Abstract
Evidence suggests that drinking cope (DTC) motivation becomes a greater risk factor for drinking-related problems as individuals progress through young adulthood. To test this, we examined how the effect of DTC motivation on a variety of drinking-related problems, controlling for drinking level, changed as individuals made the transition from college life to post-college life. We also included social, enhancement and conformity motives in our models to examine how their unique effects on drinking-related problems change across this developmental period. College students (N=939) reported their drinking motives, drinking level, and drinking-related problems during college and again approximately five years later (post-college). Results showed that DTC motivation became a stronger positive predictor for drinking-related interpersonal problems, but none of the other problem types. Conformity motivation became a stronger positive predictor for five out of the six problem types examined and some evidence indicated that social motives become more protective post-college, showing unique negative associations with certain problems. Our findings highlight the need to better understand how the effects of drinking motives on distinct types of drinking-related problems might change as individuals advance through early adulthood.
Keywords: drinking motivation, alcohol-related consequences, longitudinal changes
1. Introduction
College life for many is characterized by heavy drinking and associated drinking-related problems (Rinker et al., 2016; White & Hingson, 2013). Although the majority of these individuals decrease this behavior as they transition into post-college life, some do not (Arria et. al., 2016; Jochman & Fromme, 2009; Maggs & Schulenberg, 2004). One factor thought to be associated with failure to “mature out” of problematic drinking during this developmental period is drinking to cope (DTC) with stress and negative affect (Cooper et al., 2016). Although DTC motivation is not strongly related to drinking level after controlling for other motives, it has been consistently found to be a robust predictor of drinking-related problems (Littlefield et. al., 2010; Cooper et al., 2016). In addition, evidence indicates that its deleterious effects might become more pronounced as individuals progress through early adulthood (Patrick & Schulenberg, 2011; Perkins, 1999). In the present study, we examined whether the unique association between DTC motivation and drinking-related problems increased in strength from college to post-college life. In a more exploratory fashion, we also examined whether the associations between non-coping drinking motives and drinking-related problems changed across this important transition period.
1.1. Drinking motives and drinking-related problems during young adulthood
Studies commonly show that DTC motivation predicts drinking-related problems over and above drinking level (Cooper et. al., 2016; Merrill et al., 2014). Evidence also indicates that DTC motivation might play an increasingly important role during the maturing out phase, with higher levels of this motivation being related to continued problematic drinking. For example, Littlefield et al.’s (2010) long-term longitudinal study tracking college student drinkers from ages 18 to 35 showed that decreases in DTC motivation, but not enhancement motivation (i.e., drinking to have fun), over this period were associated with decreases in drinking-related problems. They posited that this might represent changes in general abilities to problem-solve and manage negative emotions, and that individuals who fail to develop in these areas might be more likely to engage in DTC, and subsequently be at greater risk for alcohol use disorders.
Evidence also indicates that not only does continued DTC account for increased risk for drinking-related problems during young adulthood, but that drinking for this reason might become more problematic. For example, Perkins (1999) found that DTC motives were more closely related to alcohol-related problems among graduates compared to undergraduates from the same university. Patrick and Schulenberg (2011) presented similar findings in their analysis of a nationally representative sample of young adults; they found that after age 22, changes in binge drinking were most strongly associated with changes in coping-related reasons for drinking. Finally, Armeli et al. (2018) found that the positive association between episode-specific levels of DTC motivation and next-day levels of anxiety and symptoms of reduced self-control increased from college years to post-college life five years later.
In contrast to DTC motivation, less research has focused on the unique effects of other drinking motives on drinking-related problems. According to Cooper et al. (2016), internally-focused avoidance-related motives (e.g., coping with negative emotions) should be most problematic, externally-focused approach-related motives (e.g., social) should be least problematic, and conformity and enhancement motivation should fall somewhat in between. There is some evidence for this proposed pattern of effects on drinking-related problems. For example, Cooper et al. (2106) reported meta-analysis derived associations for motives and drinking-related problems consistent with this pattern. In addition, Merrill and Read (2010) found that enhancement motives uniquely predicated blackout drinking (e.g., having passed out from drinking) and conformity motives uniquely predicted poor self-care, diminished self-perception and impaired control (e.g., drinking more than planned). However, no study to date has examined whether these unique effects change across the college to post-college transition period.
