Abstract
Background
Knowledge of wild edible plants is an important part of traditional knowledge. It is closely related to traditional human agriculture, as well as biodiversity. This study aimed to conduct a detailed investigation and evaluation of wild edible plants that are collected and consumed by the Mongolian and Han locals in Daqinggou and to provide valuable data for the development and utilization of plant resources.
Methods
In the 9 site visits to the area of Daqinggou during the period of 2017–2019, the authors used key informant interviews, semistructured interviews, and questionnaires to collect utilization information regarding precollected species of local wild edible plants. By combining the data obtained from 101 key informants, the authors used the Cultural Food Significance Index (CFSI), a quantitative index to evaluate the relative importance of the wild edible plants that were discussed in the aforementioned interviews.
Results
The investigation results show that the Mongolian people provided 67 folk names, corresponding to 57 wild plants, and the Han Chinese provided 58 folk names, corresponding to 49 wild plants. A total of 61 edible wild plant species belonging to 29 families and 52 genera were recorded as edible resources for the locals in Daqinggou. The uses include grains, oil and fat resources, vegetables, fruits, beverages, condiments, and snacks. The most commonly reported purpose of wild edible plants is using them as vegetables, followed by using them as beverages and fruits. The most widely used edible parts are fruits, leaves, and other aerial parts. Eating raw and cooked plants are the usual methods of consuming wild edible plants according to the locals. In addition, the CFSI of 61 wild edible plant species shows that 27 species have characteristics of medical food.
Conclusions
The knowledge and experience of naming and consuming wild plants by the Mongolian people and Han Chinese in Daqinggou are an important manifestation of the direct interaction between locals and plants. The CSFI evaluation of the wild edible plants consumed by the locals in Daqinggou establishes the utilization of some wild plants as part of the traditional knowledge of medical food.
Keywords: Wild edible plants, Mongolian people, Han Chinese, Daqinggou, CFSI, Ethnobotany
Background
Since 1992, as party to the Convention on Biological Diversity (CBD), China has made positive efforts in the protection and inheritance of traditional knowledge related to biological diversity and biological resources. The diversity of traditional edible plant resources and related knowledge are important aspects of traditional knowledge and biodiversity. They have a significant impact on the conservation and sustainable development of regional biodiversity [1–6]. As most kinds of edible plants are wild plants, research on wild edible plants is also an important subject of ethnobotanical study [7].
Wild edible plant species are uncultivated and undomesticated. They can be food sources, however, through collection and consumption from the natural environment. Many linguistic groups refer to numerous edible plants as “famine relief food,” which plays an important role in the survival of individuals or the whole community during a period of food shortage [8]. In recent years, wild edible plants have become popular for their nutritional value and health care functions [9]. Therefore, the utilization of wild edible plants is continuously increasing. The ethnobotany research in China concerning wild edible plants has so far been concentrated mainly in South China. For example, the Naxi people, Hani people, and Tibetan people in Yunnan Province have the habit of gathering and eating wild plants [10–12]. The Shui people and Dong people of Guizhou Province have recorded the use of wild plants as starters for preparing fermented beverages [13, 14]. Although some papers on the use of wild food plants have been published from the area of northern China (e.g., Inner Mongolia [15, 16], Tibet [17], Shaanxi [18, 19], and Gansu [20, 21]), this area is not widely studied.
The Inner Mongolia Autonomous Region is multiethnic, with Mongolian culture as the main body and Han Chinese as the majority. Since the 1990s, ethnobotanists have carried out a series of studies on regional ethnobotany in several regions of Inner Mongolia and have cataloged the wild edible plants of the local Mongolian people [15, 16, 22–24]. In the past, ethnobotanical studies in Inner Mongolia have not been performed with comparative studies between Mongolian people and Han Chinese. This study investigates the Mongolian people and Han Chinese in Daqinggou and records the wild edible plants and related traditional knowledge that locals have previously used and are currently using.
Daqinggou is a national nature reserve of precious broad-leaved mixed forests, with a population of nearly 800. Locals are engaged in semifarming, semianimal husbandry, or tourism. It is a mixed area of Mongolian people and Han Chinese, with a large Mongolian population, all of whom speak Chinese. Daqinggou is located 24 km southwest of Horqin Left Wing Rear Banner, Tongliao City, Inner Mongolia Autonomous Region, longitude 120° 13′–122° 15′, north latitude 42° 45′–42° 48′ (Fig. 1), with a total area of 81.83 km2 and a forest area of 45.95 km2. The landform consists of sand dunes, sandy land and plains belonging to the subsidence zone of the Liaohe River Basin [25]. According to the “climatic regionalization of China,” it is in the transition zone from the Northeast temperate semihumid climate zone to the Inner Mongolia temperate semiarid climate zone, with an average annual temperature of 5.6 °C and mean annual rainfall of approximately 450 mm. The length of the frost-free period in the area is approximately 145 days [26].
Fig. 1.
Study area and villages surveyed
The flora mainly consists of the flora of Changbai Mountain and Mongolian, combining the species of North China flora [27]. A total of 104 families, 320 genera, and 528 species of vascular plants grow in Daqinggou. Among them, 13 species belong to 10 different families of ferns, 3 species belong to 3 different families of gymnosperms, and 511 species belong to 91 different families of angiosperms [28].
Methods
Field work
From 2017 to 2019, the authors completed 7 field studies in Daqinggou; there are two villages within the reserve and five villages in the surrounding area. Field studies included key informant interviews (Fig. 2), semistructured interviews, and questionnaires. Local farmers, retailers, and reserve staff were selected as the informants, and 227 people were interviewed. A total of 101 key informants participated in the interviews via selection using snowball sampling and intentional sampling [7, 29–32]. The ages of informants ranged from 24 to 88 (mean age 58 years), and the gender and ethnic ratios of informants were both almost 1:1 (male to female was 53 to 48, Mongolian to Han was 51 to 50). Among them, 65 people were interviewed through semistructured interviews, including questions that were relevant to document detailed information on all edible wild plants. The questions investigated included the following: What wild plants do you usually eat? Do you know any other folk name for the plant? What are the edible parts and mode of consumption of each plant?What ailment does this plant treat? Where is the habitat of the plants? Is the plant easy or difficult to collect? In 7 villages, 200 questionnaires (Additional file) about the CFSI of edible plants were distributed, and 116 valid questionnaires were collected.
Fig. 2.
Key informant (a) and voucher specimen collection (b). Photo a taken by Sachula, and photo b taken by Manduhu
Voucher specimen
Ethnobotanical interviews and the collection of voucher specimens were carried out in two ways: locals were invited to find and collect voucher specimens of related plants at the field sites; voucher specimens were precollected and used in key informant interviews [23, 33]. A total of 84 plant specimens were aggregated as wild edible plants used by the locals. Among the collected specimens, 57 species, 3 varieties, and 1 form were identified [34, 35].
Quantitative analysis
The CFSI was calculated to evaluate the cultural significance of wild edible plants by the following formula given by Andrea Pieroni [36]:
CFSI = QI×AI×FUI × PUI × MFF × TSAI × FMRI × 10−2
The formula takes into account seven indices [10, 37–40], which express the frequency of quotation (QI), availability (AI), frequency of use (FUI), plant parts used (PUI), multifunctional food use (MFFI), taste score appreciation (TSAI), and the food-medicinal role (FMRI). Based on the local cultural characteristics, the index was graded and evaluated (Table 1).
