Nutritional Composition of Edible Insects Consumed in Africa: A Systematic Review

Abstract

Edible insects are an important protein rich natural resource that can contribute to resilient food security. Edible insects not only play an important role in traditional diets, but are also an excellent source of protein in traditional dishes in Africa. We systematically searched Web-of-Science and Google Scholar from year 2000–2019 for studies on the consumption of insects and their nutritional composition in Africa, resulting in 98 eligible papers, listing 212 edible insect species from eight orders. These insects were rich in protein, fats, and fibre. The highest protein content was reported for Lepidoptera (range: 20–80%). Coleoptera had the highest carbohydrate content (7–54%), while Lepidoptera had the highest fat content (10–50%). Considering the excellent source of nutrition, and potential socio-economic benefits, from edible insects, they can contribute strongly to improved food security, and rural development in developing countries. In addition, edible insects can be used as a sustainable food source to combat food shortages in the future, for example, providing resilience during times of drought or other climate stressors.

1. Introduction

Consumption of insects has recently received more attention because of their promising potential for contributing to livelihoods and mitigating food security problems around the world [1,2,3]. Food security problems are caused by an enormous increase in the global human population, which is estimated to increase to approximately 9 billion people by 2050 [1], resulting in a 70% increase in food demand, and an increase in food prices [1,4,5]. The increase in food prices will prompt the search for cheap alternative sustainable protein sources [1]. Entomophagy, which refers to the consumption of insects by humans, is an environmentally friendly approach to increasing food for consumption, and contributing to food security across the world [2,5,6,7].

Edible insects might be a solution to food shortages, owing to their promising potential in contributing to livelihoods and mitigating food security problems around the world [1,2,3]. Insects are consumed as food in Thailand [8,9], China [10,11], Mexico [12,13,14,15], Latin America [16], Japan [17], and Africa [18]. According to van Huis [1], approximately 2 billion people worldwide regularly consume insects as part of their diets. The consumption of insects is not a new phenomenon, as it dates back to before the development of agriculture when humans relied on gathering plants and hunting wild animals [4,11,19].

Edible insects have played a very important traditional role in nutritious diets in various countries in Africa [18,20]. In addition, edible insects are an important natural resource that is used as a coping strategy, particularly in months of food shortage [21,22,23]. Unfavourable climatic conditions experienced in Africa affect small scale animal husbandry and reduce animal protein production, so diets are then supplemented with edible insect protein [22]. Edible insects provide significant socio-economic and ecological benefits for developing countries [24,25]. Approximately 500 species of edible insects are consumed in Africa and form part of traditional diets [18]. Of these 500 species, 256 species were consumed in the Central African region, 164 in southern Africa, 100 species in eastern Africa, 91 in western Africa, and only eight species in northern Africa [18]. Insects are consumed among different African cultures because of their taste, cultural importance, and nutritive value, and as a supplementary food when staple food is limited [1,3,25,26,27].

Various studies in Africa have focused on studying the nutritional content of a single species, group, or genus [28,29,30,31,32]. Little is known about the diversity and nutritional content of various insects consumed in Africa. Therefore, the current study will review the existing literature on the diversity of insects, and their nutritional status in Africa, and, therefore, compile information on the nutrient composition of edible insects consumed in Africa. This will be done by asking the following questions: (1) What is the nutritional value of edible insects consumed in Africa, (2) what are the most consumed, and (3) the most studied insect species, in terms of nutrition, in Africa?

2. Materials and Methods

2.1. Search Strategy

To explore the diversity and nutritional status of edible insects in Africa, we followed the PRISMA guidelines for a systematic review. Peer-reviewed literature was obtained using the Thomson Reuters’ Web of Science database (https://apps.webofknowledge.com) and google scholar (https://scholar.google.co.za/) looking for publications that researched entomophagy in Africa, edible insects, diversity, nutrient content of edible insects, and consumption of insects. To source information, the following key words and phrases were used, “entomophagy”, “edible insects”, “diversity of edible insects”, “entomophagy in Africa”, “edible insects in eastern Africa”, “edible insects in north Africa”, “edible insects in western Africa”, “edible insects in Central Africa”, “edible insects in southern Africa” and “nutrient content of edible insects”. We also screened references included in selected articles in order to identify studies that might be relevant but did not appear in our search. We limited the search to literature published from 2000 to 2019. We started in the year 2000 because it was a starting point where most researchers began investigating the use of edible insects as a food source and as a solution to combat food insecurity problems [33,34].

2.2. Data Collection

Data from the selected articles were independently screened and extracted by a single author (Z.T.H). The search result was done by reading the title and abstract of the retrieved papers to determine if the article was relevant to the study. Once it was determined that the article was relevant, the full text of the selected articles was further analysed to extract relevant information. The information that was collected and extracted after full text reading from each article included year, study area and country, study insect species, reported nutrient composition of insects, consumption stage of an insect, main research findings, and conclusions. Collected articles were categorised by country and insect order.

2.3. Inclusion and Exclusion Criteria

2.3.1. Inclusion Criteria

• Original research articles and review papers focusing on entomophagy, nutrient composition of single or multiple edible insect species.

• Articles published in English.

• Articles of work done in African countries.

• Articles that reported nutrient composition of edible insects.

2.3.2. Exclusion Criteria

• Conference papers, editorial material, book chapters

• Articles on insect rearing and farming.

2.4. Data Quality

To evaluate the quality of studies included in this systematic review, we assessed quality based on the following criteria: (1) A clear food description (scientific name(s) of insects studied or genus), (2) a clear description on the part of the insects used for analysis, e.g., whole, head, abdomen, indication of geographic origin of the insects, and the country where it is used as food in Africa, (3) analytical method used, number of analytical samples, (4) clear indication of whether the nutritional composition was based on the dry weight. Studies were included if they meet all the above criteria.

2.5. Data Analysis

The methods and data sources used in the included studies were highly heterogeneous and a statistical meta-analysis was not possible. Instead, a more narrative synthesis approach was used, and data from each study were tabulated. We synthesised the results according to study species and mean values of all insect species belonging to the same insect order were calculated and represented in bold, the nutritional composition of consumed species were presented in the table, most consumed species in different countries were presented graphically.