1.2. The present study
The primary goal of the present study was to examine whether the association between DTC motivation and drinking-related problems intensifies as individuals progress through early adulthood. We advanced this research in several ways. First, no study has examined the unique effects (i.e., controlling for alcohol use and social, conformity and enhancement motives) of DTC motivation on drinking-related problems across the critical transition period after college. We examined this using a large sample of moderate to heavy drinking young adults who we first assessed in college and again 5 years later. Second, we examined multiple domains of drinking-related problems because past research has found DTC motivation to be differentially related to problem types. For example, Merrill and colleagues found that coping motives uniquely predicted – in both cross-sectional (Merrill & Read, 2010) and prospective (Merrill et al., 2014) analyses – drinking-related academic problems, risky behavior (e.g., driving while intoxicated or getting into a physical fight), and poor self-care (e.g., over/under eating or not sleeping enough). Understanding what types of DTC-related outcomes are more likely as individuals progress through young adulthood could provide important information for prevention and intervention efforts.
In a more exploratory fashion, we also examined whether the unique effects of other drinking motives on drinking problems changed across this transition period. Based on previous findings (Cooper et al., 2016; Merrill & Read, 2010) we expected that avoidance-related motives (conformity) and internally-focused motives (enhancement) should show stronger positive unique effects on drinking-related problems compared social motivation. We made no predictions about how these associations might change during this transition period.
2. Material and Methods
2.1. Participants
Prospective participants (N = 1141) were selected from a larger study of college student alcohol use (Armeli et al., 2014) if they reported at least one heavy drinking day (≥ 4 drinks for women and ≥ 5 drinks for men) in two separate drinking assessments during college (wave 1 of the present study); see Armeli et al. (2018) for greater detail regarding longitudinal recruitment. These individuals were contacted approximately five years later (post-college); we obtained data 939 participants (82% of the targeted sample). Participants were surveyed on their drinking motives, alcohol use and drinking related problems at both waves. The final sample was 86.4% Caucasian, 73.0% were in their first or second year of college during wave 1, and the mean ages were 19.2 years (SD = 1.3) at wave 1 (college) and 24.6 years (SD = 1.3) at wave 2 (post-college).
2.2. Measures
Drinking motives were assessed at each wave with a slightly modified version of Cooper’s (1994) drinking motives scale.1 Respondents rated how often they drank for each reason using a 5-point scale from 1 (almost never/never) to 5 (almost always/always). We calculated 4 subscales by averaging together the corresponding items; reliabilities for wave 1 and 2 were as follows: enhancement (αs=.86, 90), coping (αs=.87, .90), social (αs=.89, .92) and conformity (αs=.84, .87).
Drinking level was measured at each wave by asking participants to report their number of drinking days and heavy drinking days (≥4 drinks for women and ≥5 drinks for men) in the last month and the average number of drinks they consumed each day of the week in the past three months (which we averaged together to get mean daily drinking). We standardized these three variables and averaged them together to create an overall drinking composite score. Reliabilities (αs) for wave 1 and 2 were .88 and .86.
Drinking-related problems were measured during each wave with the brief YAACQ (Kahler et al., 2005). Participants reported the frequency in the past year of each problem using a 4-point scale (1= “never,” 2 = “1–2 times,” 3 = “3–5 times,” 4 = “>5 times”). Across both waves we calculated six subscales corresponding to the domains identified in the original 48-item version (Read et al., 2006); we only calculated subscales for which at least 3 items were available on the brief scale. Subscales and reliabilities (alpha) across waves were: interpersonal (3 items; αs .67, .69), impaired control (3 items; αs .72, .75), poor self-care (3 items; αs .64, .70), risky behavior (4 items; αs .77, .79), academic/occupation (3 items; αs .78, .85), and blackout drinking (5 items; αs .76, .84). A complete list of the items can be found in the online supplement.