Table 1.
Calculation and evaluation of the CFSI
| Index of categories | Availability | Index value |
|---|---|---|
| Availability index (AI) | Very common | 4.0 |
| Common | 3.0 | |
| Intermediate | 2.0 | |
| Rare | 1.0 | |
| Localization of the use index value | ||
| Ubiquitous | = | |
| Localized | − 0.5 | |
| Very localized | − 0.1 | |
| Frequency of use index (FUI) | Utilization frequency | Index value |
| Ordinary year | 5.0 | |
| In season | 3.0 | |
| Not used during the past 30 years | 1.0 | |
| Part used index (PUI) | Part used | Index value |
| Aerial parts | 3 | |
| Stems and leaves | 2 | |
| Roots, bulbs, leaves, fruits | 1.5 | |
| Bark, stems, seeds, kernel | 1.0 | |
| Flowers, inflorescence, female cone, shoots | 0.75 | |
| Multifunctional food use index (MFFI) | Usage | Index value |
| Raw, as snacks, cold dishes, dipped in sauce, salted | 1.5 | |
| Boiled, steamed, fried | 1 | |
| Ingredient for restricted purposes | 0.75 | |
| Condiment, grain, oil and fats | 0.5 | |
| (Usage in mixtures) | (− 0.5) | |
| Taste score appreciation (TSAI) | Taste appreciation | Index value |
| Best | 10 | |
| Good | 7.5 | |
| Fair | 6.5 | |
| Poor | 5.5 | |
| Terrible | 4.0 | |
| Food-medicinal role index (FMRI) | Role as food-medicine | Index value |
| Important (“that food is a medicine”, with clear specification of the treated affections) | 5.0 | |
| Intermediate (“that food is very healthy”) | 3.0 | |
| Not recognized | 1.0 | |
Results and discussion
Ethnobotanical inventory
There are 61 species of wild plants consumed by local people. Among them, 1 species belongs to pteridophyta, 1 species belongs to gymnosperms, and 59 species belong to 27 different families of angiosperms. This paper is summarized in the form of an ethnobotanical inventory to facilitate the analysis and evaluation. The contents of the inventory include the scientific names of species, folk Chinese and Mongolian names, usage, edible part(s) and mode of consumption, linguistic groups, and voucher numbers (Table 2).
Table 2.
Ethnobotanical inventory of wild edible plants used by Daqinggou locals in Inner Mongolia
| Species | Folk Chinese name | Folk Mongolian name | Usage | Edible part(s) and mode of consumption | Linguistic groups | Voucher numbers |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Abutilon theophrasti Medic. | Qīng má 青麻 | Him-a | Grain | Seed, dried and used as grain | M/H | D1909-001 |
| Adenophora remotiflora (Sieb. et Zucc.) Miq. | Waī bó caì 歪脖菜, tǔ dǎng shēn 土党参 | Uhilahu nogug-a | Vegetable/beverage | Tender leaf, fried, consumed as soup. Root, soaked with wine | M/H | D1806-032 |
| Adenophora polyantha Nakai | Shā shēn 沙参 | Uhilahu nogug-a | Vegetable/beverage | Tender leaf, to make soup or fried. Root, soaked with wine | M/H | D1806-036 |
| Allium macrostemon Bunge | Xiǎo gēn suàn 小根蒜 | Jiecong (BN), togdausu | Vegetable/condiment | Tender aerial parts and bulb, fried, dipped in sauce. Tender aerial parts, used for seasoning | M/H | D1806-011 |
| Allium ramosum L. | Shān jiǔ cài 山韭菜 | Heger-e in gogud | Vegetable/condiment | Tender aerial parts, fried, boiled as stuffing for pasta. Tender aerial parts and inflorescence, salted (consumed as leek flower sauce) | M/H | D1709-002 |
| Allium senescens L. | Máng gé ěr (BN) 芒格尔 | Manggir | Vegetable/condiment | Tender aerial parts, fried, boiled as stuffing for pasta, dipped in sauce or used for seasoning | M/H | D1806-013 |
| Amaranthus retroflexus L. | Xiàn cài 苋菜 | arbai | Vegetable/grain | Tender stem and leaf, consumed as soup, boiled as stuffing for pasta. Seed, dried and used as grain | M/H | D1806-003 |
| Armeniaca sibirica (L.) Lam. | Shān xìng 山杏 | Heger-e in guilesu | Vegetable/fruit/oil and fats | Seed, salted. Fruit, eaten raw. Kernel, oil extracted | M/H | D1805-002 |
| Artemisia frigida Willd. | Xiǎo bái hāo 小白蒿 | Cagan siralzi | Vegetable | Tender aerial parts, steamed with flour, consumed as soup | M/H | D1806-015 |
| Athyrium brevifrons Nakai ex Kitag. | Shān jué cài 山蕨菜, lǎo yīng bǎng zi老鹰膀子 | Juecai (BN), togus in segul | Vegetable | Leaf, cold and dressed with sauce, salted, fried, consumed as soup or boiled as stuffing for pasta | M/H | D1805-009 |
| Caltha palustris L. var. sibirica Regel | Lǘ tí cài 驴蹄菜 | Vegetable | Leaf, cold and dressed with sauce or fried | H | D1806-029 | |
| Cannabis sativa L.f. ruderalis (Janisch.) Chu | Olusus | Oil and fats | Seed, oil extracted | M | D1810-003 | |
| Cerasus humilis (Bunge) Sok. | ōu lǐ 欧李 | Ulagan-a | Fruit/beverage | Fruit, eaten raw. Root, soaked with wine | M/H | D1906-001 |
| Chenopodium acuminatum Willd. | Huī cài 灰菜 | Gurbalzin noil | Vegetable | Tender stem and leaf, boiled as stuffing for pasta, boiled and mixed with cream | M/H | D1805-005 |
| Chenopodium album L. | huī cài 灰菜 | Noil | Vegetable | Tender stem and leaf, boiled as stuffing for pasta, boiled and mixed with cream | M/H | D1806-001 |
| Cirsium setosum (Willd.) MB. | Cinu-a in haltar | Vegetable | Tender leaf, fried | M | D1806-014 | |
| Codonopsis lanceolata (Sieb. et Zucc.) Trautv. | Sun orhudai | Vegetable | Root, salted | M | D1806-025 | |
| Corylus heterophylla Fisch. ex Trautv. | Zhēn zi 榛子 | Sid | Snack | Fruit, eaten raw, fried | M/H | D1810-002 |
| Crataegus pinnatifida Bunge. var. major N.E. Br. | Shān lǐ hóng 山里红 | Dolugun-a | Vegetable/fruit | Tender leaf, steamed with flour, consumed as soup. Fruit, eaten raw | M/H | D1805-003 |
| Cynanchum chinense R. Br. | Temegen hөhu | Snack | Young fruit, eaten raw | M | D1806-006 | |
| Cynanchum thesioides (Freyn) K. Schum. | Lǎo piáo老瓢, lǎo guā piáo老瓜瓢 | Temegen hөhu | Vegetable/snack | Young fruit, dipped in sauce, eaten raw | M/H | D1806-018 |
| Dendranthema indicum (L.) Des Moul. | Yě jú huā 野菊花 | Beverage | Flower, dried and made into tea | H | D1810-004 | |
| Ephedra sinica Stapf | Má huáng 麻黄 | Zegergen-e | Fruit | Mature female cone, eaten raw | M/H | D1810-005 |
