Abstract
Decentering is a detached, observer perspective on one’s current mental contents. Recent work has identified two potential aspects of decentering, Observer Perspective (OP) and Reduced Struggle (RS), that independently predict the effects of decentering. Specifically, both OP and RS predict reduced psychological distress in response to negative affect, with some variability in predictive utility across outcomes. In this study, we sought to extend previous work by examining OP and RS as predictors of responses to an external source of distress, a painful stimulus. Participants completed measures of decentering, followed by a cold pressor task for up to 4 minutes. We recorded time that participants were able to withstand the cold water bath and the intensity of the pain experienced. We found that both OP and RS predicted participants’ pain tolerance and pain intensity, but that only RS did so uniquely. Results are discussed with respect to theory on decentering.
Keywords: mindfulness, decentering, pain, metacognition, defusion
Mindfulness-related concepts have received a great deal of empirical and conceptual attention in recent years across multiple disciplines, and many studies have examined the relationships between mindfulness concepts and emotion regulation, decision making, mental health, and well-being concepts (for reviews, see Brown, Ryan, & Creswell, 2007; Chambers, Gullone, & Allen, 2009; Chiesa, Calati, & Serretti, 2011; Creswell & Lindsay, 2014; Dahl, Lutz, & Davidson, 2015; Garland, Farb, Goldin, & Fredrickson, 2015; Hölzel et al., 2011; Kang, Gruber, & Gray, 2013; Keng, Smoski, & Robins, 2011). In the present investigation, we focus on the mindfulness-related concept of decentering, which is particularly central to this special issue, and examine the extent to which it predicts people’s response to a pain induction.
Decentering
Consistent with Bernstein and colleagues (2015), we use the term decentering to represent a concept that has appeared under a variety of names, depending on researchers’ theoretical orientation (e.g., acceptance and commitment therapy, cognitive behavioral therapy, mindfulness based cognitive therapy), including decentering, defusion, self-distancing, and others. We define decentering as a detached, observer perspective on one’s current mental contents (e.g., Fresco, Segal, Buis, & Kennedy, 2007; McCracken, Gutiérrez-Martínez, & Smyth, 2013; Naragon-Gainey & DeMarree, 2017b; Teasdale et al., 2002). Decentering is characterized by present focused awareness, where the object of awareness is one’s internal states, and the type of awareness is that of psychological distance and detachment. Decentering has been implicated as an important mindfulness-related concept, one that might have key implications for understanding the effects of mindfulness on a variety of outcomes (Keng et al., 2011; Shoham, Goldstein, Oren, Spivak, & Bernstein, 2017), and in particular in understanding relapse following treatment for affective disorders (Fresco, Segal, et al., 2007; Teasdale et al., 2002) and people’s ability to thrive in the face of chronic pain (McCracken et al., 2013).
Recent work has suggested that there may be multiple decentering concepts. For example, Bernstein et al. (2015) differentiated three concepts: meta-awareness (people’s awareness of their current internal states), disidentification from internal experience (psychological distance from internal states), and reduced reactivity to thought content (less impact of internal states on other mental processes). Although they did not examine meta-awareness, Naragon-Gainey and DeMarree (2017b) found independent support for the latter two concepts when they examined a host of scales thought to measure decentering and the related concept of defusion (for convergent support, see Hadash, Lichtash, & Bernstein, 2017). Specifically, they identified observer perspective (OP) and reduced struggle with inner experience (RS) as two potential concepts captured by existing measures. OP most closely maps onto the initial definition of decentering provided above, as it represents the detached awareness of one’s internal states. RS represents reductions in people’s distress in response to their internal experiences and fewer attempts to control their (typically negative) internal states.
Naragon-Gainey and DeMarree (2017b) noted that the factor structure obtained in their research did not offer unequivocal support for the constructs proposed in the Bernstein et al. (2015) model, as multiple interpretations of the factor structure that emerged are possible. Notably, they considered that RS might be a consequence of decentering rather than decentering itself, or might be a proxy for (lack of) maladaptive functioning. They also noted that the two-factor solution may have emerged because of relatively low meta-awareness in the sample studied which could limit insight into OP or because of the direction of item coding (all OP items were positively coded, all RS items were negatively coded). Thus, although some theory and research has suggested that RS and OP are distinct concepts, the evidence is equivocal. Further, if they are distinct concepts, the conceptual relationship between them is not yet well-understood. Rather than take a strong stance on these issues, we await further empirical work addressing these concerns, and acknowledge that data like those presented here may ultimately bear on these discussions.
