Skip to main content
NCBI home page
Cambridge University Press - PMC COVID-19 Collection logoLink to Cambridge University Press - PMC COVID-19 Collection
letter
. 2020 Aug 14:1–2. doi: 10.1017/S0033291720003165

Influence of COVID-19 on general stress and posttraumatic stress symptoms among hospitalized high-risk patients

U Wesemann 1,✉, N Hadjamu 2, G Willmund 1, S Dolff 3, N Vonderlin 2, R Wakili 2, J Vogel 2, T Rassaf 2, J Siebermair 2
PMCID: PMC7453354  PMID: 32794442

To the Editor:

A recently published study found a 96.2% prevalence rate for significant posttraumatic stress symptoms in quarantined patients diagnosed with COVID-19 (Bo et al., 2020). In addition, various psychiatric disorders have been found in patients in the early stages of the COVID-19 outbreak (Talevi et al., 2020). Thereby, the rates for posttraumatic stress disorder (PTSD) in COVID-19 affected patients appear higher when compared to PTSD rates in the general population or in emergency service staff after terrorist attacks (11% to 25%; Berninger et al. 2010; Brackbill, Hadler, DiGrande, Ekenga, & Farfel, 2009; Schlenger et al. 2002; Wesemann et al., 2018b; Wesemann, Mahnke, Polk, & Willmund, 2020). In addition, the rates established by Bo et al. were significantly higher than those in previous studies by Fang, Zhe, and Shuran (2004) or Mak, Chu, Pan, Yiu, and Chan (2009) on patients with the Severe Acute Respiratory Syndrome (SARS).

The aim of this study was to determine the prevalence of ‘general stress’ and severe posttraumatic stress in patients who were hospitalized with the initial suspect of a COVID-19 infection. The suspicion of COVID-19 was considered a critical event for mental health, since the vast majority of the patients also had comorbidities that were known to translate in a worse outcome together with a COVID-19 infection (Clark et al., 2020). The second goal was to compare patients with and without definitive confirmation of a COVID-19 diagnosis for general stress and posttraumatic stress. Our hypothesis was that there was no difference in patients with and without COVID-19, since we assumed that risk perception was the same in both groups. All patients with suspect of a COVID-19 infection who were admitted to the University Hospital of Essen between 8 March and 26 May were encouraged to participate in the study. After hospital admission, they were provided with the PTSD Checklist for DSM-5 (PCL-5; Weathers et al., 2013) and the Patient Health Questionnaire (PHQ) stress module (Löwe, Spitzer, Zipfel, & Herzog, 2002). At this stage, patients and treating medical staff were not aware of their COVID-19 infection status which resulted in a double-blinded design of the study. Written informed consent was given by all participants and the study was approved by the local Ethics Committee of the University of Essen Medical School (IRB number 20-9263-BO).

A total of N = 60 patients with an average age of 59 ± 17.8 years were included (n = 33, men). The diagnosis of COVID-19 was later confirmed in n = 19 (31.7%).

About half of the patients included presented with dyspnea, especially dry coughing, one of the leading symptoms of the SARS-CoV-2 infection (Jiang et al., 2020; Tabata et al., 2020). Chi-squared testing showed no sample bias between the groups with and without COVID-19. A detailed list of comorbidities is provided in Table 1.

Table 1.

Descriptive statistics of comorbidities in patients with and without COVID-19

No COVID-19 (n = 41) in % COVID-19 (n = 19) in %
Chronic lung disease 3 7.3 3 15.8
Heart failure 15 36.6 1 5.3
Cardiovascular disease 21 51.2 5 26.3
Type 2 diabetes 3 7.3 4 21.1
Oncological disease 6 14.6 6 31.6
Other comorbidities 17 41.5 13 68.4
Male 22 53.7 11 57.9
Female 19 46.3 8 42.1
Open in a new tab

The prevalence of significant posttraumatic stress symptoms was 37.9% [95% confidence interval (CI) 35.5–40.3 in all patients and 42.1% (95% CI 37.2–47.0) in the subgroup of patients with later confirmation of a COVID-19.

The 2 × 2 chi-squared tests were performed to test the second goal: regarding patients with v. without COVID-19 there was no significant difference in the dichotomized severity of posttraumatic stress symptoms: χ2(1, N = 58) = 0.21, p = 0.647. Accordingly, there were no significant correlations between the groups with or without COVID-19 and the PCL-5 scales. However, there was a significant correlation (r = 0.35; p = 0.019) between the diagnosis of COVID-19 and stress of the PHQ stress module. In a subsequent chi-squared test with the dichotomized values, there was a significant difference between the groups: χ2(1, N = 50) = 5.56; p = 0.018 with more patients with COVID-19 in the high general stress group.

We could not replicate the findings of Bo et al. (2020) with prevalence rates of ‘significant posttraumatic stress symptoms’ far above 90%. Nevertheless, our established prevalence rates are still high when compared to other studies (Berninger et al., 2010; Brackbill et al., 2009; Schlenger et al., 2002). This can be partly explained by the high-risk population examined in our study. Chronic lung diseases, severe cardiovascular diseases or oncological diseases in combination with suspected COVID-19 may have had a negative impact on the severity of PTSD symptoms in our patients.

These results clearly support the hypothesis that patients with COVID-19 develop a higher level of general stress compared to patients without COVID-19. In this case, stress would not only be a psychological factor, but could also have an organic correlate. It is also conceivable that the high level of stress in patients with COVID-19 could be a predictor of the later onset of posttraumatic stress symptoms after the diagnosis has been received.

Routine screening for mental fitness in this high-risk population is recommended, as is the case in the military (Peterson, Park, & Castro, 2011; Wesemann et al., 2018a).