3. Results and Discussion

A total of 428 papers were identified for potential inclusion; after checking the title and abstract, 300 articles were excluded because they did not meet the inclusion criteria. From here, 128 articles were selected for full-text reading; from these, 29 articles were further excluded because they were not relevant or not conducted in Africa. After reading the full-text, 89 studies met all inclusion criteria, and a further nine articles were identified through screening references and confirming inclusion criteria were met. In total 98 articles were included in a systematic review (Figure 1).

Figure 1.

Flow chart of the study selection process for systematic review of the nutritional composition of edible insects.

3.1. Consumption of Insect Patterns in Africa

For the research articles published since 2000, a total of 212 edible insect species from nine orders were recorded and are potentially consumed in different African countries (Appendix A). Of these, 41% were Lepidoptera, 23% Orthoptera, 15% Coleoptera, 12% Blattodea (including both cockroaches and termites as recently classified), 4% Hemiptera, and Hymenoptera, Diptera, Blattodea, and Mantodea each contributed <1%. Rhynchophorus phoenicis (African palm weevil) and Cirina forda (Pallid emperor moth) were the most studied species in Africa, with 32 publications from 12 countries, and 18 publications from 10 countries, respectively (Figure 2). Most research has been done in the western African countries, particularly in Nigeria, mainly on Rhynchophorus phoenicis and Cirina forda, which are the most consumed species in West Africa. However, southern African countries (Zimbabwe, South Africa, and Bostwana) have the highest number of consumed species, but little research has been done on nutritional content and consumption patterns of edible insects.

Figure 2.

The number of countries with journal peer-reviewed articles published on the most consumed and economically important insects in Africa.

3.2. Nutrient Composition of Edible Insects

A compilation of nutrient composition of 54 edible insects based on the dry matter is presented in Table 1. Percentage of fat, protein, moisture, and ash content were calculated based on dry weight of the insect when ready for preparation to eat, noting that, in some cases, the insects had been processed since collecting. The highest protein was reported in Lepidoptera (range: 12–79%) and Orthoptera (12–73%), while the lowest protein content ranging from (0–39%) was reported for Blattodea.

Table 1.

Nutritional composition of edible insects, based on dry matter, from six orders consumed by people in Africa.