In their initial work, Naragon-Gainey and DeMarree (2017b) observed that both OP and RS had conceptually meaningful and differential patterns of relationships with criteria, including measures of mindfulness, emotion regulation, and mental health and well-being. Follow-up work examined more conceptually nuanced predictions. For example, higher levels of decentering are thought to facilitate more flexible responses to internal experiences, such that higher decentering should reduce the negative sequelae of difficult emotions and thoughts. Naragon-Gainey and DeMarree (2017a) examined this hypothesis by testing decentering as a moderator of the link between negative affect and the psychological distress that negative affect often produces. Their prediction was that increases in decentering would weaken the associations of negative affect with outcomes such as symptoms of dysphoria, anxiety, and panic. Although there was some variability in prediction across outcomes and samples, the general pattern observed was that increases in OP or RS (with RS generally driving effects) predicted a weaker relationship between negative affect and these outcomes (Naragon-Gainey & DeMarree, 2017a). Further, these patterns were observed both when examined at the trait level and when examined based on momentary reports of affect and distress in daily life. Taken together, there is increasing empirical evidence that several separable decentering constructs are associated with more healthy psychological functioning.
Decentering and pain
In addition to their impact on purely internally-generated states, mindfulness related concepts can mitigate people’s maladaptive responses to physical pain. Indeed, some of the earliest Western scientific studies of mindfulness were in the context of helping people cope with chronic pain (Kabat-Zinn, 1982; Kabat-Zinn, Lipworth, & Burney, 1985), and the application of mindfulness to pain conditions is an ongoing focus of research (e.g., Harrison, Scott, Johns, Morris, & McCracken, 2017; McCracken & Morley, 2014; Vago & Nakamura, 2011). Interestingly, much of this work has narrowed in on decentering as a critical predictor of adaptive responses to pain and as a key point of intervention for people with chronic pain. Decentering is particularly important with regard to distress caused by pain because this distress is often maintained by negative evaluations of the pain (e.g., “This is unbearable”). Taking a decentered or defused stance to such thoughts is likely to reduce their detrimental cognitive and behavioral impact, increasing quality of life and psychological flexibility (for a review, see McCracken & Morley, 2014).
Considerably less research has examined mindfulness and responses to situational inductions of pain in the laboratory, such as electric shocks or immersion of the hand in very cold water (i.e., cold pressor task). Existing research on mindfulness and induced pain examined seasoned meditators (Grant, Courtemanche, & Rainville, 2011), short term meditation training (Kingston, Chadwick, Meron, & Skinner, 2007), single sessions of meditation (Liu, Wang, Chang, Chen, & Si, 2013), and trait mindfulness (Petter, Chambers, McGrath, & Dick, 2013). Although there was variability in these effects, the general pattern was that mindfulness-related concepts reduce the distress people experience in response to a painful stimulus, and in some cases increase people’s tolerance of painful stimuli. However, none of this work has examined decentering or its components specifically.
Present research
The present work seeks to examine two components of trait decentering (OP and RS) as predictors of people’s tolerance of and distress in response to a situational induction of pain, the cold pressor. We believe the current study addresses three key gaps in the literature.
First, as just noted, no work on mindfulness and people’s response to non-chronic pain has examined decentering specifically. Given the postulated importance of decentering in the management and experience of pain (McCracken & Morley, 2014), it is important to test decentering specifically, rather than general mindfulness, particularly given variability in definitions and conceptualizations of mindfulness (see e.g., Van Dam et al., 2018).
Second, past research that has examined decentering as a predictor of responses to negative experiences has measured naturally occurring variability in people’s trait or state affect (Naragon-Gainey & DeMarree, 2017a), but naturally-occurring affect is a function of numerous individual differences (e.g., personality, history of life stress, genetic predispositions) and is itself impacted by decentering. The present research allows us to provide all participants, regardless of their level of decentering, with a standardized negative stimulus (the cold pressor task). In this way, decentering can be more cleanly tested as a predictor of responses to an aversive experience.