| Erodium stephanianum Willd. | Hóng gēn 红根 | manziuhai | Snack | Root, eaten raw | M/H | D1808-002 |
| Fagopyrum esculentum Moench | Qiáo mài huā 荞麦花 | Sagad | Grain | Flower, boiled and mixed with flour | M/H | D1808-001 |
| Ferula bungeana Kitag. | Shān huí xiāng 山茴香 | Vegetable/condiment | Tender aerial parts, boiled as stuffing for pasta, made into gruel or used for seasoning | H | D1806-019 | |
| Hemerocallis minor Mill. | Huáng huā zi 黄花子 | Huanghuacai (BN), honghu huwar, sir-a huwar | Vegetable | Flower, consumed as soup, fried, boiled and mixed with cream | M/H | D1806-016 |
| Hemiptelea davidii (Hance) Planch. | Har-a sanduu | Vegetable | Tender leaf and young fruit, consumed as soup | M | D1806-024 | |
| Juglans mandshurica Maxim. | Shān hé tao 山核桃 | Husig-a, noyan modu | Snack | Fruit, eaten raw | M/H | D1808-003 |
| Kochia scoparia (L.) Schrad. | Sào zhou cài 扫帚菜 | Šugur nogo | Vegetable | Tender aerial parts, fried, steamed with flour | M/H | D1806-028 |
| Lespedeza davurica (Laxm.) Schindl. | Hurbhei | Vegetable/beverage | Tender stem and leaf, fried, steamed with flour. Shoot, dried in the shade or baked and made into tea | M | D1806-030 | |
| Lilium pumilum DC. | Hóng huā zi 红花子, bǎi hé 百合 | Saralang huwar | Vegetable | Flower, fried. Bulb, consumed as soup | M/H | D1709-001 |
| Lycium chinense Mill. | Gǒu qǐ 枸杞 | Gouqi (BN) | Beverage | Fruit, soaked with wine | M/H | D1806-034 |
| Malus baccata (L.) Borkh. | Shān dìng zi 山定子 | uril | Fruit | Fruit, eaten raw | M/H | D1805-004 |
| Malva verticillata L. | Har-a nogug-a, tugur nogug-a | Vegetable | Leaf, consumed as soup, steamed with flour | M | D1806-005 | |
| Oenanthe javanica (Bl.) DC. | Shān qín cài 山芹菜 | Cogur nogug-a | Vegetable | Stem and leaf, cold and dressed with sauce, fried, boiled as stuffing for pasta | M/H | D1806-031 |
| Orostachys malacophylla (Pall.) Fisch. | Suān tǎ 酸塔 | Muur in himusu | Snack | Tender aerial parts, eaten raw | M/H | D1806-023 |
| Padus avium Mill. | Chòu lǐ zi 臭李子 | Moil | Fruit | Fruit, eaten raw | M/H | D1805-007 |
| Paeonia lactiflora Pall. | Bái shóu 白芍 | Can-a | Beverage | Flower, dried and made into tea | M/H | D1906-002 |
| Periploca sepium Bunge | Yáng nǎi zi 羊奶子 | Imag-an eber, Šugusu modu | Vegetable/snack | Tender leaf steamed with flour. Tender fruit, eaten raw | M/H | D1806-007 |
| Plantago depressa Willd. | Chē gū lu cài 车轱辘菜, chē lún cài 车轮菜 | Chegulucai(BN), elzigen cihi | Vegetable | Tender leaf, steamed with flour, consumed as soup | M/H | D1806-008 |
| Plantago asiatica L. | Chē gū lu cài 车轱辘菜, chē lún cài 车轮菜 | Chegulucai (BN), Elzigen cihi | Vegetable | Tender leaf, steamed with flour, consumed as soup | M/H | D1806-035 |
| Polygonatum odoratum (Mill.) Druce | Yù zhú 玉竹 | Vegetable | Tender leaf, cold and dressed with sauce | H | D1810-007 | |
| Polygonum aviculare L. | Bianduya ebesu (BN) | Vegetable | Tender aerial parts, made into gruel or fried | M | D1806-027 | |
| Polygonum divaricatum L. | Suān bu liū 酸不溜 | Simeldeg | Snack | Tender stem, eaten raw | M/H | D1806-022 |
| Portulaca oleracea L. | Mǎ lián cài马莲菜, mà zha cài 蚂蚱菜 | Majincai (BN) | Vegetable | Tender stem and leaf, dipped in sauce | M/H | D1806-004 |
| Potentilla longifolia Willd. ex Schlecht. | Taulai in tangnai | Vegetable | Tender stem and leaf, consumed as soup or steamed with flour | M | D1806-017 | |
| Pyrus ussuriensis Maxim. | Shān lí 山梨 | Heger-e in ilam-a | Fruit | Fruit, eaten raw | M/H | D1810-006 |
| Quercus mongolica Fisch. ex Ledeb. | Xiàng zi橡子, zuó shù 柞树 | Carasu | Grain/beverage/oil and fats/snack | Seed, dried and ground into flour, made wine, oil extracted or fried | M/H | D1810-001 |
| Salsola collina Pall. | Zhū máo cài 猪毛菜, zhā bù leng 扎不楞 | Hamhuul | Vegetable | Tender aerial parts, consumed as soup | M/H | D1806-002 |
| Solanum nigrum L. | Nohai in Yзэm | Fruit/beverage | Fruit, eaten raw, soaked with wine | M | D1806-020 | |
| Sonchus wightianus DC. | Qǔ má cài 取麻菜 | gasigun nogug-a | Vegetable/beverage | Tender stem and leaf, dipped in sauce, cold and dressed with sauce, made into tea | M/H | D1806-009 |
| Taraxacum mongolicum Hand. -Mazz. | Pó pó dīng 婆婆丁 | Bobodeng (BN) | Vegetable/beverage | Tender stem and leaf, dipped in sauce, cold and dressed with sauce or fried. Flower and root, dried and made into tea | M/H | D1806-010 |
| Thymus quinquecostatus Cêlak. var. asiaticus (Kitagawa) C.Y. Wu & Y.C. Huang | Shān huā jiāo山花椒 | Huajiao (BN), huaju ebesu (BN) | Condiment | Aerial parts, used for seasoning | M/H | D1806-012 |
| Tilia mongolica Maxim. | Duàn shù 椴树 | Domu modu | Vegetable | Tender leaf, steamed with flour, consumed as soup | M/H | D1805-006 |
| Ulmus macrocarpa Hance | Yú shù 榆树 | Deltu | Vegetable | Tender leaf and fruit, consumed as soup | M/H | D1805-001 |
| Ulmus pumila L. | Yú shù 榆树 | Hailasu | Vegetable/grain | Tender leaf and fruit consumed as soup. Bark, dried and ground into flour | M/H | D1805-008 |
| Urtica angustifolia Fisch. ex Hornem. | Usun halagai | Vegetable | Tender stem and leaf, consumed as soup | M | D1806-026 | |
| Urtica cannabina L. | Hā lā hǎi cài (BN) 哈拉嗨菜 | Halagai | Vegetable | Tender stem and leaf, consumed as soup | M/H | D1806-033 |
| Vitis amurensis Rupr. | Shān pú tao 山葡萄 | Heger-e in Yзэm | Vegetable/fruit/beverage | Tender leaf steamed with flour. Fruit, eaten raw, made wine | M/H | D1806-021 |
| Xanthoceras sorbifolium Bunge | Sengdeng modu | Snack | Seed, eaten raw, fried | M | D1808-004 |
Life form characteristics of wild edible plants
The life forms of wild edible plants used by the locals are small trees, trees, shrubs, subshrubs, lianas, annual herbs, and perennial herbs. Among them, 26 species are perennial herbs and account for 43% of the total species; 12 species are annual herbs, and 11 species are trees, accounting for 20% and 18%, respectively, of the total species.