Scientific Name	Stage of Consumption	Protein (%)	Crude Fibre (%)	Moisture (%)	Ash (%)	Carb (%)	Vitamin A (mg/100 g)	Vitamin B2 (mg/100 g)	Vitamin C (mg/100 g)	Fe (mg/100 g)	Ca (mg/100 g)	Zn (mg/100 g)	P (mg/100 g)	Mg (mg/100 g)	Fats (mg/100 g)	Reference
Blattodea (termites and cockroaches)		33.2 ± 14.5	4.7 ± 3.9	2.9 ± 0.1	5.2 ± 2.5	23.2 ± 0	2.7 ± 0.2	1.8 ± 0.2	3.2 ± 0.2	86 ± 96.8	54.1 ± 42.6	13.8 ± 3.5	125 ± 11	0.2 ± 0.1	22.2 ± 9.8
Periplaneta Americana	Adult	39.6	13.1		6.2											[35]
Macrotermes nigeriensis	Adult	35.9	5.5		5.8											[35]
Macrotermes bellicosus	Adult	20.4	2.7	2.8	11.3	23.2	2.9	2.0	3.4	27.0	21.0		136.0	0.2	36.1	[36]
Macrotermes natalensis	Adult	22.1	2.2	3.0	4.1		2.6	1.5	3.0	29.0	18.0		114.0	0.3	21.4	[36]
Pseudacathotermes spinige	Adult				6.8					332.0	84.7	11.9				[37]
Macrotermes spp.	Adult				2.4					93.9	83.7	8.1				[37]
Macrotermes herus	Adult				6.8					161.0	132.0	14.3				[37]
Macrotermes bellicosus	Adult	40.7			5.7					42.7		16.9			8.4	[38]
Macrotermes bellicosus	Adult	20.4	2.7	2.8	2.9		2.9	2.0	3.4	27.0	21.0		136.0	0.2		[36]
Syntermes soldiers	Adult	64.7			4.2					32.5		17.6			23.0	[38]
Macrotermes natalensis	Adult	22.1	2.2	3.0	1.9		2.6	1.5	3.0	29.0	18.0		114.0	0.3		[36]
Coleoptera (beetles)		32.8 ± 11.5	6.2 ± 7.8	7.6 ± 15.7	4.7 ± 2.7	22.6 ± 13.2	11.2 ± 1.4	1.9 ± 0.9	5.4 ± 1.2	14.1 ± 8.9	43.6 ± 14.3	14.4 ± 12.1	109.6 ± 48.5	10.1 ± 4.2	29.1 ± 16.6
Analeptes trifasciata	Larvae	20.1	2.0	2.2	5.1		12.5	2.6	5.4	18.2	61.2		136.4	18.2		[36]
Oryctes boas	Larvae	26.0	1.5	1.9	1.5							2.3				[6,36]
Oryctes monoceros	Larvae	26.4		4.7	7.8	51.6										[39]
Aphodius rufipes	Larvae	22.4	28.1	3.3	2.7	13.1				30.9	42.2			11.7	30.5	[36]
Rhynchophorus phoenicis	Larvae	28.4	2.8	2.7	2.7		11.3	2.2	4.3	12.2	39.6	26.5	126.4	7.5	66.6	[6]
Oryctes rhinoceros	Larvae	50.5								4.5					38.1	[6]
Oryctes owariensis	Larvae	50.6		8.4	7.7	14.3									18.9	[40]
Eulopida mashona	Larvae	46.3	14.8		10.9	16.2									11.8	[41]
Heteroligus meles	Larvae	38.1	3.0	1.0	5.8	20.1									32.0	[42]
Rhynchophorus phoenicis	Larvae	50.0	2.6	1.2	4.9	20.2									21.1	[42]
Rhynchophorus phoenicis	Larvae	28.4	2.8	2.7	2.7		11.3	2.2	4.3	12.2	39.6		126.4	7.5		[36]
Analeptes trifasciata	Larvae	29.6	2.0	2.2	4.2		12.5	2.6	5.4	18.2	61.3		136.4	6.1		[36]
Oryctes boas	Larvae	26.0	3.4	1.9	1.5		8.6	0.1	7.6	2.3	45.7		130.2	6.3		[36]
Apomecyna parumpunctata	Larvae	16.8	5.4	59.4	3.0						15.7		1.5	13.5	13.9	[43]
Hemiptera (bugs)		39.3 ± 4.0	5.3 ± 0	4.9 ± 0	1.7 ± 0	6.3 ± 1.3	0.2 ± 0	0.9 ± 0		20.2 ± 0	91.0 ± 0	46.0 ± 0	57 ± 0	109 ± 0
Encosternum delegorguei		43.3	5.3	4.9	1.7	5.0	0.2	0.9		20.2	91.0		575.0	109.0	45.0	[6]
Encosternum delegorguei		35.2		4.9	1.7	7.6				20.2	91.0	46.0		109.0		[28]
Hymenoptera (bees and ants)		33.9 ± 9.2	7.7 ± 4.6	3.9 ± 0.1	4.1 ± 3.2		12.4 ± 0	3.2 ± 0	10.3 ± 0	17.8 ± 6.6	21.6 ± 6.3	7.5 ± 2.5	115.6 ± 9.6	7.8 ± 2.6	42.9 ± 4.7
Apis mellifera	Adult	21.0	2.0	3.8	2.2		12.4	3.2	10.3	25.2	15.4		125.5	5.2		[6,36]
Carebara vidua	Adult	42.5	9.1		8,6					10.4	22.3	5.7	106.0	10.4	38.2	[6]
Componotus spp.	Adult	40.1	14.1		9.6											[35]
Oecophylla longinoda	Adult	37.8	12.3		7.3											[35]
Crematogaster mimosa	Adult				1.7					17.7	32.6	11.1				[37]
Carebara vidua Smith	Adult	40.8	6.9	3.9	1.6					10.7	22.2	5.7	106.0	10.4	47.5	[44]
Apis mellifera	Adult	21.0	2.0	3.8	2.2		12.4	3.2	10.3	25.2	15.4		125.0	5.2		[36]
Lepidoptera (caterpillars)		46.3 ± 21.7	5.9 ± 5.4	29.3 ± 36.5	4.6 ± 2.2	18.0 ± 13.0	3.1 ± 0.2	1.7 ± 0.6	2.8 ± 1.0	15.4 ± 22.2	9.4 ± 2.3	10.6 ± 2.2	320.7 ± 367.9	18.9 ± 45.5	18.3 ± 14.8
Anaphe venata	Larvae	60.0	3.2	3.3			3.1	1.3	2.2	2.0	8.6		100.5	1.6		[6]
Anaphe infracta	Larvae	20.0	2.4	2.7			3.0	2.0	4.5	1.8	8.6		113.3	1.0		[6,36]
Anaphe recticulata	Larvae	23.0	3.1	3.2			3.4	2.0	2.2	2.2	10.5		102.4	2.6		[6,36]
Cirina forda	Larvae	20.2	1.8	4.4			3.0	2.2	2.0	64.0	15.4	8.6	110.0	1.9		[6,36]
Imbrasia epimethea	Larvae	73.1		79.8						13.0		11.1	402.0		12.4	[36]
Imbrasia obscura	Larvae	62.3		83.0											12.2	[45]
Gonimbrasia (Nudaurelia) alopia	Larvae	62.3		85.7											1.9	[45]
Gonimbrasia (Nudaurelia) dione	Larvae															[45]
Pseudantheraea discrepans	Larvae	48.9		72.2											21.3	[45]
Anaphe panda	Larvae	53.2		83.4											55.0	[6,33]
Cirina butyrospermi	Larvae	62.7	5.0		5.1					13.0						[46]
Imbrasia belina	Larvae	55.3	16.0		8.3	8.2				31.0		14.0	543.0	160.0		[6,47]
Gynanisa maia	Larvae	51.1	16.2		7.7	14.1									16.4	[47]
Loba leopardina	Larvae	25.8	14.7		6.6	40.2									12.6	[47]
Imbrasia macrothyris	Larvae	75.4														[33]
Nudaurelia macrothyrus	Larvae	75.4														[33]
Gonimbrasia richelmanni	Larvae	79.6														[33]
Cirina spp.	Larvae									64.0	7.0	8.6	1090.0	32.4		[48]
Cirina butyrospermi	Larvae	62.7			5.0								1160.0		14.3	[46]
Hemijana variegata Rothschild,	Larvae		8.3	5.9	5.2	9.5										[49]
Anaphe infracta	Larvae	20.0	2.4	2.7	1.6		3.0	2.0	4.5	1.8	8.6		111.3	1.0		[36]
Anaphe recticulata	Larvae	23.0	3.1	3.2	2.5		3.4	2.0	2.2	2.2	10.5		102.3	2.6		[36]
Anaphe spp.	Larvae	18.9	1.7	2.5	4.1		2.8	0.1	3.2	1.6	7.6		122.2	1.0		[36]
Anaphe venata	Larvae	25.7	2.3	3.3	3.2		3.1	1.3	2.2	2.0	8.6		100.5	1.6		[36]
Orthoptera (grasshoppers, locust and crickets)		39.8 ± 21.1	6.4 ± 4.8	3.5 ± 1.7	5.5 ± 4.0	26.8 ± 14.5	3.0 ± 3.5	0.2 ± 0.4	2.9 ± 4.0	120.1 ± 298.8	17.3 ± 15.8	91.1 ± 99.8	119.7 ± 12.7	2.8 ± 3.8	20.8 ± 18.9
Brachytrupes membranaceus	Adult	53.4	15.0	3.4	6.0	15.1	0.0	0.0	0.0	0.7	9.2		126.9	0.1	53.0	[6,47]
Cytacanthacris naeruginosus unicolor	Adult	12.1	2.1	2.6			1.0	0.1	1.0	0.4	4.4		100.2	0.1		[6,36]
Zonocerus variegatus	Adult	26.8	2.4	2.6			6.8	0.1	8.6	910.0	42.2		131.2	8.2		[6,36]
Gryllotalpa africana	Adult	22.0	7.5		12.6	47.2									10.8	[47]
Henicus whellani	Adult	53.6	10.6		14.0										4.3	[50]
Cartarrtopsilus taeniolatus	Adult	40.6	13.3		6.9											[35]
Zulua cyanoptera	Adult	33.7	13.3		6.6											[51]
Ornithacris turbida	Adult	42.7	2.0		4.5	18.2									2.0	[47]
Ruspolia differens	Adult	72.7	6.3		4.6			1.2	0.1	13.0	24.5	12.4	121.0	33,1	46.2	[6]
Anacridium melanorhodon melanorhodon (Walker)	Adult	66.2	8.4	7.5											12.4	[52]
Zonocerous variegatus	Adult	62.7	3.6		1.2		8.9	0.1	9.8		2.0	29.0				[6]
Brachytrypes membranaceus L	Adult															[53]
Zonocerous variegatus	Adult	26.8	2.4	2.6	1.2					2.0	42.2		131.2	8.2		[36]
Brachytrupes spp.	Adult	65.4			4.9					33.6		232.0			16.9	[38]
Brachytrupes spp.	Adult	6.3	1.0	3.4	1.8		0.0	0.0	0.0	0.7	9.2		126.9	0.1		[36]
Cytacanthacris aeruginosus unicolor	Adult	12.1	1.5	2.6	2.1		1.0	0.1	1.0	0.4	4.4		100.2	0.1		[36]
* Recommended daily intakes (mg/day) for adults										45.0	7.5–58.8	1300.0	3.0–14.0	700.0	220–260	[37]