Last, some theories regarding the distress caused by chronic pain emphasize the separability of the experience of pain and subsequent behaviors, such that decentering should weaken the link between the two (e.g., McCracken & Morley, 2014). Thus, it is plausible that decentering particularly impacts behavioral (as opposed to cognitive or emotional) responses to pain. The cold pressor task is well-suited to capture a specific behavioral response, measured objectively as one’s willingness to keep the hand immersed in cold water for a longer time period (i.e., tolerance).
Consistent with previous theory and research (Bernstein et al., 2015; Fresco, Segal, et al., 2007; Naragon-Gainey & DeMarree, 2017a), we hypothesized that trait measures of decentering concepts would predict increased tolerance of and decreased distress in response to the cold pressor. We remained open as to whether any effects would be driven by OP or RS, though past work suggests that RS would be the more consistent predictor (Naragon-Gainey & DeMarree, 2017a).
Method
Participants
Participants were 230 students at the University at Buffalo.1 Participants were diverse with respect to gender (143 male, 87 female) and racial or ethnic background (98 White, 14 Hispanic/Latinx, 105 Asian/Asian American, 3 American Indian/Alaskan Native, 1 unreported, multiple selections possible), but not age (Mage = 19.09, SD = 1.23). Sample size was determined by the maximum number of participants we could run in a single semester. This study was approved by the University at Buffalo Institutional Review Board.
Study procedure
This study was part of a larger data collection effort. As such, we report only those measures analyzed for the purpose of this paper, but additional details on the study contents are available from the first author. An experimenter greeted participants and obtained informed consent. Participants began the study by completing a series of questionnaires, including the trait decentering measures. Participants then completed the cold pressor task, as described below, which included and was followed by the dependent measures assessing pain and responses to pain during the task. Finally, participants were debriefed and dismissed.
Study tasks and materials
Reliability and descriptive statistics for each measure can be found in Table 1.
Table 1.
Descriptive statistics and correlations among measured variables
| N | α | M | SD | EQ | CFQ | Toler | MPQ-SF | Inten | |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| EQ | 230 | .86 | 3.45 | 0.62 | |||||
| CFQ | 229 | .92 | 3.71 | 1.24 | −.33** | ||||
| Tolerance (sec) | 227 | 85.59 | 83.14 | .16* | −.20** | ||||
| MPQ-SF | 226 | .90 | 1.02 | 0.62 | .02 | .18** | −.24** | ||
| Mean Intens | 227 | 6.33 | 2.02 | −.06 | .11 | −.34** | .38** | ||
| Mean Unpl | 226 | 7.11 | 2.03 | .03 | .09 | −.42** | .35** | .81** |
Note: EQ = Experiences Questionnaire; CFQ = Cognitive Fusion Questionnaire (note this is a negative indicator of decentering); Tolerance = total time in seconds submerged in cold water bath; Mean Intens = average intensity of pain across available observations during the task, Mean Unpl = average unpleasantness of pain across available observations during the task.
Cold pressor task.
Our methods closely followed those used in other cold pressor experiments. Prior to beginning the cold pressor task, participants submerged their hand in a warm water bath to create a consistent baseline temperature across participants (Sharpe, Perry, Rogers, Refshauge, & Nicholas, 2013; von Baeyer, Piira, Chambers, Trapanotto, & Zeltzer, 2005). To generate the warm water bath, a Tetra HT Submersible Aquarium Heater with Electronic Thermostat was attached to the side of a 2.5-gallon (approximately 9.5 liters) bucket of water, and the temperature was set to 37 °C (+/− 2 °C). Participants submerged their non-dominant hand up to 5 centimeters above the wrist; palm facing upward; in a relaxed, but still orientation. Meanwhile, participants were given verbal instructions with visual aid on the two questions they would be asked during the cold pressor task: (a) how intense, and (b) how unpleasant the experience felt (see “Cold Pressor Pain Tolerance and Momentary Experience” for further detail). In addition to the verbal instruction, the two questions and the response scale were also provided on a poster, which was visible to participants as they completed the cold pressor task. Participants were instructed to leave their hand in the cold-water bath for as long as they could, even if it was uncomfortable, but to remove it when it became too uncomfortable or hurt too much.