2.3. Results
Table 1 shows the descriptive statistics and correlations across both waves. Drinking motives, problems, and drinking level decreased from college to post-college except control problems, which did not change, and self-care problems and drinking days, which increased over time. Next, multiple linear regressions were used to examine how the motives, controlling for drinking level, were associated with the drinking problems across each wave (see Table 2). Drinking level was positively related to all problems at both waves. Similarly, DTC motivation was positively related to all problems at both times, except for blackout drinking post-college. Social motivation did not predict any problems during college; however, post-college social motivation was negatively related to self-control, risky behaviors and academic/occupational problems. Enhancement motives were only positively related to interpersonal, risky behavior and blackout drinking during college but were positively related to all problems post-college. Finally, conformity motives were only positively related to risky behavior problems during college, but post-college they were positively related all problems.2
Table 1.
Descriptive statistics across college and post-college assessments.
| College | Post-college | |||||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Variable | M | SD | M | SD | t | p |
| Coping Motivation | 1.89 | .81 | 1.77 | .71 | 4.48 | <.001 |
| Social Motivation | 3.53 | .94 | 3.21 | .89 | 14.29 | <.001 |
| Enhancement Motivation | 3.13 | .97 | 2.64 | .94 | 9.52 | <.001 |
| Conformity Motivation | 1.64 | .76 | 1.58 | .68 | 2.27 | .023 |
| Interpersonal Problems | 1.92 | .62 | 1.73 | .61 | 8.42 | <.001 |
| Control Problems | 1.84 | .74 | 1.79 | .74 | 1.80 | .072 |
| Self-Care Problems | 1.57 | .59 | 1.68 | .72 | −4.21 | <.001 |
| Risky Behavior Problems | 1.72 | .63 | 1.56 | .60 | 6.58 | <.001 |
| Academic/Occupational Problems | 1.46 | .68 | 1.30 | .55 | 6.38 | <.001 |
| Blackout Drinking Problems | 2.01 | .68 | 1.94 | .61 | 2.98 | <.001 |
| Drinking Days Per Month | 7.23 | 4.09 | 8.49 | 6.23 | −5.69 | <.001 |
| Heavy Drinking Days | 4.86 | 3.43 | 3.14 | 3.44 | 12.35 | <.001 |
| Drinks Per Day | 1.90 | 1.20 | 1.22 | .98 | 16.83 | <.001 |
Note. t = Dependent samples; all had df = 938, except self-care and academic/occupational df = 937; Drinking days per month and heavy drinking days df = 936.
Table 2.
Regression results across waves.
| College | Post-college | Wave | |||||||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| B | SE | β | p | B | SE | β | p | p | |
| Interpersonal Problems | |||||||||
| Alcohol Use | .22 | .02 | .32 | <.001 | .16 | .02 | .24 | <.001 | |
| Cope | .10 | .03 | .14 | .001 | .21 | .03 | .24 | <.001 | .042 |
| Social | −.01 | .03 | −.01 | .809 | −.01 | .03 | −.02 | .585 | .965 |
| Enhance | .08 | .03 | .12 | .004 | .09 | .03 | .14 | .002 | .726 |
| Conformity | .04 | .03 | .05 | .225 | .08 | .03 | .09 | .015 | .415 |
| Self-Control Problems | |||||||||
| Alcohol Use | .37 | .02 | .45 | <.001 | .38 | .02 | .46 | <.001 | |
| Cope | .24 | .03 | .26 | <.001 | .20 | .04 | .19 | <.001 | .352 |
| Social | −.03 | .03 | −.04 | .302 | −.10 | .03 | −.11 | .001 | .128 |
| Enhance | .04 | .03 | .06 | .146 | .12 | .03 | .15 | <.001 | .061 |