Daqinggou is a part of the steppe of Eurasia. Because of the plant distribution in the reserve, it is closely related to the broad-leaved forest of East Asia [27]. Therefore, woody plants also account for a certain proportion in this area.
Folk names
The Mongolian people and Han Chinese living in Daqinggou are able to name most of the wild plants in their own language. Among 57 species of wild plants collected and consumed by Mongolian people, 47 species have Mongolian names, and the other 10 species directly borrow Chinese names. Among 49 species of wild plants collected and consumed by Han Chinese, Allium senescens is called máng gé ěr, and Urtica cannabina is called hā lā hǎi cài, from the plant's folk Mongolian names manggir and halagai. Therefore, the Mongolian people and Han Chinese also present exchange and reference phenomena in the nomenclature of wild edible plants.
Food categories
The usage of wild edible plants by locals presents high diversity. According to their eating habits, food categories include grains, oils and fats, vegetables, fruits, beverages, condiments and snacks. There are 84 kinds of related plants corresponding to different usages, which is more than the total number of edible plant species, because some of the same plants have different usages (Table 3).
Table 3.
Food category diversity
| Usage | Number | Percentage |
|---|---|---|
| Vegetable | 40 | 47.62 |
| Beverage | 12 | 14.29 |
| Snack | 10 | 11.90 |
| Fruit | 9 | 10.71 |
| Condiment | 5 | 5.95 |
| Grain | 5 | 5.95 |
| Oil and fats | 3 | 3.57 |
Among them, the wild plants used as vegetables are the most abundant. Grains were gathered and consumed during times of food shortage and famine. At present, only the bark of Ulmus pumila is dried and ground into flour, which is appropriately added to corn flour to increase its strength. In fact, this is a traditional way of using vegetable gum.
There are three consumption modes of wild beverage plants: Locals collect different parts of the wild plants for processing and making tea; some elders also soak the roots or fruits of wild plants in wine to make medicinal wine for drinking; Quercus mongolica and Vitis amurensis are used to make wine. Most of the wild fruits mentioned above are eaten by shepherds as snacks to satisfy hunger and thirst.
Edible part(s) and mode of consumption
The edible parts of wild plants consumed by locals also present high diversity. According to statistics, apart from the aerial parts, the edible parts of most species are plant organs and organ combinations such as the root, stem, leaf, flower, fruit and seed, or specific parts such as the bulb, female cone, shoot, and bark. Twelve types are used. The most widely used edible parts are the fruit (17), leaf (16), and aerial parts (12) (Table 4).
Table 4.
Diversity of edible parts
| Edible part | Number | Percentage |
|---|---|---|
| Fruit | 17 | 20.73 |
| Leaf | 16 | 19.51 |
| Aerial parts | 12 | 14.63 |
| Stem and leaf | 11 | 13.41 |
| Flower (inflorescence) | 7 | 8.54 |
| Seed (kernel) | 7 | 8.54 |
| Root | 6 | 7.32 |
| Bulb | 2 | 2.44 |
| Bark | 1 | 1.22 |
| Stem | 1 | 1.22 |
| Shoot | 1 | 1.22 |
| Female cone | 1 | 1.22 |
Wild edible plants are consumed in two ways, as raw food and as cooked food. The mature fruits and young fruits eaten by locals as fresh fruits and the tender stems and leaves consumed as snacks are raw food. The wild vegetables used by locals for steaming, frying, filling, soup, and seasoning plants are consumed as cooked food.
As the most widely consumed wild plants in the region, there are seven types of traditional wild vegetables (Fig. 3). Wild vegetables are frequently soaked in cold water or blanched in boiling water and then used for stir-frying or soups. For the local Mongolian people, cream is also a commonly used condiment with cooked wild vegetables. In particular, local people like to eat wild vegetables with flour and to add salt, a little oil and wild vegetables into the dough to steam a unique pasta called “bulasu”.
Fig. 3.
Mode of consumption of the wild vegetables
Cultural food significance index (CFSI)
The CFSI values were calculated following the abovementioned formula, with a minimum of 0.04 and a maximum of 10,295.63 (Table 5). It was possible to classify the cited botanical species into six groups [36, 37]: species with very high significance (CFSI = 1000 and higher), high significance (CFSI = 500–999), moderate significance (CFSI = 250–499), low significance (CFSI = 50–249), very low significance (CFSI = 5–49), and negligible significance (CFSI < 5) (Fig. 4).
Table 5.