Participants then placed their non-dominant hand in the cold water bath in the same orientation as the warm water bath for a maximum of four minutes, a ceiling recommended to avoid tissue damage (von Baeyer et al., 2005). Because tolerance was a variable of interest, participants were not informed about the four minute ceiling (Birnie, Petter, Boerner, Noel, & Chambers, 2012). The cold pressor device used was a commercially available Cole-Parmer Polystat Cooling/Heating Circulating Bath, Advanced, 8.6–15 L, −28 to 200°C, 115 VAC. The device allowed us to maintain a steady temperature at 5 °C, and continuously circulates water to prevent local warming around the participant’s hand (Petter et al., 2013). After completion of the task, participants were allowed to dry and warm their hand, and then completed the short-form of the McGill Pain Questionnaire.
Cold pressor pain tolerance and momentary experience.
The research assistant asked participants to rate the intensity and unpleasantness of their experience immediately after beginning the cold pressor task and then every 30 seconds until they removed their hand from the cold water bath and immediately after removing their hand (or until the four minute ceiling time). Participants responded verbally on 10-point scales, anchored at no pain at all and the most intense pain you’ve experienced for intensity, and not bothered by the pain at all and extremely bothered by the pain for unpleasantness. These questions were adapted from previous research using the cold pressor task (Ruiz-Aranda, Salguero, & Fernández-Berrocal, 2010; Seery, Leo, Lupien, Kondrak, & Almonte, 2013). Consistent with research using similar measures (Seery et al., 2013), we averaged across the available time points for intensity and unpleasantness separately. Along with these ratings, time at which their hand was removed (i.e. tolerance) was recorded for all participants.
McGill Pain Questionnaire – Short form (MPQ-SF).
The MPQ-SF (Melzack, 1987) is a widely used self-report measure of pain. The measure asks participants to indicate the extent to which each of 15 descriptors (11 sensory; four affective) characterize a specific painful experience (here, the cold pressor task). Each of the descriptors was rated on a 4-point intensity scale (0 = none, 1 = mild, 2 = moderate, 3 = severe). Reliability in this sample was acceptable (see Table 1).
Experiences Questionnaire (EQ).
The EQ (Fresco, Moore, et al., 2007) is an 11-item measure of decentering guided by a mindfulness based cognitive therapy (MBCT) framework. The EQ has been identified as a primary indicator of the “observer perspective” facet of decentering (Naragon-Gainey & DeMarree, 2017b), and is used as a measure of OP in the current study. Items represent the changes thought to occur as a result of MBCT, including lack of identification with one’s thoughts, non-reactivity to negative experiences, and self-compassion. Participants indicate the frequency with which each statement reflects their experiences on a 5-point scale (never to all the time). Fresco and colleagues (2007) reported acceptable reliability (alphas = .81-.84), and showed that the EQ can predict psychological distress (e.g., depression symptoms). In addition, the EQ is responsive to MBCT and Cognitive Behavioral Therapy for depression (but not pharmacotherapy) and predicts relapse following psychotherapy (Bieling et al., 2012; Fresco, Segal, et al., 2007). Reliability in this sample was acceptable (see Table 1).
Cognitive Fusion Questionnaire (CFQ).
The CFQ (Gillanders et al., 2014) is a 7-item measure that reflects the extent to which people struggle with, or emotionally respond to their thoughts. In earlier research, items on this measure were a primary indicator of the “reduced struggle” (though it is coded such that high values indicate less decentering) facet of decentering (Hadash et al., 2017; Naragon-Gainey & DeMarree, 2017b), and it is used in the current study to assess RS. Participants indicate the frequency with which each item was true of them on a 7-point scale (never true to always true). Gillanders and colleagues (2014) reported acceptable reliability (alphas = .88-.93) and test-retest reliability (r = .81 over four-weeks), and show that the CFQ can predict multiple forms of psychological distress (e.g., depression symptoms) over and above other indicators included in their samples. Reliability in this sample was acceptable (see Table 1).