Note the mineral abbreviations are Fe: Iron; Zn: Zinc; Ca: Calcium; P: Phosphorus; Mg: Magnesium. * Source [37]. Mean ± standard deviation of insects belonging to the same insect order are highlighted in bold and species names are in italics.

The crude fibre was reported to be higher in Coleoptera (2–28%) and Lepidoptera (2–16%), while the crude fibre content was reported to be lowest in Hemiptera (0–5%). Lepidoptera had the highest moisture content (3–86%), while Blattodea had the lowest moisture content (2.8–3%) (Table 1).

The highest carbohydrate content was recorded in Coleoptera (13–52%) and Orthoptera (15–47%), while the lowest carbohydrate content was recorded in Blattodea (0–32%). Fat content was the highest in Lepidoptera (2–55%) and lowest in Orthoptera (2–16%) (Table 1).

Orthoptera had the highest iron content (0.3–910 mg/100 g) followed by Blattodea (27–332 mg/100 g), while Hemiptera had the lowest iron content (0–20 mg/100 g). Calcium content was higher in Blattodea (18–132 mg/100 g) and lowest in Lepidoptera (8–15 mg/100 g). The highest Phosphorus was recorded in Lepidoptera (100–730 mg/100 g) and the lowest in Orthoptera (106–125 mg/100 g). Magnesium content was the highest in order Lepidoptera (1–160 mg/100 g), while Blattodea had the lowest magnesium content (0.1–0.3 mg/100 g) (Table 1).

Edible insects are widely consumed in Africa, and play an important role in nutritious diets. However, the preference and consumption of insects vary with species and orders. Lepidoptera caterpillars were the most consumed order, and they are the most preferred species because of their nutritional value, they are rich in protein, fats, and essential micronutrients [6,54]. In addition, several caterpillar species play an important role in income generation in rural areas in southern Africa, Uganda, and Nigeria [18,22,55].

Studies from western and Central Africa indicated that Rhynchophorus phoenic (palm weevil), and Cirina forda (pallid emperor moth) were the commonly consumed species [18,24,56]. The palm weevil and pallid emperor moth are a delicacy in western and Central Africa, and, in addition, these species were of economic importance in Nigeria, Cameroon, Benin, and Ghana [57]. In southern Africa, the literature indicates that the most consumed or preferred species were Imbrasia belina (mopane worm), Macrotermes natalensis, falciger, and bellicosus (termites) [28,50,58]. While in eastern Africa, the most consumed species were Ruspolia nitidula and differens (grasshoppers), [22,59,60,61]. Mopane worms, and termites are an important part of food culture in different ethnic groups in southern Africa [18,59]. Moreover, the trade of mopane worms and termites plays an important role in rural food security and income generation, as it provides rural people with household income [28,50,57,58].

Edible insects are a good source of protein content, which ranges from 12–79% of dry matter, which is consistent with studies from China, Germany, and Asia [6,10]. The protein content reported in edible insects is higher than protein found in chicken (43%) or beef (54%) [28,62]. The high protein content found in edible insects could help to combat protein deficiency in Africa. Protein deficiency is a major contributor to human malnutrition [63], and, in Africa, protein deficiency is the most common form of malnutrition, which needs to be addressed to halt starvation [64]. Therefore, including edible insects in daily diets might help reduce malnutrition rates.

Moisture content ranged from 1–7.5%, which is relatively low, such that most edible insects have longer preservation periods, and the risk of microbial deterioration and spoilage is minimal [29,42,65]. Unlike beef or chicken, which are prone to decay (unless refrigerated), edible insects can be stored for longer periods, especially during the dry season when food shortage is higher [42]. However, three caterpillars (Gonimbrasia (Nudaurelia) alopia, Anaphe panda, and Pseudontheraea discrepans) had higher moisture (>60%), meaning they are prone to spoilage and their preservation period is shorter unless processed in some manner. Siulapwa et al. [29] reported similar results, where caterpillars Imbrasia belina and Gynanisa maja had higher moisture content than other species. To increase shelf life, caterpillars are usually degutted, washed in boiling salt water, or roasted before drying in the sun, then packed in large sacks and containers [23,66].

Edible insects contain fat content ranging from 1–67%. The fat content of edible insects are higher in the larval stage. For example, a palm weevil, which is a beetle larva that is consumed as a delicacy in western Africa, contained the highest fat content of 67%. These results are consistent with Bukkens [67], who reported that Lepidopteran caterpillars and palm weevil larvae contain higher fat than any other insect species. Edible insects can be used to provide essential fatty acids required by the human body [10,68]. In addition, fat plays an important role in providing the human body with energy, which means that consuming insects such as Rhynchophorus phoenicis, Imbrasia belina, Anaphe panda, and Brachytrupes membranaceus, may help provide people with energy, thereby reducing malnutrition associated with energy deficiencies in developing countries [4,10,69].

Carbohydrates play a very important role in human nutrition as they are the primary source of energy. Carbohydrates found in edible insects varied from 5–51% [19,70]. Therefore, edible insects can be used as a source of carbohydrates, as they contain relatively high amounts of polysaccharides, which play an important role in enhancing the immune system of the human body [10]. In addition, carbohydrates are an essential nutritive element in the human body [29]. Species such as Oryctes monoceros and Gryllotalpa africana, reported in the current study, contained a high amount of carbohydrates; therefore, edible insects can be included in human diets to provide a good source of carbohydrates [29].