Evaluation of wild edible plants of Daqinggou based on the CFSI
| Species | QI | AI | FUI | PUI | MFFI | TSAI | FMRI | CFSI | Ranking |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Taraxacum mongolicum | 68.00 | 4.00 | 5.00 | 4.25 | 4.75 | 7.50 | 5.00 | 10295.63 | 1 |
| Crataegus pinnatifida var. major | 59.00 | 4.00 | 5.00 | 3.00 | 3.50 | 10.00 | 5.00 | 6195.00 | 2 |
| Sonchus wightianus | 75.00 | 4.00 | 5.00 | 2.00 | 3.75 | 7.50 | 5.00 | 4218.75 | 3 |
| Ulmus pumila | 58.00 | 4.00 | 5.00 | 4.00 | 1.50 | 7.50 | 5.00 | 2610.00 | 4 |
| Allium macrostemon | 44.00 | 2.50 | 3.00 | 4.50 | 3.00 | 10.00 | 5.00 | 2227.50 | 5 |
| Cerasus humilis | 51.00 | 2.50 | 5.00 | 3.00 | 2.25 | 10.00 | 5.00 | 2151.56 | 6 |
| Allium ramosum | 65.00 | 2.50 | 5.00 | 3.75 | 2.00 | 10.00 | 3.00 | 1828.13 | 7 |
| Armeniaca sibirica | 55.00 | 3.00 | 3.00 | 2.00 | 3.50 | 10.00 | 5.00 | 1732.50 | 8 |
| Oenanthe javanica | 72.00 | 2.50 | 5.00 | 2.00 | 2.00 | 10.00 | 3.00 | 1080.00 | 9 |
| Solanum nigrum | 36.00 | 3.00 | 5.00 | 1.50 | 2.25 | 7.50 | 5.00 | 683.44 | 10 |
| Plantago depressa | 46.00 | 4.00 | 3.00 | 1.50 | 2.00 | 7.50 | 5.00 | 621.00 | 11 |
| Allium senescens | 53.00 | 2.50 | 3.00 | 3.00 | 1.50 | 10.00 | 3.00 | 536.63 | 12 |
| Amaranthus retroflexus | 53.00 | 4.00 | 3.00 | 3.00 | 1.00 | 7.50 | 3.00 | 429.30 | 13 |
| Urtica cannabina | 47.00 | 4.00 | 3.00 | 2.00 | 1.00 | 7.50 | 5.00 | 423.00 | 14 |
| Vitis amurensis | 49.00 | 1.50 | 3.00 | 3.00 | 3.25 | 6.50 | 3.00 | 419.23 | 15 |
| Malva verticillata | 31.00 | 4.00 | 5.00 | 1.50 | 2.00 | 7.50 | 3.00 | 418.50 | 16 |
| Plantago asiatica | 30.00 | 4.00 | 3.00 | 1.50 | 2.00 | 7.50 | 5.00 | 405.00 | 17 |
| Portulaca oleracea | 49.00 | 4.00 | 3.00 | 2.00 | 1.00 | 6.50 | 5.00 | 382.20 | 18 |
| Ulmus macrocarpa | 46.00 | 4.00 | 3.00 | 3.00 | 1.00 | 7.50 | 3.00 | 372.60 | 19 |
| Quercus mongolica | 40.00 | 4.00 | 3.00 | 1.00 | 2.75 | 5.50 | 5.00 | 363.00 | 20 |
| Adenophora polyantha | 18.00 | 2.50 | 3.00 | 3.00 | 2.75 | 6.50 | 5.00 | 361.97 | 21 |
| Artemisia frigida | 51.00 | 2.00 | 3.00 | 3.00 | 2.00 | 6.50 | 3.00 | 358.02 | 22 |
| Cynanchum thesioides | 45.00 | 2.50 | 3.00 | 1.50 | 3.00 | 7.50 | 3.00 | 341.72 | 23 |
| Hemerocallis minor | 45.00 | 1.50 | 5.00 | 1.50 | 3.00 | 7.50 | 3.00 | 341.72 | 24 |
| Periploca sepium | 65.00 | 3.00 | 3.00 | 3.00 | 2.50 | 7.50 | 1.00 | 329.06 | 25 |
| Adenophora remotiflora | 14.00 | 2.50 | 3.00 | 3.00 | 2.75 | 6.50 | 5.00 | 281.53 | 26 |
| Potentilla longifolia | 34.00 | 2.50 | 3.00 | 2.00 | 2.00 | 5.50 | 5.00 | 280.50 | 27 |
| Juglans mandshurica | 47.00 | 2.90 | 3.00 | 1.50 | 1.50 | 10.00 | 3.00 | 276.01 | 28 |
| Salsola collina | 45.00 | 3.00 | 3.00 | 3.00 | 1.00 | 4.00 | 5.00 | 243.00 | 29 |
| Polygonum divaricatum | 48.00 | 3.00 | 3.00 | 1.00 | 1.50 | 7.50 | 3.00 | 145.80 | 30 |
| Chenopodium album | 49.00 | 4.00 | 3.00 | 2.00 | 0.50 | 7.50 | 3.00 | 132.30 | 31 |
| Athyrium brevifrons | 38.00 | 2.50 | 3.00 | 1.50 | 3.50 | 7.50 | 1.00 | 112.22 | 32 |
| Urtica angustifolia | 14.00 | 3.50 | 3.00 | 2.00 | 1.00 | 7.50 | 5.00 | 110.25 | 33 |
| Lespedeza bicolor | 6.00 | 2.50 | 3.00 | 3.75 | 2.75 | 6.50 | 3.00 | 90.49 | 34 |
| Malus baccata | 51.00 | 3.00 | 3.00 | 1.50 | 1.50 | 6.50 | 1.00 | 67.13 | 35 |
| Chenopodium acuminatum | 22.00 | 4.00 | 3.00 | 2.00 | 0.50 | 7.50 | 3.00 | 59.40 | 36 |
| Polygonatum odoratum | 9.00 | 2.50 | 3.00 | 1.50 | 1.50 | 7.50 | 5.00 | 56.95 | 37 |
| Dendranthema indicum | 12.00 | 4.00 | 5.00 | 0.75 | 0.75 | 7.50 | 5.00 | 50.63 | 38 |
| Padus avium | 34.00 | 3.00 | 3.00 | 1.50 | 1.50 | 6.50 | 1.00 | 44.75 | 39 |
| Lycium chinense | 13.00 | 1.50 | 5.00 | 1.50 | 0.75 | 6.50 | 5.00 | 35.65 | 40 |
| Ephedra sinica | 36.00 | 1.50 | 3.00 | 0.75 | 1.50 | 6.50 | 3.00 | 35.54 | 41 |
| Kochia scoparia | 13.00 | 2.00 | 3.00 | 3.00 | 2.00 | 6.50 | 1.00 | 30.42 | 42 |
| Polygonum aviculare | 2.00 | 2.50 | 3.00 | 3.00 | 2.00 | 6.50 | 5.00 | 29.25 | 43 |
| Pyrus ussuriensis | 52.00 | 1.50 | 3.00 | 1.50 | 1.50 | 5.50 | 1.00 | 28.96 | 44 |
| Lilium pumilum | 34.00 | 0.50 | 3.00 | 0.75 | 2.00 | 7.50 | 5.00 | 28.69 | 45 |
| Ferula bungeana | 14.00 | 3.00 | 3.00 | 3.00 | 1.00 | 7.50 | 1.00 | 28.35 | 46 |
| Tilia mongolica | 13.00 | 3.00 | 3.00 | 1.50 | 2.00 | 6.50 | 1.00 | 22.82 | 47 |
| Corylus heterophylla | 12.00 | 1.90 | 3.00 | 1.50 | 2.50 | 7.50 | 1.00 | 19.24 | 48 |
| Xanthoceras sorbifolium | 25.00 | 1.50 | 1.00 | 1.00 | 2.50 | 6.50 | 3.00 | 18.28 | 49 |
| Orostachys malacophylla | 12.00 | 0.50 | 3.00 | 3.00 | 1.50 | 7.50 | 3.00 | 18.23 | 50 |
| Erodium stephanianum | 35.00 | 2.00 | 3.00 | 1.50 | 1.50 | 0.50 | 5.00 | 11.81 | 51 |
| Cynanchum chinense | 13.00 | 2.00 | 3.00 | 1.50 | 1.50 | 6.50 | 1.00 | 11.41 | 52 |
| Hemiptelea davidii | 9.00 | 1.50 | 3.00 | 3.00 | 1.00 | 6.50 | 1.00 | 7.90 | 53 |
| Thymus quinquecostatus var. asiaticus | 16.00 | 1.50 | 3.00 | 3.00 | 0.50 | 6.50 | 1.00 | 7.02 | 54 |
| Caltha palustris var. sibirica | 5.00 | 1.90 | 3.00 | 1.50 | 2.50 | 6.50 | 1.00 | 6.95 | 55 |
| Paeonia lactiflora | 7.00 | 0.50 | 3.00 | 1.50 | 0.75 | 7.50 | 5.00 | 4.43 | 56 |
| Abutilon theophrasti | 14.00 | 3.00 | 1.00 | 1.00 | 0.50 | 4.00 | 5.00 | 4.20 | 57 |
| Cannabis sativa f. ruderalis | 12.00 | 2.50 | 1.00 | 1.00 | 0.50 | 5.50 | 5.00 | 4.13 | 58 |
| Codonopsis lanceolata | 2.00 | 1.50 | 3.00 | 1.50 | 1.50 | 6.50 | 1.00 | 1.32 | 59 |
| Cirsium setosum | 2.00 | 2.50 | 3.00 | 1.50 | 1.00 | 5.50 | 1.00 | 1.24 | 60 |
| Fagopyrum esculentum | 5.00 | 0.50 | 1.00 | 0.75 | 0.50 | 4.00 | 1.00 | 0.04 | 61 |
Fig. 4.