Results
For the momentary ratings of the intensity and unpleasantness associated with the cold pressor task, the number of observations that contributed to means varied across participants because of differences in the time that participants hands were submerged in the cold water (e.g., 82 participants removed their hand before the 30-second mark, whereas 42 participants kept their hand submerged for the four-minute maximum duration). In addition, research assistants did not always code one or both of these ratings, and when they did not code the “end” rating for intensity or unpleasantness for a given participant, we imputed that participants’ most recent rating (see Table 1 for sample size for each measure). Mean intensity and mean unpleasantness were highly correlated (see Table 1), and mean values suggested that the task was a relatively painful and unpleasant experience. On average, participants removed their hands after nearly 1.5 minutes.
Zero-order correlations among measures can be found in Table 1. Scores on the EQ (a measure of the OP component of decentering) and CFQ (a measure of the RS component of decentering) were moderately correlated. The correlations indicate that decentering predicted participants’ tolerance of the cold pressor, as higher decentering (indicated by both the EQ and the CFQ) was associated with longer time in the cold water bath. In addition, the CFQ was also correlated with the McGill Pain Questionnaire, such that higher decentering (i.e., lower CFQ scores) was associated with less retrospective reports of pain. Neither the EQ nor the CFQ predicted the momentary ratings of pain intensity and unpleasantness.
To examine the independent association of the two decentering concepts (OP and RS), we conducted a series of simultaneous regression analyses (see Table 2), predicting each of the cold-pressor-related outcomes from EQ and CFQ scores. We first examined participants’ pain tolerance, as indexed by the total time submerged in the cold water bath. The CFQ significantly predicted submersion time (β = −.17), p = .018, and the EQ dropped to non-significance (β = .11), p = .111. Both of these patterns were such that increases in decentering were associated with increased pain tolerance. We next examined retrospective reports of pain, as indexed by the short form of the McGill Pain Questionnaire. The CFQ significantly predicted MPQ-SF scores (β = .21), p = .003, but the EQ did not (β = .098), p = .163. The CFQ pattern was such that increases in decentering (i.e., decreases in CFQ) were associated with reduced reports of pain. Last, we examined participants’ momentary experience of pain, as indexed by their average reports of pain intensity and unpleasantness. None of these measures were significantly predicted by the CFQ, ps > .12, or the EQ, ps > .88.
Table 2.
Regression models predicting each outcome variable
| Criterion / Predictor | B | SE | Beta | p |
|---|---|---|---|---|
| Tolerance | ||||
| EQ | 14.967 | 9.354 | .111 | .111 |
| CFQ | −11.143 | 4.662 | −.166 | .018 |
| MPQ-SF | ||||
| EQ | 0.098 | 0.070 | .098 | .163 |
| CFQ | 0.107 | 0.035 | .213 | .003 |
| Mean Intens | ||||
| EQ | −0.003 | 0.231 | −.001 | .990 |
| CFQ | 0.176 | 0.115 | .108 | .128 |
| Mean Unpl | ||||
| EQ | 0.035 | 0.234 | .011 | .882 |
| CFQ | 0.147 | 0.116 | .090 | .208 |
Note: EQ = Experiences Questionnaire; CFQ = Cognitive Fusion Questionnaire (note this is a negative indicator of decentering); Tolerance = total time in seconds submerged in cold water bath; Mean Intens = average intensity of pain across available observations during the task; Mean Unpl = average unpleasantness of pain across available observations during the task.
Discussion
The present research was the first we are aware of to examine trait decentering as a predictor of responses to situationally induced pain. In general, measures of decentering predicted increased tolerance of a painful experience and retrospective reports of a less painful experience, but not participants’ momentary experience of pain. Further, when we examined specific measures of decentering in parallel, these effects were manifest primarily on the CFQ, which past research has suggested is an indicator of the RS aspect of decentering (Hadash et al., 2017; Naragon-Gainey & DeMarree, 2017b).