Excellent source of iron and zinc found in some edible insects indicate that edible insects could be used to combat malnutrition deficiencies such as zinc and iron deficiency anemia, which is prevalent in Africa [37]. Species such as Zonocerus variegatus, Pseudacathotermes spinige, and Macrotermes herus contained high iron content of 910, 332, and 161 mg/100 g respectively, which means that these species can be used as a good source of Iron. Zinc content was notably high in insects such as Zonocerous variegatus (29 mg/100 g) and Rhyncophorus phoenicis (26.5 mg/100 g) the Zinc content found in these insects exceed the daily recommended intake of 3.0–14 mg/100 g. Rumpold and Schluter [6] reported that Iron and Zinc content found in edible insects is generally higher than the Zinc and Iron content found in pork, beef, or chicken; therefore, edible insects might be a solution in fighting Iron and Zinc deficiency. Zinc and Iron deficiency are one of the health problems faced by many women of reproductive age and children in developing countries [37]. Therefore, consumption of edible insects might provide a solution to Iron deficiency health problems, such as anemia, reduced physical activity, and maternal mortality [37,71].

Edible insects reported in the current study contained a low amount of Vitamin A, B2, and C. The 100 g dry matter of edible insects reported in this study did not contain enough daily recommended Vitamin A (500–600 mg) or C (45 mg). As such, Chen et al. [10] reported that to meet the daily recommended amount of Vitamin C, insect tea derived from the excrement of insects is an option. This tea contains up to 15.04 mg of Vitamin C per 100 g, and the consumption of 300 mL of insect tea per day makes 45 mg of Vitamin C, which is the daily recommended amount of vitamin C for adults [10]. Contrary to findings reported in this study, Bukkens [67] reported that Vitamin B1, B2, and B3 content found in an edible house fly is richer than the Vitamin B1, B2, and B3 found in chicken, beef, or salmon. In addition, edible crickets contain twice more Vitamin B12 than the beef [69]. Igwe et al. [72] found that Microtermes nigeriensis contain a favourable high source of Niacin, Thiamine, Vitamin A, and C. Vitamins play an important role in human nutrition, as Vitamin C is important for human growth, development, and repair of various body tissues [73]. The excellent source of Vitamins found in some edible insects shows that insects have a great potential of being used as a healthy food supplement for malnourished people, or to prevent malnutrition [24].

There were several limitations to this review, which included studies reported in English only and excluded studies published in other languages used in Africa. There were significant gaps in data available on the nutritional composition of edible insects consumed in Africa. Most publications focused on a single macronutrient content, especially protein, carbohydrates, fats and fibre, and other nutrients, especially minerals, are not included in analyses. In addition, research focused on reporting the nutritional composition of economically important species such as Imbrasia belina, Macrotermes natalensis, bellicosus and falciger, Rhynchophorus phoenics, and Cirina forda. Strengths of this review incudes the robust approach to combine the nutritional composition of consumed insects in Africa, previous studies have focused on documenting the nutritional composition of single, or a group of, insects that are consumed in Africa.

This review reported combined nutritional data of consumed insects in Africa; this information can be useful to policy makers in the health and nutrition sector by including insects in food and nutrition policies. Health officials need to motivate people to include insects in their daily diets, particularly the most vulnerable groups such as elderly people, women, and children, with the aim to improve the quality of life for people. In addition, farming and rearing of insects by the agricultural sector need to be adopted to ensure that insects are easily accessible and available all year even when they are out of season in nature. Insects can be included as an ingredient in other food products such as bread, maize powder, chocolate, and biscuits to overcome discomfort and fear associated with eating whole insects in some groups of people. Future studies are required to research sustainable ways of farming and rearing insects in Africa and the implication that might have on the environment.

4. Conclusions

Meeting global food demand and halting poverty in Africa are among the greatest challenges, and these challenges are expected to continue if sustainable and innovative measures are not put into place. In 2017, approximately 256 million people were reported to be undernourished in Africa [74]. There is no doubt that Africa is far from achieving Sustainable Development Goal 2, which is to end hunger, achieve food security and improved nutrition, and promote sustainable agriculture by 2030. Edible insects are widely consumed in Africa, and they play an important socio-economic role for rural communities in Africa, by providing nutritious diets (this review), and income opportunities to traders and harvesters [22,75,76]. In addition, edible insects are a traditional delicacy, and are used as an emergency food source during times of food shortage [57]. They are rich in protein, carbohydrates, amino acids, and micronutrients such as Zinc and Iron. This implies that edible insects have a potential of contributing in sustainable diets, while assuring food security, and improving livelihoods of African people.

Appendix A

Table A1.

Edible insects consumed in different African countries.