The influence of COVID-19 on general and posttraumatic stress should receive a special focus and might be adapted to diseases with a similar pandemic character.

Acknowledgements

We would like to thank the hospital staff that was involved in data collection for the present study.

Financial support

This research received no specific grant from any funding agency, commercial or not-for-profit sectors.

Conflict of interest

None.

References

  1. Berninger, A., Webber, M. P., Niles, J. K., Gustave, J., Lee, R., Cohen, H. W., … Prezant, D. J. (2010). Longitudinal study of probable post-traumatic stress disorder in firefighters exposed to the World Trade Center disaster. American Journal of Industrial Medicine, 53(12), 1177–1185. 10.1002/ajim.20894. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  2. Bo, H. X., Li, W., Yang, Y., Wang, Y., Zhang, Q., Cheung, T., … Xiang, Y. T. (2020). Posttraumatic stress symptoms and attitude toward crisis mental health services among clinically stable patients with COVID-19 in China. Psychological Medicine, 1–2. Advance online publication. 10.1017/S0033291720000999. [DOI] [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  3. Brackbill, R. M., Hadler, J. L., DiGrande, L., Ekenga, C. C., Farfel, M. R., & Friedman, S., … Thorpe, L. E. (2009). Asthma and posttraumatic stress symptoms 5 to 6 years following exposure to the World Trade Center terrorist attack. JAMA, 302(5), 502–516. 10.1001/jama.2009.1121. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  4. Clark, A., Jit, M., Warren-Gash, C., Guthrie, B., Wang, H., & Mercer, S. W., … Centre for the Mathematical Modelling of Infectious Diseases COVID-19 working group (2020). Global, regional, and national estimates of the population at increased risk of severe COVID-19 due to underlying health conditions in 2020: A modelling study. The Lancet. Global health, 8(8), e1003–e1017. 10.1016/S2214-109X(20)30264-3. [DOI] [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  5. Fang, Y., Zhe, D., & Shuran, L. (2004). Survey on mental status of subjects recovered from SARS (in Chinese). Chinese Mental Health Journal, 18(10), 675–677. [Google Scholar]
  6. Jiang, F., Deng, L., Zhang, L., Cai, Y., Cheung, C. W., & Xia, Z. (2020). Review of the clinical characteristics of coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19). Journal of General Internal Medicine, 35(5), 1545–1549. 10.1007/s11606-020-05762-w. [DOI] [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  7. Löwe, B., Spitzer, R. L., Zipfel, S., & Herzog W. (2002). PHQ-D Gesundheitsfragebogen für Patienten. [PHQ-D Health questionnaire for patients]. Manual Komplettversion und Kurzform. Karlsruhe: Pfizer. Retrieved from https://www.klinikum.uni-heidelberg.de/fileadmin/Psychosomatische_Klinik/download/PHQ_Manual1.pdf.
  8. Mak, I. W., Chu, C. M., Pan, P. C., Yiu, M. G., & Chan, V. L. (2009). Long-term psychiatric morbidities among SARS survivors. General Hospital Psychiatry, 31(4), 318–326. 10.1016/j.genhosppsych.2009.03.001. [DOI] [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  9. Peterson, C., Park, N., & Castro, C. A. (2011). Assessment for the U.S. army comprehensive soldier fitness program: The global assessment tool. The American Psychologist, 66(1), 10–18. 10.1037/a0021658. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  10. Schlenger, W. E., Caddell, J. M., Ebert, L., Jordan, B. K., Rourke, K. M., Wilson, D., … Kulka, R. A. (2002). Psychological reactions to terrorist attacks: Findings from the National Study of Americans’ Reactions to September 11. JAMA, 288(5), 581–588. 10.1001/jama.288.5.581. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  11. Tabata, S., Imai, K., Kawano, S., Ikeda, M., Kodama, T., Miyoshi, K., … Tamura, K. (2020). Clinical characteristics of COVID-19 in 104 people with SARS-CoV-2 infection on the Diamond Princess cruise ship: A retrospective analysis. The Lancet. Infectious Diseases, S1473-3099(20), 30482–30485. 10.1016/S1473-3099(20)30482-5. [DOI] [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  12. Talevi, D., Socci, V., Carai, M., Carnaghi, G., Faleri, S., Trebbi, E., … Pacitti, F. (2020). Mental health outcomes of the CoViD-19 pandemic. Rivista di Psichiatria, 55(3), 137–144. 10.1708/3382.33569. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  13. Weathers, F. W., Litz, B. T., Keane, T. M., Palmieri, P. A., Marx, B. P., & Schnurr, P. P. (2013). The PTSD checklist for DSM-5 (PCL-5). Boston, MA: National Center for PTSD. [Google Scholar]
  14. Wesemann, U., Mahnke, M., Polk, S., & Willmund, G. (2020). Long-term effects of the terror attack in Berlin in 2016 on paranoid ideation in female emergency personnel. BJPsych Open, 6(5), e79 10.1192/bjo.2020.57. [DOI] [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  15. Wesemann, U., Willmund, G. D., Ungerer, J., Kreim, G., Zimmermann, P. L., Bühler, A., … Kowalski, J. T. (2018a). Assessing psychological fitness in the military - development of an effective and economic screening instrument. Military Medicine, 183(7–8), e261–e269. 10.1093/milmed/usy021. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  16. Wesemann, U., Zimmermann, P., Mahnke, M., Butler, O., Polk, S., & Willmund, G. (2018b). Burdens on emergency responders after a terrorist attack in Berlin. Occupational Medicine (Oxford, England), 68(1), 60–63. 10.1093/occmed/kqx172. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]

Articles from Psychological Medicine are provided here courtesy of Cambridge University Press

RESOURCES