There are several possible reasons why decentering constructs may have been associated with retrospective reports of pain, but not with real-time ratings of pain. First, although little is known about the time scale of the immediate effects of decentering, theory suggests that mindfulness and decentering lay the groundwork for subsequent reappraisal processes (e.g., Garland et al., 2015), such that decentering may impact retrospective recounting of experiences more than immediate pain ratings. There are more methodologically-based explanations as well. The momentary pain intensity and unpleasantness ratings consisted of single items (as compared to the 15-item MPQ-SF), so it is possible that the greater error variance associated with single items (albeit measured repeatedly in most cases) may have attenuated associations. Furthermore, the MPQ-SF assesses 11 varieties of sensory properties of pain (e.g., throbbing, sharp, aching), which should more fully capture the range of sensations relevant to a painful experience, thereby increasing the validity and reliability of the ratings. In addition, the MPQ-SF has four items that measure affective responses to pain (e.g., sickening, fearful), which likely tap into negative evaluations of internal experiences that are particularly relevant to decentering measures.
Decentering predicted a behavioral index of the pain experience (i.e., tolerance, or how long the hand was kept in the water), despite failing to predict momentary pain ratings. Although this discrepancy could be a function of lower reliability of the single-item ratings of pain, it is also consistent with theory about defusion within the acceptance and commitment therapy framework (ACT; Hayes, Strosahl, & Wilson, 2012), one theoretical perspective for conceptualizations of decentering. Specifically, a defused stance may or may not alter the intensity or quality of an unpleasant internal experience, but regardless, it should allow for greater flexibility in one’s behavioral and cognitive responses to that experience (e.g., Hayes et al., 2012; McCracken & Morely, 2014). Thus, it is plausible that in this task decentering did not alter one’s immediate experience of pain, but did impact behavioral responses to that experience (i.e., keeping one’s hand in the cold water despite painful sensations).
We found that RS was a stronger predictor of pain-related responses than was OP, consistent with prior work examining these decentering constructs with regard to affective experiences and psychological symptoms (e.g., Naragon-Gainey & DeMarree, 2017a, 2017b). It is possible that RS better captures the “active” ingredients in decentering, at least in reference to responses to a pain experience. In particular, measures of RS emphasize behavioral responses (e.g., being able to do things one wants to despite difficult thoughts/feelings) and cognitions that may lead to behavioral reactivity (e.g., getting entangled or struggling with thoughts) to a greater degree than do measures of OP. However, all items in the CFQ describe negatively-valenced content, consistent with the aversive nature of a painful stimulus like the cold pressor task. So, the relatively strong associations with RS may be function of measurement specificity rather than due to differences in the RS and OP constructs themselves. Valence-free measures of decentering would be helpful in disentangling these possibilities.
Although the cold pressor task presented participants with a goal to keep their hand in the water for as long as they could, this immediate goal was likely not in the service of a higher order goal or personal value. Theory surrounding ACT (Hayes et al., 2012) suggests that decentering might provide the psychological distance needed to make choices that are in line with important goals and values, and to evaluate whether their actions are in the service of these important guides to behavior. It is possible that if an aversive experience were in the service of an important goal or value that decentering would even more strongly predict people’s willingness to experience it (for a related finding, see Levitt, Brown, Orsillo, & Barlow, 2004). In addition, in this study the self-regulatory task was for participants to endure a clearly aversive experience. Self-regulatory challenges can take many shapes and forms as people attempt to navigate their long-term goals (Fujita, 2011). Although the current work does not empirically address the range of possible self-regulatory tasks, Hayes and colleagues (2012) would likely argue that to the extent that decentering facilitates working toward personally meaningful values and goals, it should facilitate a range of relevant regulatory processes.
Before closing, it is worthwhile to consider how the current work on decentering relates to other topics in this special issue and to constructs in the literature on metacognition more generally. Cognitive psychologists have largely focused on three types of metacognition: metacognitive knowledge (beliefs about how the mind operates), metacognitive monitoring (ongoing assessment of cognition and the products of cognition), and metacognitive control (attempts to change one’s thoughts and thought processes) (e.g., Dunlosky & Metcalfe, 2009; Nelson & Narens, 1990). Other than metacognitive knowledge, these concepts are typically studied at the level of specific judgments (e.g., will I remember this information when tested? was this judgment biased?), with characteristics of the judgment or judgmental context driving relevant effects (e.g., question framing can determine how one’s experiential cues are used in informing judgments of whether a particular piece of information has been learned or not; Serra & England, 2012). In contrast, decentering is a process-level metacognitive variable that is (theoretically) relatively independent of and applied to a wide range of contents (though it is most commonly studied with regard to negative thoughts and feelings) and contexts.