| Conformity | .04 | .03 | .04 | .260 | .17 | .03 | .16 | <.001 | .008 |
| Self-Care Problems | |||||||||
| Alcohol Use | .21 | .02 | .32 | <.001 | .29 | .02 | .37 | <.001 | |
| Cope | .09 | .03 | .13 | .001 | .09 | .04 | .09 | .018 | .933 |
| Social | .01 | .03 | .01 | .816 | −.05 | .03 | −.06 | .089 | .239 |
| Enhance | .00 | .03 | .00 | .919 | .13 | .03 | .17 | <.001 | <.001 |
| Conformity | .06 | .03 | .07 | .065 | .20 | .04 | .19 | <.001 | .008 |
| Risky Behavior Problems | |||||||||
| Alcohol Use | .27 | .02 | .38 | <.001 | .16 | .02 | .24 | .000 | |
| Cope | .11 | .03 | .14 | <.001 | .18 | .03 | .21 | <.001 | .356 |
| Social | .01 | .03 | .02 | .713 | −.08 | .02 | −.12 | .001 | .013 |
| Enhance | .07 | .03 | .11 | .006 | .11 | .02 | .18 | <.001 | .781 |
| Conformity | .07 | .03 | .08 | .023 | .16 | .03 | .18 | <.001 | .019 |
| Academic/Occupational Problems | |||||||||
| Alcohol Use | .30 | .02 | .39 | <.001 | .14 | .02 | .23 | <.001 | |
| Cope | .20 | .03 | .24 | <.001 | .16 | .03 | .20 | <.001 | .108 |
| Social | −.02 | .03 | −.02 | .571 | −.13 | .02 | −.21 | <.001 | .002 |
| Enhance | −.02 | .03 | −.03 | .423 | .06 | .02 | .11 | .006 | .214 |
| Conformity | .04 | .03 | .04 | .252 | .17 | .03 | .21 | <.001 | <.001 |
| Blackout Drinking Problems | |||||||||
| Alcohol Use | .33 | .02 | .43 | <.001 | .23 | .02 | .34 | <.001 | |
| Cope | .14 | .03 | .16 | <.001 | .06 | .03 | .07 | .071 | .028 |
| Social | .02 | .03 | .03 | .399 | .01 | .02 | .02 | .616 | .604 |
| Enhance | .06 | .03 | .08 | .049 | .13 | .02 | .20 | <.001 | .113 |
| Conformity | .01 | .03 | .01 | .781 | .13 | .03 | .15 | <.001 | .006 |
Note. B = unstandardized partial slope; SE = standard error; β = standardized partial slope. Wave = p-value for significance test for the change in slopes from college to post-college. N for all models at both waves 939 except for self-care and academic/occupational problems which was 938.
Next, we used generalized estimating equations to test whether the associations between each motive and drinking-problems changed over time. Specifically, using all observations across both time points, we specified a linear model with an identity link and an exchangeable error structure; models included study wave (coded 0, 1), the four motive scales and four wave × motive product terms (all entered simultaneously). Table 2 shows the p-values for the wave × motive interaction which corresponds to the differences in the slopes across time. Results indicated that the association between DTC motivation and interpersonal problems became stronger in the positive direction from college to post-college years. In contrast, the DTC motivation- blackout drinking association became weaker across time.
We found several other significant time interactions as well. Specifically, the unique effect of social motives on risky behavior and academic/occupational problems became significant post-college in the negative direction, suggesting that social motives had a protective effect post-college. In contrast, the effect of conformity motivation became either significant or increased in the positive direction for self-care, self-control, risky behavior, academic/occupational, and blackout drinking. Finally, the association between enhancement motivation and self-care problems became significant in the positive direction over time.
