Skip to main content
NCBI home page
Neurotherapeutics logoLink to Neurotherapeutics
. 2007 Jan;4(1):75–83. doi: 10.1016/j.nurt.2006.10.003

Use of antiepileptic drugs for nonepileptic conditions: Psychiatric disorders and chronic pain

Alan B Ettinger 1,✉, Charles E Argoff 1
PMCID: PMC7479709  PMID: 17199018

Summary

Antiepileptic drugs (AEDs) are commonly utilized for nonepileptic conditions, including various psychiatric disorders and pain syndromes. Evidence for their benefit in these nonepileptic conditions varies widely among different drugs, but there is, in general, a paucity of published multicenter randomized double-blind trials. Variable levels of evidence suggest that lamotrigine and the vagal nerve stimulator have antidepressant properties. Carbamazepine, valproate, lamotrigine, and oxcarbazepine appear to have mood stabilizing properties while gabapentin, pregabalin, and tiagabine have anxiolytic benefits. Barbiturates, topiramate, and possibly phenytoin may precipitate or exacerbate depression. Underlying depression and anxiety symptoms may be exacerbated by levetiracetam, while psychotic symptoms have rarely been reported with topiramate, levetiracetam, and zonisamide. Pregabalin, gabapentin, carbamazepine, and oxcarbazepine have been used to treat neuropathic pain such as postherpetic neuralgia, and diabetic polyneuropathy. Topiramate and divalproex sodium have utility in the prophylaxis or acute treatment of migraine. Further rigorous studies are needed to clarify the utility of AEDs in nonepileptic conditions.

Key Words: Psychotropic properties, antiepileptic drugs, depression, anxiety, psychosis, pain, neuropathic pain, migraine

References

  • 1.Ballenger JC, Post RM. Carbamazepine in manic-depressive illness: a new treatment. Am J Psychiatry. 1980;137:782–790. doi: 10.1176/ajp.137.7.782. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  • 2.Goodnick PJ. Anticonvulsants in the treatment of bipolar mania. Expert Opin Pharmacother. 2006;7:401–410. doi: 10.1517/14656566.7.4.401. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  • 3.Rush AJ, Fava M, Wisniewski SR, et al. Sequenced treatment alternatives to relieve depression (STAR*D): rationale and design. Control Clin Trials. 2004;25:119–142. doi: 10.1016/S0197-2456(03)00112-0. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  • 4.Rush AJ, Trivedi M, Fava M. Depression, IV: STAR*D treatment trial for depression. Am J Psychiatry. 2003;160:237–237. doi: 10.1176/appi.ajp.160.2.237. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  • 5.Swartz MS, Perkins DO, Stroup TS, McEvoy JP, Nieri JM, Haak DC. Assessing clinical and functional outcomes in the Clinical Antipsychotic Trials of Intervention Effectiveness (CATIE) schizophrenia trial. Schizophr Bull. 2003;29:33–43. doi: 10.1093/oxfordjournals.schbul.a006989. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  • 6.Toczek MT, Carson RE, Lang L, et al. PET imaging of 5-HT1A receptor binding in patients with temporal lobe epilepsy. Neurology. 2003;60:749–756. doi: 10.1212/01.wnl.0000049930.93113.20. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  • 7.Sargent PA, Kjaer KH, Bench CJ, et al. Brain serotoninlA receptor binding measured by positron emission tomography with [11C]WAY-100635: effects of depression and antidepressant treatment. Arch Gen Psychiatry. 2000;57:174–180. doi: 10.1001/archpsyc.57.2.174. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  • 8.Dailey JW, Reither MEA, Yan QS, Li MY, Jobe PC. Anticonvulsant doses of carbamazepine increase hippocampal extracellular serotonin in genetically epilepsy-prone rats: dose response relationships. Neurosci Lett. 1997;226:13–16. doi: 10.1016/S0304-3940(97)00288-7. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  • 9.Southam E, Kirkby D, Higgins GA, Hagan RM. Lamotrigine inhibits monoamine uptake in vitro and modulates 5-hydroxy-tryptamine uptake in rats. Eur J Pharmacol. 1998;358:19–24. doi: 10.1016/S0014-2999(98)00580-9. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  • 10.Whitton PS, Fowler LJ. The effect of valproic acid on 5-hydroxy-tryptamine and 5-hydroxyindoleacetic acid concentration in hippocampal dialysates in vivo. Eur J Pharmacol. 