Decentering as we have conceptualized it is an individual difference in the tendency to engage in a particular type of metacognition. Specifically, decentering involves the distant, detached awareness of one’s ongoing thought. This does not fit neatly into the most heavily studied types of metacognition typically used by cognitive psychologists. Decentering is not necessarily monitoring because it does not necessarily involve the evaluation of cognition, but it could certainly contribute to some monitoring processes by allowing people to assess their current thoughts and feelings with questions along the lines of “is this thought helpful to my current goals?” That is, decentering might shift the type of metacognitive monitoring people engage in. In addition, decentering may incidentally change thoughts and thought processes, but taking a decentered stance in order to achieve metacognitive control is somewhat antithetical to the open, non-evaluative character of decentering.
Finally, a general tendency to decenter might lead people to develop more accurate or adaptive metacognitive knowledge. Many conceptualizations of decentering consider beliefs that thoughts and feelings are transient experiences to be an important aspect of decentering. Further, the acceptance and commitment therapy (ACT) literature argues that defusion (the ACT concept closest to decentering) is likely accompanied by beliefs that thoughts and feelings are internally generated responses to and interpretations of the stimuli a person encounters, shaped by the person’s particular learning history. Thus, from this perspective thoughts are not, themselves, reflective of some larger truth or reality. Rather, thoughts are “true” only to the extent that they are useful in a given context for a given goal (Hayes et al., 2012). These beliefs are thought to lead people high in decentering to less rigidly rely on their current mental contents, and instead to respond more in line with their broader goals and values, even if that means increasing or prolonging aversive internal experiences in the short-term. To date, we are not aware of any mainstream work on metacognition that examines forms of metacognitive knowledge such as those resulting from a decentered perspective, though that is likely due to the particular topics that metacognition researchers have focused on, such as learning and memory. Better integration of the metacognition literature with work on decentering could be fruitful for both literatures.
Limitations of the current study include the use of a convenience sample of unselected college students, and so these conclusions should not be applied to more specific populations such as those who suffer from chronic pain disorders or psychological disorders. In addition, though the cold pressor task is well-validated and frequently utilized, it lacks strong ecological validity in some ways. In particular, individuals in real life are unlikely to choose to tolerate or extend physical pain without some specific and relatively strong motivation for doing so (e.g., the satisfaction of completing a marathon, not wanting to miss an important event with a loved one). In the current study, there was probably not a strong motivation —beyond a general desire to follow instructions, please experimenters, or challenge one’s physical limits— for participants to continue the cold pressor task once they began to experience discomfort. In this sense, the results may not generalize well to real-life situations where the stakes of strong reactivity to pain are higher. Last, although trait decentering represents a relatively stable tendency for people to decenter across a range of situations, there is meaningful state variability in decentering (Shoham et al., 2017). As such, our measurement of trait decentering may have been inaccurate to the extent that individuals’ levels of decentering at the time of the cold pressor task differed from their assessed trait level. For example, there could be dispositional variability in the types of situations in which people engage in decentering as well as moment-to-moment variability in decentering-related motivations and abilities. These limitations notwithstanding, the current study provides initial evidence that decentering (and the RS component in particular) predicts responses to a standardized pain induction, including greater tolerance and less intense retrospective reports of pain.
Acknowledgments / Agradecimientos
KGD and KN-G were supported in part by grant 1R21AT009470-01 from the U.S. National Institutes of Health. / KGD and KN-G were supported in part by grant 1R21AT009470-01 from the U.S. National Institutes of Health.
Footnotes
Note that there were originally 241 participants. All participants completed validity questions, embedded throughout the questionnaires (e.g., disagreeing with “I don’t like losing money” or agreeing with “I often ride wild animals at the zoo”). Consistent with previous work (Naragon-Gainey & DeMarree, 2017a; 2017b), we deleted 11 participants who scored 2SD above the mean of these questions.
Translation from English/ Traducción del inglés: Mercè Rius
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