ginseng and red ginseng, and investigated their characteristic chemical composition indicators. Fifty-one major chromatographic peaks of white ginseng and red ginseng samples were separated within 24 min [110]. By means of UPLC-DAD-QTOF-MS/MS, Wang et al. conducted qualitative and quantitative analysis of ginsenosides of cultivated ginseng and mountain ginseng. A total of 131 ginsenosides were detected in cultivated ginseng and mountain ginseng, and all the components were completely separated within 10 min, among which contents of 19 typical ginsenoside were accurately quantified. This method has been validated for quality evaluation of ginseng and identification of cultivated ginseng and mountain ginseng [13]. Zhang et al. Quickly and comprehensively identified the ginsenosides using high-resolution time-of-flight mass spectrometry, electrospray dual-spray ion source, and negative ion mode. A total of 95 saponins in suncured ginseng were identified within 11 min, providing a feasible basis for the quality control of suncured ginseng [111]. With the emergence of high-resolution mass spectrometry and the development of high-throughput screening technologies, several time-saving methods were established for commercial ginseng product evaluation.

Since 2015, Orbitrap mass spectrometer had been applied in ginsenoside detection. In 2017, a total of 101 malonyl-ginsenosides were firstly systematic analyzed by hybrid LTQ-Orbitrap mass spectrometer after UHPLC separation, and ten potential malonyl-ginsenoside markers were discovered for the discrimination of P. ginseng, P. quinquefolius, and P. notoginseng [112]. Shi et al. established an untargeted profiling strategy on a linear ion-trap/Orbitrap mass spectrometer coupled to ultra-high performance liquid chromatography to analyze malonyl-ginsenosides in several Panax species. Finally, 178 malonyl-ginsenosides were characterized from roots, leaves, and flower buds of P. ginseng, P. quinquefolius, and P. notoginseng [113]. To investigate the variation of ginsenosides among different processed red ginseng, Zhong et al. tested steamed, vinegared and dried red ginseng samples by UPLC-Q-Orbitrap MS. In total, 32 ginsenosides were identified and ginsenosides m-Rb1, Rh1, F1, 20(R)-Rh1, Rg5, and Rs5 were only found in red ginseng processed by vinegar [114]. With the development of Orbitrap and multi-mass spectrometry techniques, ginsenosides with complex structures, such as malonyl and C17 side-chain variation, have been increasingly detected, and the types of ginsenosides have been greatly extended.

7. Conclusions

In this review, we summarized the existing studies related to saponin analysis of P. ginseng, and sorted out the information of structural characteristic, spatial distribution, and isomer of 170 ginsenosides. There are 16 common ginsenosides present in all parts of P. ginseng. In contrast, each part has unique ginsenosides, and ginsenosides in different parts show obvious structural diversity. It should be emphasized that ginseng aerial parts can regenerate every year, and there is a large amount of rare ginsenosides in stems, leaves, and flower buds. In light of previous research results of the rare ginsenoside bioactivity in red ginseng, it seems that the aerial parts of P. ginseng are highly worth developing and utilizing. A conclusion can also be drawn that C17SCV-type ginsenosides and malonyl-ginsenoside are rich in flowers and buds. Therefore, a hypothesis that ginsenosides have physiological roles in ginseng plant development is proposed. The rapid development of high-performance liquid chromatography and mass spectrometry techniques significantly raise the throughput and accuracy of ginsenoside determination.

In the future, (1) with the continuous advancement of detection and identification technology, the analysis method of ginsenosides will develop in the direction of being more sensitive, convenient, and environmentally-friendly, with high-throughput and high-precision. By leveraging these technologies, more monomer compounds will be separated and identified from ginseng, which will develop the knowledge of the diversity of chemical structure of ginsenosides. (2) It is necessary to conduct further research on spatial distribution of ginsenosides in different parts of ginseng, and multidisciplinary collaborations among genomics, proteomics, metabonomics, and transcriptomics could be used to study the physiological functions of ginsenosides. (3) With increasing separation of ginsenosides possessing a complex structure, such as malonyl and C17 side-chain variation, the pharmacological action and pharmacokinetics of these ginsenosides would be further studied to clarify the efficacy of ginseng.

Funding

This research was supported by the Youths of China (No. 31401606), the Project of the Jilin Province Department of Science and Technology, China (No. 20190201160JC), Central Public-interest Scientific Institution Basal Research Fund (No. 1610342019032 and No. 1610342020024), Jilin Province Development and Reform Commission (No. 2019C052-10), National Key Research and Development Project (No. 2017YFC1702101), and Technology Key Project of Jilin Province (No. 20180201006YY).

Conflicts of Interest

The authors declare no conflict of interest.

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