Number of plant species in each CFSI group
Taraxacum mongolicum ranks first in the CFSI, attributed to its high quotation index, multifunctional food use index value and food-medicinal role index value. Its tender stem and leaf can be used as vegetables; flowers and roots can be used for herbal drinks and have the functions of heat clearing. Fagopyrum esculentum ranks last with the CFSI because of the very low frequency of consumption over the past 30 years. Its flowers and a small amount of flour are cooked to satisfy hunger only in the famine years. This reported use only exists in the memory of the elderly.
Wild edible plants used for diet therapy
In addition to their edible function, many wild edible plants also have health care functions, and a wide range of diseases can be prevented and cured by eating these plants [43–47]. The CFSI of 61 wild edible plant species shows that 27 species have medical food characteristics.
The locals use these plants as medicine for the following: rheumatism, diuresis, heat clearing, and tonifying Qi (Table 6). For example, patients with rheumatism can relieve their pain by drinking the medicinal wine made from the root of Adenophora polyantha and Cerasus humilis. Herbal tea made of Sonchus arvensis can be used for “heat clearing” according to traditional folk knowledge. A snack made from the seeds of Quercus mongolica can treat diarrhea in children (Fig. 5).
Table 6.
Folk diet therapy function and the names and numbers of representative plants
| Folk diet therapy function | Number | Representative plant |
|---|---|---|
| Treating rheumatism | 6 | Abutilon theophrasti, Adenophora polyantha, Cerasus humilis, Erodium stephanianum, Urtica angustifolia, Urtica cannabina |
| Heat clearing | 4 | Dendranthema indicum, Polygonum aviculare, Sonchus wightianus, Taraxacum mongolicum |
| Diuresis | 3 | Plantago depressa, Plantago asiatica, Ulmus pumila |
| Relieving cough | 3 | Armeniaca sibirica, Lilium pumilum, Solanum nigrum |
| Tonifying Qi | 3 | Lycium chinense, Paeonia lactiflora, Polygonatum odoratum |
| Heat clearing and detoxifying | 2 | Portulaca oleracea, Potentilla longifolia |
| Promoting digestion | 2 | Allium macrostemon, Crataegus pinnatifida var. major |
| Relaxing the bowels | 2 | Adenophora remotiflora, Cannabis sativa f. ruderalis |
| Lowering blood pressure | 2 | Portulaca oleracea, Salsola collina |
| Reducing blood glucose | 1 | Polygonatum odoratum |
| Relieving diarrhea | 1 | Quercus mongolica |
| Improving eyesight | 1 | Lycium chinense |
Fig. 5.
Landscape of the reserve (a). Cerasus humilis (b). Quercus mongolica (c). Vitis amurensis (d). a Photo by Manduhu, and b–d photo by Khasbagan
Conclusions
A total of 61 species of wild plants are consumed by local people. Among them, Abutilon theophrasti, Fagopyrum esculentum, and Lycium chinense have been reduced to escaped species, common along roadsides and in wasteland and fields. A total of 126 folk names of local wild edible plants were recorded. Among them, the Mongolian people provided 67 folk names, corresponding to 57 wild plants, and the Han Chinese provided 58 folk names, corresponding to 49 wild plants. The corresponding rates of Mongolian and Han folk names and scientific names were 85.07% and 84.48%, respectively, which indicates that scientific knowledge has high consistency with traditional knowledge in botanical nomenclature [48–50]. However, the choice of edible parts and consumption between the two linguistic groups was almost identical. Based on the statistics, the most widely eaten parts of wild edible plant species are aerial parts, stems, and leaves. Wild edible plant species are most commonly cooked (as a soup) or eaten fresh.
The CFSI of wild edible plant species was also calculated, with a minimum of 0.04 and a maximum of 10295.63. Taraxacum mongolicum, a local common natural potherb, was the most popular wild edible plant based on its high CFSI metric. According to the corresponding records of Chinese herbs and Mongolian medicine [51–55], among the 27 species of wild diet therapy plants, 19 species were recorded based on Mongolian medicine, and 23 species were recorded based on Chinese herbal medicine. Adenophora remotiflora, Cannabis sativa f. ruderalis, and Salsola collina have not been recorded in the relevant literature. Twelve species have been recorded in the literature of “Chinese Materia Medica: Mongolian Medicine roll”, and 23 species have been recorded in the literature of “Planta medica records of Inner Mongolia”. This reflects that the locals have high consistency with Mongolian medicine and Chinese herbal medicine in the selection of wild diet therapy plants; 17 species have been recorded in the literature of “Pharmacopoeia of the People’s Republic of China”, which shows that the knowledge of local wild diet therapy plants has a strong scientific basis and is worth further study.
Supplementary information
Acknowledgements
We are very grateful to the locals of Daqinggou for their cooperation in the interviews. We are also grateful to Manduhu and Bayartu, the staff of the Administration Bureau for Daqinggou National Nature Reserve, for their sincere help in the field work. We thank Dr. Huhtala, Dr. Richard Isenberg, Dr. Hui Zhao, and Prof. James Wong from SFSU (California, USA), who edited the English language.
Authors’ contributions
The fieldwork for data collection was conducted by S, K, G, and YYZ. The voucher specimens were identified by S, K, and HZ. Data analysis and manuscript preparation were performed by S and K. All authors read and approved the final manuscript.
Funding
This work was supported by the National Natural Science Foundation of China (No. 30560013).
Availability of data and materials
All data generated or analyzed during this study are included in this published article and its supplementary information files.
Ethics approval and consent to participate
The authors asked for permission from the local authorities and the people interviewed to carry out the study.
Consent for publication
The people interviewed were informed about the study’s objectives and the eventual publication of the information gathered, and they were assured that the informants’ identities would remain undisclosed.
Competing interests
The authors declare that they have no competing interests.
Footnotes
Publisher’s Note
Springer Nature remains neutral with regard to jurisdictional claims in published maps and institutional affiliations.
Supplementary information
Supplementary information accompanies this paper at 10.1186/s13002-020-00411-2.