Order	Scientific Name/Morpho Species	Common Name	Country	Consumption Stage	References
Blattodea	Periplaneta americana	Common cockroach	Nigeria	Adult	[35]
Coleoptera	Analeptes trifasciata	Stem girdler	Nigeria	Larvae	[24,36,77]
Coleoptera	Oryctes boas Fabr	Rhinoceros beetle	Nigeria, Ivory Coast, Sierra Leone, Liberia, Democratic Republic of Congo, South Africa, Botswana, Namibia, Guinea Bissau	Larvae	[18,24,33,36,78,79]
Coleoptera	Oryctes monoceros	Rhinoceros beetle	Nigeria	Larvae	[24,33,36,39,56,79]
Coleoptera	Aphodius rufipes	Dung beetle	Nigeria	Larvae	[24,36,80]
Coleoptera	Rhynchophorus phoenicis	Palm weevil	Nigeria, Angola, Burkina Faso, Cameroon; Ghana, Cote D’ivioire, Democratic Republic of Congo, Liberia, Niger, Sao Tome, Togo, Benin, Guinea Bissau	Larvae, pupa and adult	[18,24,33,36,39,42,56,57,77,79,81,82,83,84,85,86,87,88,89,90,91,92,93,94,95,96,97,98]
Coleoptera	Heteroligus meles	Yam beetle	Nigeria	Larvae, pupa, adult	[24,36,42,77,79,91,99,100]
Coleoptera	Eulepida mashona	Beetle	Zimbabwe	Larvae/adult	[51,58]
Coleoptera	Carbula marginella	Beetle	Burkina Faso	Adult	[98]
Coleoptera	oryctes sp.	Beetle	Burkina Faso	Larvae	[98]
Coleoptera	Oryctes rhinoceros larva	Beetle	Nigeria; Cote D’ivoire	Larvae	[79,81,99,101,102]
Coleoptera	Stenorcera orissa Buq	Giant jewel beetle	Botswana, Zimbabwe	Winged adult	[58,78]
Coleoptera	Eulepida anatine	Beetle	Zimbabwe	Larvae	[58]
Coleoptera	Eulepida nitidicollis	Beetle	Zimbabwe	Larvae	[58]
Coleoptera	Apomecyna parumpunctata	African longhorned beetle	Nigeria	Larvae	[43]
Coleoptera	Oryctes owariensis	Beetle	Cote D’ivioire, Democratic Republic of Congo, South Africa, Angola, Malawi, Botswana, Mozambique, Zambia, Zimbabwe Nigeria, Ivory Coast, Sierra Leona, Guinea, Ghana, Equatorial Guinea, Guinea Bissau	Adult	[18,33,40]
Coleoptera	Rhinoceros oryctes	Beetle	Nigeria	Larvae, pupa, adult	[91]
Coleoptera	Sitophilus oryzae	Rice weevil	Nigeria	Larvae, pupa, adult	[91]
Coleoptera	Callosobruchus maculatus	Bean beetle	Nigeria	Larvae, pupa, adult	[91]
Coleoptera	Dermestes maculatus	Beetle	Nigeria	Larvae, pupa, adult	[91]
Coleoptera	Cotinis nitida	Beetle	Nigeria	Adult/larvae	[79]
Coleoptera	Eulopida mashona	Beetle	Zimbabwe	Adult/larvae	[47]
Coleoptera	Sternocera funebris	Beetle	Zimbabwe	Adult/larvae	[47]
Coleoptera	Oryctes spp Oliver	Beetle	Nigeria	Larvae	[77]
Coleoptera	Augosoma centaurus	Beetle	Cameroon	Adult, larvae	[57]
Coleoptera	Phyllophaga nebulosa (Harris)	Beetle larvae	Ghana	Larvae	[94,103]
Coleoptera	Sitophilus zeamais	Beetle	Ghana	Larvae, adult	[104]
Coleoptera	Polycleis equestris	Weevil	South Africa	Adult	[33]
Coleoptera	Polycleis plumbeus	Weevil	South Africa	Adult	[33]
Coleoptera	Sipalus aloysii-sabaudiae	Beetle	South Africa	Larvae	[33]
Coleoptera	Teralobus flabellicornis	Beetle	South Africa	Larvae	[33]
Coleoptera	Sternocera orissa	Beetle	South Africa	Larvae	[33]
Diptera	Chaoborus edulis		Malawi	Adult	[33]
Hemiptera	Nezara viridula	Southern green stink bug	Nigeria	Adult	[24,36,99]
Hemiptera	Encosternum delegorgui Spinola	Stink bug	South Africa, Zimbabwe, Swaziland, Malawi, Botswana, Namibia, Mozambique	Adult	[18,28,33,47,58,105]
Hemiptera	Monomatapa insingnis Distant	Cicada	Botswana	Adult	[78]
Hemiptera	Aspongubus viduatus	Melon bug	Sudan	Adult	[106]
Hemiptera	Agonoscelis pubescens	Sorghum bug	Sudan	Adult	[106]
Hemiptera	Rhynchophorus spp.	May bug	Nigeria, Cameroon	Larvae	[79,107]
Hemiptera	Brevisana brevis	African cicada	Zimbabwe	Ault	[47]
Hemiptera	Ugada limbalis	Cicada	Uganda		[108]
Hemiptera	Pediculus capitata		Angola, Malawi, South Africa, Zambia, Zimbabwe, Mozambique, Namibia, Botswana		[33]
Hymenoptera	Apis mellifera	Honey bee	Nigeria, Botswana, Cote D’ivioire, Cameroon, Zambia, Zimbabwe, Botswana, Angola, Mozambique, Tanzania, Senegal, Ghana, Lesotho, Benin, South Africa	Egg, larva, pupa	[2,18,33,36,38,77,78,91,107,109,110]
Hymenoptera	Carebara vidua	African thief ant	Botswana, Zimbabwe; Kenya Burundi, South Africa, Malawi, Zambia, Sudan, Namibia, Mozambique	Winged adult	[18,33,44,47,58,78,81,108]
Hymenoptera	Plebeina hildebrandti Friese	Stingless bee	Botswana	Adult	[78]
Hymenoptera	Hypotrigona gribodoi Magretti	Stingless bee	Botswana	Adult	[78]
Hymenoptera	Cossus cossus	Capenter ant	Cote D’ivioire	Adult	[102]
Hymenoptera	Componotus spp.	Ant	Nigeria	Adult	[35]
Hymenoptera	Oecophylla longinoda	African weaver ant	Nigeria, Cameroon	Adult	[35,93,107]
Hymenoptera	Carebara lignata	Ant	Zambia, South Africa, Democratic Republic of Congo, Zimbabwe, Botswana, Mozambique, Namibia, Sudan	Adult	[18]
Blattodea	Macrotermes nigeriensis	Termite	Nigeria	Winged adult, queen	[24,33,35,36,72,111,112]