1991;200:167–169. doi: 10.1016/0014-2999(91)90681-F. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  • 11.Yan QS, Mishra PK, Burger RL, Bettendorf AF, Jobe PC, Dailey JW. Evidence that carbamazepine and antiepilepsirine may produce a component of their anticonvulsant effects by activating serotonergic neurons in genetically epilepsy-prone rats. J Pharmacol Exp Ther. 1992;261:652–659. [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  • 12.Naritoku DK, Terry WJ, Helfert RH. Regional induction of fos immunoreactivity in the brain by anticonvulsant stimulation of the vagus nerve. Epilepsy Res. 1995;22:53–62. doi: 10.1016/0920-1211(95)00035-9. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  • 13.Browning RA, Clark KB, Naritoku DK, Smith DC, Jenson RA. Loss of anticonvulsant effect of vagus nerve stimulation in the pentylenetetrazol seizure model following treatment with 6-hydroxydopamine or 5,7-dihyrdroxy-tryptamine. Soc Neurosci. 1997;23:2424–2424. [Google Scholar]
  • 14.Nahas Z, Marangell LB, Husain MM, et al. Two-year outcome of vagus nerve stimulation (VNS) for treatment of major depressive episodes. J Clin Psychiatry. 2005;66:1097–1104. doi: 10.4088/JCP.v66n0902. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  • 15.Reynolds EH, Trimble MR. Adverse neuropsychiatric effects of anticonvulsant drugs. Pharmacol Biochem Behav. 1985;23:21–26. doi: 10.1016/0091-3057(85)90124-8. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  • 16.Hauser P, Devinsky O, DeBellis M, et al. Benzodiazepine withdrawal delirium with catatonic features. Arch Neurol. 1989;46:696–699. doi: 10.1001/archneur.1989.00520420118033. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  • 17.Bowden CL, Calabrese JR, McElroy SL, et al. A randomized, placebo-controlled 12-month trial of divalproex and lithium in treatment of outpatients with bipolar I disorder. Divalproex Maintenance Study Group. Arch Gen Psychiatry. 2000;57:481–489. doi: 10.1001/archpsyc.57.5.481. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  • 18.Findling RL, McNamara NK, Youngstrom EA, et al. Doubleblind 18-month trial of lithium versus divalproex maintenance treatment in pediatric bipolar disorder. J Am Acad Child Adolesc Psychiatry. 2005;44:409–417. doi: 10.1097/01.chi.0000155981.83865.ea. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  • 19.Winsberg ME, DeGolia SG, Strong CM, Ketter TA. Divalproex therapy in medication-naive and mood-stabilizer-naive bipolar II depression. J Affect Disord. 2001;67:207–212. doi: 10.1016/S0165-0327(01)00434-7. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  • 20.Porsteinsson AP, Tariot PN, Erb R, et al. Placebo-controlled study of divalproex sodium for agitation in dementia. Am J Geriatr Psychiatry. 2001;9:58–66. [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  • 21.Sival RC, Haffmans PM, Jansen PA, Duursma SA, Eikelenboom P. Sodium valproate in the treatment of aggressive behavior in patients with dementia—a randomized placebo controlled clinical trial. Int J Geriatr Psychiatry. 2002;17:579–585. doi: 10.1002/gps.653. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  • 22.Hollander E, Tracy KA, Swann AC, et al. Divalproex in the treatment of impulsive aggression: efficacy in cluster B personality disorders. Neuropsychopharmacology. 2003;28:1186–1197. doi: 10.1038/sj.npp.1300021. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  • 23.Baetz M, Bowen RC. Efficacy of divalproex sodium in patients with panic disorder and mood instability who have not responded to conventional therapy. Can J Psychiatry. 1998;43:73–77. doi: 10.1177/070674379804300109. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  • 24.Woodman CL, Noyes R. Panic disorder: treatment with valproate. J Clin Psychiatry. 1994;55:134–136. [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  • 25.Mishory A, Yaroslavsky Y, Bersudsky Y, Belmaker RH. Phenytoin as an antimanic anticonvulsant: a controlled study. Am J Psychiatry. 2000;157:463–465. doi: 10.1176/appi.ajp.157.3.463. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  • 26.Mishory A, Winokur M, Bersudsky Y. Prophylactic effect of phenytoin in bipolar disorder: a controlled study. Bipolar Disord. 2003;5:464–467. doi: 10.1046/j.1399-5618.2003.00070.x. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  • 27.Nemets B, Bersudsky Y, Belmaker RH. Controlled double-blind trial of phenytoin vs. fluoxetine in major depressive disorder. J Clin Psychiatry. 2005;66:586–590. doi: 10.4088/JCP.v66n0507. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  • 28.Stanford MS, Helfritz LE, Conklin SM, et al. A comparison of anticonvulsants in the treatment of impulsive aggression. Exp Clin Psychopharmacol. 2005;13:72–77. doi: 10.1037/1064-1297.13.1.72. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  • 29.Kowatch RA, Suppes T, Carmody TJ, et al. Effect size of lithium, divalproex sodium, and carbamazepine in children and adolescents with bipolar disorder. J Am Acad Child Adolesc Psychiatry. 2000;39:713–720. doi: 10.1097/00004583-200006000-00009. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  • 30.Ketter TA, Kalali AH, Weisler RH. A 6-month, multicenter, open-label evaluation of beaded, extended-release carbamazepine capsule monotherapy in bipolar disorder patients with manic or mixed episodes. J Clin Psychiatry. 2004;65:668–673. doi: 10.4088/JCP.v65n0511. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  • 31.Gajwani P, Forsthoff A, Muzina D, et al. Antiepileptic drugs in mood-disordered patients. Epilepsia. 2005;46(suppl 4):38–44. doi: 10.1111/j.1528-1167.2005.463008.x. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  • 32.Greil W, Kleindienst N, Erazo N, Muller-Oerlinghausen B. Differential response to lithium and carbamazepine in the prophylaxis of bipolar disorder. J Clin Psychopharmacol. 1998;18:455–460. doi: 10.1097/00004714-199812000-00007. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  • 33.Hartong EG, Moleman P, Hoogduin CA, Broekman TG, Nolen WA. Prophylactic efficacy of lithium versus carbamazepine in treatment-naive bipolar patients. J Clin Psychiatry. 2003;64:144–151. doi: 10.4088/JCP.v64n0206. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  • 34.Weisler RH, Kalali AH, Ketter TA. A multicenter, randomized, double-blind, placebo-controlled trial of extended-release carbamazepine capsules as monotherapy for bipolar disorder patients with manic or mixed episodes. J Clin Psychiatry. 2004;65:478–484. doi: 10.4088/JCP.v65n0405. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  • 35.Weisler RH, Keck PE, Swann AC, Cutler AJ, Ketter TA, Kalali AH. Extended-release carbamazepine capsules as monotherapy for acute mania in bipolar disorder: a multicenter, randomized, double-blind, placebo-controlled trial. J Clin Psychiatry. 2005;66:323–330. doi: 10.4088/JCP.v66n0308. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  • 36.Ettinger AB, Bemal OG, Andriola MR, et al. Two cases of nonconvulsive status epilepticus in association with tiagabine therapy. Epilepsia. 1999;40:1159–1162. doi: 10.1111/j.1528-1157.1999.tb00835.x. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  • 37.Rosenthal M. Tiagabine for the treatment of generalized anxiety disorder: a randomized, open-label, clinical trial with paroxetine as a positive control. J Clin Psychiatry. 2003;64:1245–1249. doi: 10.4088/JCP.v64n1016. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  • 38.Suppes T, Chisholm KA, Dhavale D, et al. Tiagabine in treatment refractory bipolar disorder: a clinical case series. Bipolar Disord. 2002;4:283–289. doi: 10.1034/j.1399-5618.2002.01201.x. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  • 39.Grunze H, Erfurth A, Marcuse A, Amann B, Normann C, Waiden J. Tiagabine appears not to be efficacious in the treatment of acute mania. J Clin Psychiatry. 1999;60:759–762. doi: 10.4088/JCP.v60n1107. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  • 40.Pande AC, Davidson JRT, Jefferson JW, et al. Treatment of social phobia with gabapentin: a placebo controlled study. J Clin Psychopharmacol. 1999;19:341–348. doi: 10.1097/00004714-199908000-00010. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  • 41.Chouinard G, Beauclair L, Belanger M-C. Gabapentin: long-term antianxiety and hypnotic effects in psychiatric patients with comorbid anxiety-related disorders. Can J Psychiatry. 1998;43:305–305. [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  • 42.Chatterjee CR, Ringold AL. A case report of reduction in alcohol craving and protection against alcohol withdrawal by gabapentin. J Clin Psychiatry. 1999;60:617–617. doi: 10.4088/JCP.v60n0911. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  • 43.Mariani JJ, Rosenthal RN, Tross S, Singh P, Anand OP. A randomized, open-label, controlled trial of gabapentin and phenobarbital in the treatment of alcohol withdrawal. Am J Addict. 2006;15:76–84. doi: 10.1080/10550490500419110. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  • 44.Moretti R, Tone P, Antonello RM, Cazzato G, Bava A. Gabapentin for the treatment of behavioural alterations in dementia: preliminary 15-month investigation. Drugs Aging. 2003;20:1035–1040. doi: 10.2165/00002512-200320140-00003. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  • 45.Rickels K, Pollack MH, Feltner DE, et al. Pregabalin for treatment of generalized anxiety disorder: a 4-week, multicenter, double-blind, placebo-controlled trial of pregabalin and alprazolam. Arch Gen Psychiatry. 2005;62:1022–1030. doi: 10.1001/archpsyc.62.9.1022. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  • 46.Pohl RB, Feltner DE, Fieve RR, Pande AC. Efficacy of pregabalin in the treatment of generalized anxiety disorder: double-blind, placebo-controlled comparison of BID versus TID dosing. J Clin Psychopharmacol. 2005;25:151–158. doi: 10.1097/01.jcp.0000155820.74832.b0. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  • 47.Calabrese JR, Bowden CL, Sachs GS, et al. A double-blind placebo-controlled study of lamotrigine monotherapy in outpatients with bipolar I depression. J Clin Psychiatry. 1999;60:79–48. doi: 10.4088/JCP.v60n0203. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  • 48.McElroy SL, Zarate CA, Cookson J, et al. A 52-week, open-label continuation study of lamotrigine in the treatment of bipolar depression. J Clin Psychiatry. 2004;65:204–210. doi: 10.4088/JCP.v65n0210. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  • 49.Calabrese JR, Bowden CL, Sachs G, et al. A placebo-controlled 18-month trial of lamotrigine and lithium maintenance treatment in recently depressed patients with bipolar I disorder. J Clin Psychiatry. 2003;64:1013–1024. doi: 10.4088/JCP.v64n0906. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  • 50.Bowden CL, Calabrese JR, Sachs G, et al. A placebo-controlled 18-month trial of lamotrigine and lithium maintenance treatment in recently manic or hypomanic patients with bipolar I disorder. Arch Gen Psychiatry. 2003;60:392–400. doi: 10.1001/archpsyc.60.4.392. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  • 51.Gates JR, Folland C, Ankenbauer JL, Moriarty GL, Penovich PE. Behavioral side effects of levetiracetam. Epilepsia. 2002;43(suppl 7):187–187. [Google Scholar]
  • 52.McBride AE, Perrine KR, Gunning-Dixon FM, Hamann J, Risbrook DN, Ettinger AB. Positive psychotropic effects associated with the use of lamotrigine in a clinical setting. Epilepsia. 2002;43(suppl 7):95–96. [Google Scholar]
  • 53.Mula M, Trimble MR, Yuen A, Liu RSN, Sander JWAS. Psychiatric adverse events during levetiracetam therapy. Neurology. 2003;61:704–706. doi: 10.1212/01.wnl.0000078031.32904.0d. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  • 54.Kossoff EH, Bergey GK, Freeman JM, Vining EP. Levetiracetam psychosis in children with epilepsy. Epilepsia. 2001;42:1611–1613. doi: 10.1046/j.1528-1157.2001.32101.x. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  • 55.Bersani G. Levetiracetam in bipolar spectrum disorders: first evidence of efficacy in an open, add-on study. Hum Psycho-pharmacol. 2004;19:355–356. doi: 10.1002/hup.591. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  • 56.Grunze H, Langosch J, Born C, Schaub G, Waiden J. Levetiracetam in the treatment of acute mania: an open add-on study with an on-off-on design. J Clin Psychiatry. 2003;64:781–784. doi: 10.4088/JCP.v64n0707. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  • 57.Simon NM, Worthington JJ, Doyle AC, et al. An open-label study of levetiracetam for the treatment of social anxiety disorder. J Clin Psychiatry. 2004;65:1219–1222. doi: 10.4088/JCP.v65n0909. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  • 58.McElroy SL, Suppes T, Keck PE, et al. Open-label adjunctive zonisamide in the treatment of bipolar disorders: a prospective trial. J Clin Psychiatry. 2005;66:617–624. doi: 10.4088/JCP.v66n0512. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  • 59.Anand A, Bukhari L, Jennings SA, et al. A preliminary open-label study of zonisamide treatment for bipolar depression in 10 patients. J Clin Psychiatry. 2005;66:195–198. doi: 10.4088/JCP.v66n0206. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  • 60.Spina E, Perugi G. Antiepileptic drugs: indications other than epilepsy. Epileptic Disord. 2004;6:57–75. [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  • 61.Benedetti A, Lattanzi L, Pini S, Musetti L, Dell’Osso L, Cassano GB. Oxcarbazepine as add-on treatment in patients with bipolar manic, mixed or depressive episode. J Affect Disord. 2004;79:273–277. doi: 10.1016/S0165-0327(02)00407-X. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  • 62.Hummel B, Waiden J, Stampfer R, et al. Acute antimanic efficacy and safety of oxcarbazepine in an open trial with an on-off-on design. Bipolar Disord. 2002;4:412–417. doi: 10.1034/j.1399-5618.2002.02228.x. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  • 63.Bahk WM, Shin YC, Woo JM, et al. Topiramate and divalproex in combination with risperidone for acute mania: a randomized open-label study. Prog Neuropsychopharmacol Biol Psychiatry. 2005;29:115–121. doi: 10.1016/j.pnpbp.2004.10.013. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  • 64.Chengappa KN, Rathore D, Levine J, et al. Topiramate as add-on treatment for patients with bipolar mania. Bipolar Disord. 1999;1:42–53. doi: 10.1034/j.1399-5618.1999.10111.x. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  • 65.McElroy SL, Suppes T, Keck PE, et al. Open-label adjunctive topiramate in the treatment of bipolar disorders. Biol Psychiatry. 2000;47:1025–1033. doi: 10.1016/S0006-3223(99)00316-9. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  • 66.McIntyre RS, Mancini DA, McCann S, Srinivasan J, Sagman D, Kennedy SH. Topiramate versus bupropion SR when added to mood stabilizer therapy for the depressive phase of bipolar disorder: a preliminary single-blind study. Bipolar Disord. 2002;4:207–213. doi: 10.1034/j.1399-5618.2002.01189.x. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  • 67.Kamini V, Karine M, John G, Stuart W, Allan Y. Topiramate for acute affective episodes in bipolar disorder. Cochrane Database Syst Rev 2006:CD003384. [DOI] [PubMed]
  • 68.Dursun SM, Devarajan S. Accelerated weight loss after treating refractory depression with fluoxetine plus topiramate: possible mechanisms of action? Can J Psychiatry. 2001;46:287–288. doi: 10.1177/070674370104600316. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  • 69.Kanner AM, Wuu J, Faught E, Tatum WO, Fix A, French JA. A past psychiatric history may be a risk factor for topiramate-related psychiatric and cognitive adverse events. Epilepsy Behav. 2003;4:548–552. doi: 10.1016/j.yebeh.2003.07.007. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  • 70.Reith D, Burke C, Appleton DB, Wallace G, Pelekanos J. Tolerability of topiramate in children and adolescents. J Paediatr Child Health. 2003;39:416–419. doi: 10.1046/j.1440-1754.2003.00180.x. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  • 71.Kober D, Gabbard GO. Topiramate-induced psychosis. Am J Psychiatry. 2005;162:1542–1542. doi: 10.1176/appi.ajp.162.8.1542. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  • 72.Stella F, Caetano D, Cendes F, Guerreiro CA. Acute psychotic disorders induced by topiramate: report of two cases. Arq Neuropsiquiatr. 2002;60:285–287. doi: 10.1590/S0004-282X2002000200019. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  • 73.Besag FM. Behavioural effects of the newer antiepileptic drugs: an update. Expert Opin Drug Saf. 2004;3:1–8. doi: 10.1517/14740338.3.1.1. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  • 74.Hofer A, Fleischhacker WW, Hummer M. Worsening of psychosis after replacement of adjunctive valproate with topiramate in a schizophrenia patient. J Clin Psychiatry. 2003;64:1267–1268. doi: 10.4088/JCP.v64n1019c. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  • 75.Duggal HS, Singh I. Worsening of psychosis or topiramate-induced adverse event? Gen Hosp Psychiatry. 2004;26:245–247. doi: 10.1016/j.genhosppsych.2003.11.004. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  • 76.Nickel MK, Nickel C, Mitterlehner FO, et al. Topiramate treatment of aggression in female borderline personality disorder patients: a double-blind, placebo-controlled study. J Clin Psychiatry. 2004;65:1515–1519. doi: 10.4088/JCP.v65n1112. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  • 77.Nickel MK, Nickel C, Kaplan P, et al. Treatment of aggression with topiramate in male borderline patients: a double-blind, placebo-controlled study. Biol Psychiatry. 2005;57:495–499. doi: 10.1016/j.biopsych.2004.11.044. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  • 78.Janowsky DS, Kraus JE, Barnhill J, Elamir B, Davis JM. Effects of topiramate on aggressive, self-injurious, and disruptive/destructive behaviors in the intellectually disabled: an open-label retrospective study. J Clin Psychopharmacol. 2003;23:500–504. doi: 10.1097/01.jcp.0000088906.24613.76. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  • 79.Berlant JL. Prospective open-label study of add-on and mono-therapy topiramate in civilians with chronic nonhallucinatory posttraumatic stress disorder. BMC Psychiatry. 2004;4:24–24. doi: 10.1186/1471-244X-4-24. [DOI] [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  • 80.Rush AJ, George MS, Sackeim HA, et al. Vagus nerve stimulation (VNS) for treatment-resistant depression: a multicenter study. Biol Psychiatry. 2000;47:276–286. doi: 10.1016/S0006-3223(99)00304-2. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  • 81.George MS, Rush AJ, Marangell LB, et al. A one-year comparison of vagus nerve stimulation with treatment as usual for treatment-resistant depression. Biol Psychiatry. 2005;58:364–373. doi: 10.1016/j.biopsych.2005.07.028. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  • 82.Backonja MM. Use of anticonvulsants for treatment of neuropathic pain. Neurology. 2002;59(suppl 2):S14–17. doi: 10.1212/wnl.59.5_suppl_2.s14. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  • 83.Dworkin RH, Corbin AE, Young JP, et al. Pregabalin for the treatment of postherpetic neuralgia: a randomized, placebo-controlled trial. Neurology. 2003;60:1274–1283. doi: 10.1212/01.wnl.0000055433.55136.55. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  • 84.Sabatowski R, Galvez R, Cherry DA, et al. Pregabalin reduces pain and improves sleep and mood disturbances in patients with post-herpetic neuralgia: results of a randomized, placebo-controlled trial. Pain. 2004;109:26–35. doi: 10.1016/j.pain.2004.01.001. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  • 85.Rosenstock J, Tuchman M, LaMoreaux L, et al. Pregabalin for the treatment of painful diabetic peripheral neuropathy: a double-blind, placebo-controlled trial. Pain. 2004;110:628–638. doi: 10.1016/j.pain.2004.05.001. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  • 86.Lesser H, Sharma U, LaMoreaux L, et al. Pregabalin relieves symptoms of painful diabetic neuropathy: a randomized controlled trial. Neurology. 2004;63:2104–2110. doi: 10.1212/01.wnl.0000145767.36287.a1. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  • 87.Richter RW, Portenoy R, Sharma U, et al. Relief of painful diabetic peripheral neuropathy with pregabalin: a randomized, placebo-controlled trial. J Pain. 2005;6:253–260. doi: 10.1016/j.jpain.2004.12.007. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  • 88.Van Seventer R, Feister HA, Young JP, et al. Efficacy and tolerability of twice-daily pregabalin for treating pain and related sleep interference in postherpetic neuralgia: a 13-week randomized trial. Curr Med Res Opin. 2006;22:375–384. doi: 10.1185/030079906X80404. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  • 89.Crofford LJ, Rowbotham MC, Mease PJ, et al. Pregabalin for the treatment of fibromyalgia syndrome: results of a randomized, double-blind, placebo-controlled trial. Arthritis Rheum. 2005;52:1264–1273. doi: 10.1002/art.20983. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  • 90.Rice AS, Maton S, Postherpetic Neuralgia Study Group Gabapentin in postherpetic neuralgia: a randomised, double-blind, placebo-controlled study. Pain. 2001;94:215–224. doi: 10.1016/S0304-3959(01)00407-9. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  • 91.Rowbotham M, Harden N, Stacey B, et al. Gabapentin for the treatment of postherpetic neuralgia: a randomized controlled trial. JAMA. 1998;280:1837–1842. doi: 10.1001/jama.280.21.1837. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  • 92.Backonja M, Beydound A, Edwards KR, et al. Gabapentin for the symptomatic treatment of painful neuropathy in patients with diabetes mellitus: a randomized controlled trial. JAMA. 1998;280:1831–1836. doi: 10.1001/jama.280.21.1831. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  • 93.Gilron I, Flatters SJ. Gabapentin and pregabalin for the treatment of neuropathic pain: a review of laboratory and clinical evidence. Pain Res Manag. 2006;11(suppl A):16A–29A. [Google Scholar]
  • 94.Smith DG, Ehde DM, Hanley MA, et al. Efficacy of gabapentin in treating chronic phantom limb and residual limb pain. J Rehabil Res Dev. 2005;42:645–654. doi: 10.1682/JRRD.2005.05.0082. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  • 95.Mathew NT, Rapoport A, Saper J, et al. Efficacy of gabapentin in migraine prophylaxis. Headache. 2001;41:119–128. doi: 10.1046/j.1526-4610.2001.111006119.x. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  • 96.Dirks J, Fredensborg BB, Christensen D, Fomsgaard JS, Flyger H, Dahl JB. A randomized study of the effects of single-dose gabapentin versus placebo on postoperative pain and morphine consumption after mastectomy. Anesthesiology. 2002;97:560–564. doi: 10.1097/00000542-200209000-00007. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  • 97.Killian JM, Fromm GH. Carbamazepine in the treatment of neuralgia. Use and side effects. Arch Neurol. 1968;19:129–136. doi: 10.1001/archneur.1968.00480020015001. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  • 98.Nicol CF. A four year double blind study of Tegretol in facial pain. Headache. 1969;9:54–57. doi: 10.1111/j.1526-4610.1969.hed0901054.x. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  • 99.Vilming ST, Lyberg T, Lataste X. Tizanidine in the management of trigeminal neuralgia. Cephalgia. 1986;6:181–182. doi: 10.1046/j.1468-2982.1986.0603181.x. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  • 100.Lindsrom P, Lindblom U. The analgesic effect of tocainide in trigeminal neuralgia. Pain. 1987;28:45–50. doi: 10.1016/0304-3959(87)91058-X. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  • 101.Lechin F, van der Dijs B, Lechin ME, et al. Pimozide therapy for trigeminal neuralgia. Arch Neurol. 1989;46:960–963. doi: 10.1001/archneur.1989.00520450030015. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  • 102.Rull J, Quibrera R, Gonzalez-Millan H, et al. Symptomatic treatment of peripheral diabetic neuropathy with carbamazepine: double-blind crossover study. Diabetologia. 1969;5:215–220. doi: 10.1007/BF01212087. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  • 103.Leijon G, Boivie J. Central post-stroke pain- a controlled trial of amitriptyline and carbamazepine. Pain. 1989;28:45–50. doi: 10.1016/0304-3959(89)90108-5. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  • 104.Silberstein SD. Topiramate in migraine prevention. Headache. 2005;45(suppl 1):S57–65. doi: 10.1111/j.1526-4610.2005.4501005.x. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  • 105.Mathew NT, Kailasam J, Meadors L. Prophylaxis of migraine, transformed migraine and cluster headache with topiramate. Headache. 2002;42:796–803. doi: 10.1046/j.1526-4610.2002.02183.x. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  • 106.Chong MS, Libretto SE. The rationale and use of topiramate for treating neuropathic pain. Clin J Pain. 2003;19:59–68. doi: 10.1097/00002508-200301000-00008. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  • 107.Thienel U, Neto W, Schwabe SK, et al. Topiramate in painful diabetic polyneuropathy: findings from three double-blind placebo controlled trials. Acta Neurol Scand. 2004;10:221–231. doi: 10.1111/j.1600-0404.2004.00338.x. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  • 108.Raskin P, Donofrio PD, Rosenthal N, et al. Topiramate vs placebo in painful diabetic neuropathy: analgesic and metabolic effects. Neurology. 2004;63:865–873. doi: 10.1212/01.wnl.0000137341.89781.14. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  • 109.Khoromi S, Patsalides A, Parada S, et al. Topiramate in chronic lumbar radicular pain. J Pain. 2005;6:829–836. doi: 10.1016/j.jpain.2005.08.002. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  • 110.Muehlbacher M, Nickel MK, Kettler C, et al. Topiramate in treatment of patients with chronic low back pain: a randomized, double-blind, placebo-controlled study. Clin J Pain. 2006;22:526–531. doi: 10.1097/.ajp.0000192516.58578.a4. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  • 111.Rothrock JF. Clinical studies of valproate for migraine prophylaxis. Cephalalgia. 1997;17:81–83. doi: 10.1046/j.1468-2982.1997.1702081.x. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  • 112.Chadda VS, Mathur M. Double-blind study of the effects of diphenylhydantoin sodium on diabetic neuropathy. J Assoc Physicans India. 1978;26:403–406. [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  • 113.Saudek CD, Wems S, Reidenberg MM. Phenytoin in the treatment of diabetic symmetrical neuropathy. Clin Pharmacol Ther. 1977;22:196–199. doi: 10.1002/cpt1977222196. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  • 114.McCleane GJ. Intravenous infusion of phenytoin relieves neuropathic pain: a randomized, double-blind, placebo-controlled, crossover study. Anesth Analg. 1999;89:985–988. doi: 10.1097/00000539-199910000-00030. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  • 115.Vestergaard K, Andersen G, Gottrup H, et al. Lamotrigine for central poststroke pain: a randomized controlled trial. Neurology. 2001;56:184–190. doi: 10.1212/wnl.56.2.184. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  • 116.Simpson DM, McArthur JC, Olney R, et al. Lamotrigine for HIV-associated painful sensory neuropathies: a placebo-controlled trial. Neurology. 2003;60:1508–1514. doi: 10.1212/01.wnl.0000063304.88470.d9. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  • 117.Zakrzewska JM, Chaudhry Z, Nurmikko TJ, et al. Lamotrigine (Lamictal) in refractory trigeminal neuralgia: results from a double-blind placebo-controlled crossover trial. Pain. 1997;73:223–230. doi: 10.1016/S0304-3959(97)00104-8. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  • 118.Sindrup SH, Jensen TS. Pharmacotherapy of trigeminal neuralgia. Clin J Pain. 2002;18:22–27. doi: 10.1097/00002508-200201000-00004. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  • 119.Finnerup NB, Sindrup SH, Bach FW, et al. Lamotrigine in spinal cord injury pain: a randomized controlled trial. Pain. 2002;96:375–383. doi: 10.1016/S0304-3959(01)00484-5. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  • 120.McCleane G. 200mg daily of lamotrigine has no analgesic effect in neuropathic pain: a randomized, double-blind placebo controlled trial. Pain. 1999;83:105–107. doi: 10.1016/S0304-3959(99)00095-0. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  • 121.Zakrzewska JM, Pansalos PN. Oxcarbazepine: a new drug in the management of intractable trigeminal neuralgia. J Neurol Neurosurg Psychiatry. 1989;52:472–476. doi: 10.1136/jnnp.52.4.472. [DOI] [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  • 122.Dogra S, Beydoun S, Mazzola J, et al. Oxcarbazepine in painful diabetic neuropathy: a randomized, placebo-controlled study. Eur J Pain. 2005;9:543–554. doi: 10.1016/j.ejpain.2004.11.006. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]

Articles from Neurotherapeutics are provided here courtesy of Elsevier

RESOURCES