3. Discussion
We found mixed support for the notion that the unique effect of DTC motivation on drinking-related problems increases in strength as individuals progress through early adulthood. Although we did find that the unique association between DTC motivation and drinking-related interpersonal problems became stronger in the positive direction, its association with blackout drinking became weaker over time, and none of the other associations changed. However, it is possible that the increased effect of DTC motivation on interpersonal problems in and of itself might help explain why this reason for drinking becomes more hazardous as young adults progress through young adulthood (Littlefield et al., 2010; Perkins 1999). Increased interpersonal problems might be especially problematic for young adults in that they might result in belongingness needs being unmet, which can result in a variety of negative consequences (DeWall & Bushman, 2011). Indeed, evidence indicates that interpersonal problems, compared to other types of stressors, are more closely linked to depression for young adults (Vrshek-Schallhorn et al., 2015). Thus, DTC motivation’s link to this type of stress might be part of a feedback process that increases in intensity during this developmental period and increases the chances of developing AUDs. It should be noted that neither Merrill and Read (2010) nor Merrill et al., (2014) found DTC motivation uniquely predictive of drinking-related interpersonal problems. Our significant results might be due to the higher power afforded by our larger sample size and the fact that this association increased in size post-college (i.e., our participants were older and no longer in college in our second wave).
We also found changes in the unique effects of other motives, with especially robust effects for conformity motives. Indeed, the effect of conformity motives increased in the positive direction in five out of the six models, suggesting that this reason for drinking becomes more problematic as individuals move through this developmental period. One possibility is that continued drinking to conform (i.e., drinking to fit in and be liked) post-college, compared to college years, might be driven by different factors such as a lack of progress in achieving adult social roles (e.g., not having close friends or a significant other) that bolster self-identity and provide a sense of belongingness (see Lambert et al., 2013). To the degree that conformity-related drinking does not satisfy these needs, these underlying issues might become exacerbated leading to continued distress, and in turn, problems during the drinking episode (e.g., risky behavior) and in everyday life (e.g., neglecting responsibilities). We also found changes in the effects of social motives in that higher levels were associated with lower levels of risky behavior and academic/occupation problems post-college. The mechanisms underlying this effect might be similar to those for conformity motives, but in the opposite direction, i.e., socially motivated drinking might reflect adaptive social interaction that fulfill needs for social belongingness, thus reducing impulsive and/or reckless behavior that might cause such outcome. Given the unpredicted nature of these effects, replication is warranted.
Several limitations of the current study merit mentioning. First, the non-experimental design limits any inferences of causality. Second, our measures of the drinking-problem subtypes included only a subset of the original items (which had somewhat low reliabilities) and have not been previously validated. In addition, DTC motivation subscale was slightly altered. Thus, replication of our findings using the original DTC scale and the full set of items for the drinking-related problems subscales is needed. Third, participants retrospectively reported on drinking levels; future studies using more comprehensive assessments such as daily reporting or time-line follow back are needed. Finally, the sample was predominantly White and from one university, thus limiting our generalizability. Nevertheless, our findings contribute to our understanding of how distinct drinking motives differentially predict drinking-related problems as individuals progress through early adulthood and could help in differentially targeting intervention and prevention efforts.
Supplementary Material
Highlights.
Evidence for changes in the associations between drinking motives and problems
Drinking to cope more strongly associated with interpersonal problems post-college
Conformity motives more strongly predict alcohol-related problems post-college
Social drinking motives may be protective post-college
Statement 1: Role of Funding Sources
Funding for this study was provided by NIAAA Grants 5P60-AA003510 and 5T32-AA007290. NIAAA had no role in the study design, collection, analysis or interpretation of the data, writing the manuscript, or the decision to submit the paper for publication.
Footnotes
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Author Agreement
All authors have seen and approved the final version of this manuscript. The article is the authors’ original work, hasn’t received prior publication, and isn’t under consideration for publication elsewhere.
Statement 3: Conflict of Interest
All of the authors declare that they have no conflicts of interest.
For goals unrelated to the present study, the coping subscale items were modified by splitting two original items (drinking because “because it helps you when you depressed or nervous” and “because you feel more self-confident and sure of yourself”) into two items each, respectively, i.e., “…when you feel depressed,” “…when you feel nervous,” “…feel more self-confident,” and “…,feel more sure of yourself”).
We re-estimated the models controlling for year in school at wave 1. We created three dummy codes to compare sophomores, juniors and seniors to freshmen. Inclusion of these codes did not change the pattern of findings for motives.
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