Blattodea	Macrotermes bellicosus	Termite	Nigeria, Kenya, Uganda, Democratic Republic of Congo, Cameroon, Cote D’ivioire, Sao Tome, Togo, Liberia, Burundi, Ghana, Zimbabwe,	Winged adult, queen	[18,24,33,36,59,77,79,82,94,109,111,113,114,115]
Blattodea	Macrotermes natalensis	Termite	Nigeria, South Africa, Zimbabwe, Cameroon, Democratic Republic of Congo, Burundi, Malawi	Winged adult, queen	[24,33,36,47,58,75,99]
Blattodea	Macrotermes falciger	Termite	Democratic Republic of Congo; South Africa, Zimbabwe, Burundi, Zambia, Burkina Faso, Benin	Winged adult	[18,33,58,75,108,115,116,117]
Blattodea	Macrotermes michaelseni	Termite	South Africa	Winged adult	[75]
Blattodea	Macrotermes subhyalinus	Termite	Burkina Faso Zimbabwe, Cote D’ivioire, Rwanda, Uganda, Angola, Togo, Kenya	Adult	[18,33,58,98,102,108,118]
Blattodea	Hodotermes mossambicus (Hagen)	Harvester termite	Botswana	Larvae	[78]
Blattodea	Macrotermes sp.	Termite	Nigeria, Uganda	Adult queen, soldiers	[35,38,91]
Blattodea	Syntermes soldiers	Termite	Uganda	Adult	[38]
Blattodea	Pseudacanthotermes militaris	Termite	Kenya, Uganda	Winged adult	[59,108,115]
Blattodea	Pseudacanthotermes spiniger	Termite	Kenya, Uganda, Burundi	Winged adult	[59,108,115]
Blattodea	Odontotermes kibarensis	Termite	Uganda	Winged adult	[108]
Blattodea	Pseudacanthotermes sp.1	Termite	Uganda	Winged adult	[108]
Blattodea	Pseudacanthotermes sp.2	Termite	Uganda	Winged adult	[108]
Blattodea	Odontotermes spp.	Termite	Uganda	Winged adult	[108]
Blattodea	Pseudacanthotermes sp.5	Termite	Uganda	Winged adult	[108]
Blattodea	Pseudacanthotermes sp. 4	Termite	Burundi	Adult	[108]
Blattodea	Macrotermes spp.	Termite	Rwanda, Cameroon	Winged adult	[93,107,108]
Blattodea	Macrotermes swaziae	Termite	Zimbabwe		[33]
Blattodea	Microhodotermes viator	Termite	South Africa		[33]
Blattodea	Termes badius	Termite	South Africa	Winged adult	[33]
Lepidoptera	Anaphe venata	African silkworm	Nigeria, Zambia, Cote D’ivioire, Sierra Leona, Guinea, Liberia, Guinea Bissau, Angola	Larvae	[18,24,33,36,77,96]
Lepidoptera	Anaphe infracta	African silkworm	Nigeria	Larvae	[24,33]
Lepidoptera	Anaphe recticulata	African silkworm	Nigeria	Larvae	[24,33,36]
Lepidoptera	Bunaea alcinoe	Emperor moth	Nigeria; Democratic Republic of Congo, Botswana, Zimbabwe, Cameroon, Zambia, South Africa, Democratic Republic of Congo, Tanzania	Larvae, pupa and adult	[18,24,36,58,77,78,79,87,93,99,117]
Lepidoptera	Lepidoptara litoralia	Caterpillar	Nigeria	Larvae	[24,36,119]
Lepidoptera	Cirina forda	Pallid emperor	Nigeria, Angola, Democratic Republic of Congo, Botswana, Zimbabwe; Togo, Zambia, Mozambique, Ghana, Namibia	Larvae	[18,24,30,31,33,36,48,56,58,78,96,112,117,120,121,122,123]
Lepidoptera	Imbrasia epimethea	Caterpillar	Angola, Democratic Republic of Congo	Larvae	[18,33,45]
Lepidoptera	Imbrasia obscura	Caterpillar	Angola	Larvae	[96]
Lepidoptera	Imbrasia truncata	Caterpillar	Angola	Larvae	[96]
Lepidoptera	Gonimbrasia (Nudaurelia) alopia	Caterpillar	Angola	Larvae	[96]
Lepidoptera	Gonimbrasia (Nudaurelia) dione	Caterpillar	Angola	Larvae	[96]
Lepidoptera	Pseudantheraea discrepans	Caterpillar	Angola	Larvae	[96]
Lepidoptera	Micragone cana	Caterpillar	Angola, Democratic Republic of Congo	Larvae	[33,96]
Lepidoptera	Anaphe panda	Bagnest moth	Angola, Zimbabwe, Zambia, Cameroon, Democratic Republic of Congo, Nigeria, Tanzania	Larvae	[18,33,47,58,124]
Lepidoptera	Notodontidae sp. 1	Caterpillar	Angola	Larvae	[96]
Lepidoptera	Notodontidae sp. 2	Caterpillar	Angola	Larvae	[96]
Lepidoptera	Notodontidae sp. 3	Caterpillar	Angola	Larvae	[96]
Lepidoptera	Notodontidae sp. 4	Caterpillar	Angola	Larvae	[96]
Lepidoptera	Gastroplakaeis rubroanalis	Caterpillar	Angola	Larvae	[96]
Lepidoptera	Sciatta inconcisa	Caterpillar	Angola	Larvae	[96]
Lepidoptera	Elaphrodes lactea Gaede	Caterpillar	Democratic Republic of Congo	Larvae	[33,117]
Lepidoptera	Lobobunaea saturnus Fabricius	Caterpillar	Democratic Republic of Congo, Zimbabwe	Larvae	[33,58,117]
Lepidoptera	Cinabra hyperbius (Westwood)	Caterpillar	Democratic Republic of Congo	Larvae	[33,117]
Lepidoptera	Gonimbrasia richelmanni Weymer	Caterpillar	Democratic Republic of Congo	Larvae	[33,117]
Lepidoptera	Antheua insignata	Caterpillar	Democratic Republic of Congo	Larvae	[33,117]
Lepidoptera	Imbrasia rubra	Caterpillar	Democratic Republic of Congo	Larvae	[117]
Lepidoptera	Athletes semialba (Sonthonnax)	Caterpillar	Democratic Republic of Congo, Zimbabwe, Zambia, South Africa, Namibia, Mozambique	Larvae	[33,58,117]
Lepidoptera	Cirina butyrospermi	Caterpillar	Burkina Faso, Cote D’ivioire, Zambia, Zimbabwe, South Africa, Nigeria, Mali, Ghana	Larvae	[18,46,102,103,118,125]
Lepidoptera	Hemijana variegata	Caterpillar	South Africa	Larvae	[49]