References
- 1.Xue DY. International process of protection of traditional knowledge under the Convention on Biological Diversity. Guizhou Soc Sci. 2014;4:138–143. doi: 10.13713/j.cnki.cssci.2014.04.023. [DOI] [Google Scholar]
- 2.Natcher D, Kalagnanam V, Rawal R, Johnston M, Mamun AA. Non-timber forest products and village livelihoods in Rajasthan, India: adaptation in a changing environment. Int J Sust Dev World. 2017;25(1):47–55. doi: 10.1080/13504509.2017.1304462. [DOI] [Google Scholar]
- 3.Meke GS, Mumba RFE, Bwanali RJ, Williams VV. The trade and marketing of traditional medicines in southern and central Malawi. Int J Sust Dev World. 2017;24(1):1–15. doi: 10.1080/13504509.2016.1171261. [DOI] [Google Scholar]
- 4.Dzerefos CM, Witkowski ETF, Kremerköhne S. Aiming for the biodiversity target with the social welfare arrow: medicinal and other useful plants from a critically endangered grassland ecosystem in Limpopo Province, South Africa. Int J Sust Dev World. 2016;24(1):52–64. doi: 10.1080/13504509.2016.1174963. [DOI] [Google Scholar]
- 5.Ma Y, Luo BS, Wen Q, Feng JC, Xue DY. A case study on traditional knowledge and the diversity of edible plants use from the ecological immigrants with different sources in Hongsibu district of Ningxia Autonomous Region. J Plant Gen Resour. 2019;20(6):1456–1464. doi: 10.13430/j.cnki.jpgr.20190318001. [DOI] [Google Scholar]
- 6.Pei SJ. Ethnobotany and the sustainable use of biodiversity. Plant Divers Resour. 2013;35(4):401–406. [Google Scholar]
- 7.Pei SJ, Huai HY. Ethnobotany. Shanghai: Shanghai Science and Technology Press; 2007. [Google Scholar]
- 8.Cotton CM. Ethnobotany: principles and applications. Chichester: John Wiley & Sons; 1996. [Google Scholar]
- 9.Song ML. Wild edible compositae resources in Lishan National Nature Reserve of Shanxi. Chin Wild Plant Resour. 2011;30(6):31–33. doi: 10.3969/j.issn.1006-9690.2011.06.007. [DOI] [Google Scholar]
- 10.Geng Y, Zhang Y, Wang YH. Traditional knowledge and its transmission of wild edibles used by the Naxi in Baidi village. Northwest Yunnan Province. J Ethnobiol Ethnomed. 2016;12(1):1–21. doi: 10.1186/s13002-016-0082-2. [DOI] [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
- 11.Luo BS, Liu B, Zhang HZ, Zhang HK, Li X, Ma LJ, Wang YZ, Bai YJ, Zhang XB, Li JQ, Yang J, Long CL. Wild edible plants collected by Hani from terraced rice paddy agroecosystem in Honghe Prefecture, Yunnan. China. J Ethnobiol Ethnomed. 2019;15:56. doi: 10.1186/s13002-019-0336-x. [DOI] [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
- 12.Yan J, Zhuo JX, Luo BS, Long CL. Eating from the wild: diversity of wild edible plants used by Tibetans in Shangri-la region, Yunnan. China. J Ethnobiol Ethnomed. 2013;9(1):169–176. doi: 10.1186/1746-4269-9-28. [DOI] [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
- 13.Hong LY, Zhuo JX, Lei QY, Zhou JJ, Ahmed S, Wang CY, Long YX, Li FF, Long CL. Ethnobotany of wild plants used for starting fermented beverages in Shui communities of southwest China. J Ethnobiol Ethnomed. 2015;11:42. doi: 10.1186/s13002-015-0028-0. [DOI] [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
- 14.He JW, Zhang RF, Lei QY, Chen GX, Li KG, Ahmed S, Long CL. Diversity, knowledge, and valuation of plants used as fermentation starters for traditional glutinous rice wine by Dong communities in Southeast Guizhou. China. J Ethnobiol Ethnomed. 2019;15:20. doi: 10.1186/s13002-019-0299-y. [DOI] [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
- 15.Khasbagan HHY, Pei SJ. Wild plants in the diet of Arhorchin Mongol herdsmen in inner Mongolia. Econ Bot. 2000;54(4):528–536. doi: 10.1007/BF02866550. [DOI] [Google Scholar]
- 16.Wujisguleng W, Khasbagen K. An integrated assessment of wild vegetable resources in Inner Mongolian Autonomous Region. China. J Ethnobiol Ethnomed. 2010;6:34. doi: 10.1186/1746-4269-6-34. [DOI] [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
- 17.Li S, Zhang Y, Guo Y, Yang L, Wang Y. Monpa, memory, and change: an ethnobotanical study of plant use in Mêdog County, South-east Tibet. China. J Ethnobiol Ethnomed. 2020;16:5. doi: 10.1186/s13002-020-0355-7. [DOI] [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
- 18.Kang Y, Łuczaj Ł, Kang J, Zhang S. Wild food plants and wild edible fungi in two valleys of the Qinling Mountains (Shaanxi, central China) J Ethnobiol Ethnomed. 2013;9(1):26. doi: 10.1186/1746-4269-9-26. [DOI] [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
- 19.Kang Y, Łuczaj Ł, Yes S, Zhang S, Kang J. Wild food plants and wild edible fungi of Heihe valley (Qinling Mountains, Shaanxi, Central China): herbophilia and indifference to fruits and mushrooms. Acta Soc Bot Pol. 2012;81(4):405–413. doi: 10.5586/asbp.2012.044. [DOI] [Google Scholar]
- 20.Kang YX, Łuczaj Ł, Kang J, Wang F, Hou JJ, Guo QP. Wild food plants used by the Tibetans of Gongba Valley (Zhouqu county, Gansu, China) J Ethnobiol Ethnomed. 2014;10:20. doi: 10.1186/1746-4269-10-20. [DOI] [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
- 21.Kang J, Kang YX, Ji XL, Guo QP, Jacques G, Pietras M, Łuczaj N, Li DW, Łuczaj Ł. Wild food plants and fungi used in the mycophilous Tibetan community of Zhagana (Tewo County, Gansu, China) J Ethnobiol Ethnomed. 2016;12:21. doi: 10.1186/s13002-016-0094-y. [DOI] [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
- 22.Khasbagan Y. Zhao H. Study on traditional knowledge of wild edible plants used by the Mongolians in Xilingol typical steppe area. Plant Divers Resour. 2011;33(2):239–246. doi: 10.3724/SP.J.1143.2011.10158. [DOI] [Google Scholar]
- 23.Man L, Zhang XS. Khasbagan, Erdemtuu. Study on the Mongolian traditional knowledge of wild edible plants in Ordos plateau. Acta Bot Yunnanica. 2007;29(5):575–585. doi: 10.3969/j.issn.2095-0845.2007.05.015. [DOI] [Google Scholar]
- 24.Khasbagan, Soyolt, Man L, Enhebayar, Gerelt, Hu WR. Traditional usage of wild plants for food by the Ejina Mongolians and its exploitation and ethnoecological significance. J IMNU (Natural Science Edition). 2005; 34(4): 471-4, 88. 10.3969/j.issn.1001-8735.2005.04.020.
- 25.Liu GF, Bai L, Liu YP, Cheng WY, Dafubaiyila, Zheng Q F. Species diversity of phytocenosis at the upper slopes in Daqinggou Nature Reserve. J IMUN (Nat Sci Edit).. 2016; 31(4): 293-7, 369. 10.14045/j.cnki.15-1220.2016.04.005.
- 26.Zheng YR. Main woody species niche of plant community in Daqinggou. Acta Phytophy Sin. 1999;23(5):475–479. [Google Scholar]
- 27.Ma YQ. Flora of Inner Mongolia, vol. I. 2nd ed. Hohhot: Inner Mongolian People’s Press; 1998. [Google Scholar]
- 28.Writing committee of “Annals of Horqin Left Wing Rear Banner”. Annals of Horqin Left Wing Rear Banner. Hulun Buir: Inner Mongolia Culture Press; 2008.
- 29.Pei SJ, Long CL. Applied ethnobotany. Kunming, Yunnan, China: the Nationalities Publishing House of Yunnan; 1998.
- 30.Martin GJ. Ethnobotany: a methods manual. London, Glasgow, Weinheim, New York, Tokyo, Melbourne, Madras: Chapman & Hall; 1995. [Google Scholar]
- 31.Harshberger JW. The purpose of ethno-botany. Bot Gaz. 1896;21:146–154. doi: 10.1086/327316. [DOI] [Google Scholar]
- 32.Wang YH, Wang C. Ethnobotany: common research methods: Zhejiang Education Publishing House; 2017.
- 33.Wurchaih, Huar, Menggenqiqig, Khasbagan. Medicinal wild plants used by the Mongol herdsmen in Bairin Area of Inner Mongolia and its comparative study between TMM and TCM. J Ethnobiol Ethnomed. 2019; 15:32. 10.1186/s13002-019-0300-9. [DOI] [PMC free article] [PubMed]
- 34.Ma YQ. Flora of Inner Mongolia, vol. 2. 2nd ed. Hohhot: Inner Mongolian People’s Press; 1990. [Google Scholar]
- 35.Flora of China Editorial Committee. Flora of China. Beijing: Science Press, and St. Louis: Missouri Botanical Garden Press; 1994-2013.
- 36.Pieroni A. Evaluation of the cultural significance of wild food botanicals traditionally consumed in Northwestern Tuscany. Italy. J Ethnobiol. 2001;21:89–104. [Google Scholar]
- 37.Suiarwo W, Caneva G. Using quantitative indices to evaluate the cultural importance of food and nutraceutical plants: comparative data from the Island of Bali (Indonesia) J Cult Herit. 2016;18:342–348. doi: 10.1016/j.culher.2015.06.006. [DOI] [Google Scholar]
- 38.Yang NT, Zhang Y, He LJ, Fan RY, Gou Y, Wang C, Wang YH. Ethnobotanical study on traditional edible sour plants of Bai nationality in Dali area. J Plant Resour Envir. 2018;27(2):93–100. doi: 10.3969/j.issn.1674-7895.2018.02.12. [DOI] [Google Scholar]
- 39.Turner NJ. “The importance of a rose”: evaluating the cultural significance of plants in Thompson and Lillooet Interior Salish. American Anthropologist. 1988;90(2):272–290. doi: 10.1525/aa.1988.90.2.02a00020. [DOI] [Google Scholar]
- 40.Tardío J, Pardo-de-Santayana M. Cultural importance indices. a comparative analysis based on the useful wild plants of southern Cantabria (Northern Spain) Econ Bot. 2008;62:24–39. doi: 10.1007/s12231-007-9004-5. [DOI] [Google Scholar]
- 41.Dictionary Office of Language Research Institute, Chinese Academy of Social Sciences. Modern Chinese dictionary. Commercial Press; 2016.
- 42.Mongolian dictionary Committee. Mongolian dictionary. Hohhot: Inner Mongolian People’s Press; 1997.
- 43.Zhang LL, Zhang Y, Pei SJ, Geng YF, Wang C, Wang YH. Ethnobotanical survey of medicinal dietary plants used by the Naxi People in Lijiang Area, Northwest Yunnan. China. J Ethnobiol Ethnomed. 2015;11(1):40. doi: 10.1186/s13002-015-0030-6. [DOI] [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
- 44.Khasbagan. Wild plants used for the folk dietotherapy in Arhorchin Mongolians. J Chin Med Mat. 2001;24(2):83–85. 10.3321/j.issn:1001-4454.2001.02.003. [PubMed]
- 45.Shang YB. Sun LH. Lin H. YinShan ZhengYao Zhushi: China Minzu University Press; 2009. [Google Scholar]
- 46.Pei SJ. Brief discussion on ethno-medicine research and new-drug development of China (Part A) J Yunnan Univ Tradit Chin Med. 2007;30(3):1–4. doi: 10.3969/j.issn.1000-2723.2007.03.001. [DOI] [Google Scholar]
- 47.Pei SJ. Brief discussion on ethno-medicine research and new-drug development of China (part B) J Yunnan Univ Tradit Chin Med. 2007;30(4):4–7. doi: 10.3969/j.issn.1000-2723.2007.04.002. [DOI] [Google Scholar]
- 48.Khasbagan, Soyolt. Indigenous knowledge for plant species diversity: a case study of wild plants' folk names used by the Mongolians in Ejina desert area, Inner Mongolia, P. R. China. J Ethnobiol Ethnomed. 2008; 4: 2. 10.1186/1746-4269-4-2. [DOI] [PMC free article] [PubMed]
- 49.Soyolt, Galsannorbu, Yongping, Wunenbayar, Liu GH, Khasbagan. Wild plant folk nomenclature of the Mongol herdsmen in the Arhorchin national nature reserve, Inner Mongolia, PR China. J Ethnobiol Ethnomed. 2013; 9: 30. 10.1186/1746-4269-9-30. [DOI] [PMC free article] [PubMed]
- 50.Yeruhan K. Twenty species of wild plants were named and used by the Mongol herdsman in Bolgan Som, Bayandelger Gacha, Xilinhot. J IMNU (Nat Sci Edit). 2008;29(3):23–26. [Google Scholar]
- 51.Zhu YM, editor. Planta medica records of Inner Mongolia. Hohhot: Inner Mongolian People’s Press; 2000. [Google Scholar]
- 52.Zhu YM, editor. Planta medica records of Inner Mongolia. Hohhot: Inner Mongolian People’s Press; 1989. [Google Scholar]
- 53.Zhu YM, editor. Planta medica records of Inner Mongolia. Hohhot: Inner Mongolian People’s Press; 1989. [Google Scholar]
- 54.China State Administration of Traditional Chinese Materia Medica Committee . Chinese materia medica: Mongolian drugs. Shanghai: Shanghai Science and Technology Press; 2004. [Google Scholar]
- 55.China Pharmacopoeia Commission. Pharmacopoeia of the People's Republic of China. Beijing: China Medical Science Press; 2010.
Associated Data
This section collects any data citations, data availability statements, or supplementary materials included in this article.
Supplementary Materials
Data Availability Statement
All data generated or analyzed during this study are included in this published article and its supplementary information files.