Lepidoptera	Imbrasia belina	Mopane worm	Nigeria; Botswana; Zimbabwe, Namibia, South Africa, Malawi, Zambia, Angola, Mozambique	Larvae	[18,33,34,47,58,76,78,91,109,126,127,128,129]
Lepidoptera	Isoberlina paniculata	Caterpillar	Zambia	Larvae	[127]
Lepidoptera	Urota sinope	Caterpillar	Zambia, Botswana	Larvae	[78,130]
Lepidoptera	Gonimbrasia zambesina	Caterpillar	Zambia; Zimbabwe, Democratic Republic of Congo	Larvae	[33,58,130]
Lepidoptera	Lophostethus dumolinii Angas	Arrow sphinx	Botswana	Larvae	[78]
Lepidoptera	Daphnis nerii L	Oleander hawk moth	Botswana	Larvae	[78]
Lepidoptera	Heniocha spp.	Marbled emperor moth	Botswana	Larvae	[78]
Lepidoptera	Imbrasia tyrrhea	Willow emperor moth	Botswana	Larvae	[78]
Lepidoptera	Sphingomorpha chlorea	Sundown emperor moth	Botswana	Larvae	[78]
Lepidoptera	Hippotion celerio L.	Silver striped hawk	Botswana	Adult	[78]
Lepidoptera	Agrius convolvuli L.	Convolvulus hawk moth.	Botswana, South Africa, Angola, Zimbabwe, Zambia, Malawi, Mozambique, Namibia	Larvae	[78]
Lepidoptera	Gonanisa maia	Caterpillar	Zimbabwe, Botswana, Malawi, Democratic Republic of Congo, South Africa	Larvae	[33,47,58]
Lepidoptera	Anthoaera zambezina	Caterpillar	Zimbabwe, Botswana, Malawi, Namibia, Zambia, South Africa, Mozambique, Angola	Larvae	[33,58]
Lepidoptera	Athletes gigas	Caterpillar	Zimbabwe, Botswana, Malawi, Namibia, Zambia, South Africa, Mozambique, Angola	Larvae	[33,58]
Lepidoptera	Bombycomorpha pallida	Moth	Zimbabwe, South Africa	Larvae	[33,58]
Lepidoptera	Bunaea caffra	Moth	Zimbabwe, Zambia, South Africa, Namibia, Botswana, Mozambique, Angola	Larvae	[33,58]
Lepidoptera	Bunaeopsis aurantica	Moth	Zimbabwe, Democratic Republic of Congo	Larvae	[33,58]
Lepidoptera	Gonometa postica	Moth	Zimbabwe, South Africa	Larvae	[33,58]
Lepidoptera	Heniocha dyops	Moth	Zimbabwe, South Africa, Botswana, Zambia, Malawi, Namibia, Mozambique, Angola	Larvae	[33,58]
Lepidoptera	Imbrasia epimethea	Moth	Zimbabwe, Democratic Republic of Congo	Larvae	[33,58]
Lepidoptera	Imbrasia ertli	Caterpillar	Zimbabwe, South Africa, Cameroon, Democratic Republic of Congo, Angola, Zimbabwe, Botswana, Angola	Larvae	[18,33,58]
Lepidoptera	Nudaurelia belina	Moth	Zimbabwe, Malawi, Botswana, Mozambique, Namibia, Zambia, South Africa	Larvae	[33,58]
Lepidoptera	Pseudobunaea irius	Moth	Zimbabwe, South Africa, Zambia, Angola, Malawi, Namibia,	Larvae	[33,58]
Lepidoptera	Loba leopardina	Moth	Zimbabwe	Larvae	[58]
Lepidoptera	Imbrasia oyemensis	Caterpillar	Cote D’ivioire	Adult	[102]
Lepidoptera	Imbrasia spp.	Caterpillar	Cameroon	Larvae	[93]
Lepidoptera	Eumeta spp.	Caterpillar	Cameroon	Larvae	[107]
Lepidoptera	Anaphe spp.	Caterpillar	Cameroon	Larvae	[107]
Lepidoptera	Dactyloceras spp.	Caterpillar	Cameroon	Larvae	[107]
Lepidoptera	Bunaea spp.	Caterpillar	Cameroon	Larvae	[107]
Lepidoptera	Dactyloceras lucina	Caterpillar	Democratic Republic of Congo, Zambia, South Africa, Cameroon, Angola, Gabon, Sierra Leone, Equatorial Guinea, Sao Tome,	Larvae	[18]
Lepidoptera	Platysphinx stigmatica	Caterpillar	Zambia, Democratic Republic of Congo, Sierra Leone, Rwanda, Burundi, Equatorial Guinea, Sao Tome,	Larvae	[18]
Lepidoptera	Epanaphe carteri	Caterpillar	Democratic Republic of Congo, Angola, Gabon, Sierra Leone, Sao Tome, Equatorial Guinea	Larvae	[18]
Lepidoptera	Gynanisa ata	Caterpillar	Democratic Republic of Congo, Zambia, Malawi, Sudan	Larvae	[18]
Lepidoptera	Eumeta cervina	Caterpillar	Democratic Republic of Congo, Cameroon, Angola, Gabon, Sierra Leone, Sao Tome, Equatorial Guinea, Rwanda, Burundi, Liberia	Larvae	[18]
Lepidoptera	Urota sinope	Caterpillar	Democratic Republic of Congo, South Africa, Zimbabwe, Zimbabwe, Botswana, Gabon, Mozambique, Namibia	Larvae	[18,33]
Lepidoptera	Anthoaera caffraria	Caterpillar	Angola, Malawi, South Africa, Zambia, Zimbabwe, Mozambique, Namibia, Botswana	Larvae	[33]
Lepidoptera	Anthoaera menippe	Caterpillar	Angola, Malawi, South Africa, Zambia, Zimbabwe, Mozambique, Namibia, Botswana	Larvae	[33]
Lepidoptera	Bunaea caffraria	Caterpillar	Democratic Republic of Congo	Larvae	[33]
Lepidoptera	Drapetides uniformis	Caterpillar	Democratic Republic of Congo	Larvae	[33]
Lepidoptera	Gonimbrasia hecate	Caterpillar	Democratic Republic of Congo	Larvae	[33]
Lepidoptera	Goodia kuntzei	Caterpillar	Democratic Republic of Congo	Larvae	[33]
Lepidoptera	Heniocha apollonia	Caterpillar	Angola, Malawi, South Africa, Zambia, Zimbabwe, Mozambique, Namibia, Botswana	Larvae	[33]
Lepidoptera	Heniocha marnois	Caterpillar	Angola, Malawi, South Africa, Zambia, Zimbabwe, Mozambique, Namibia, Botswana	Larvae	[33]
Lepidoptera	Herse convolvuli	Caterpillar	South Africa	Larvae	[33]
Lepidoptera	Imbrasia dione	Caterpillar	Democratic Republic of Congo	Larvae	[33]
Lepidoptera	Imbrasia macrothyris	Caterpillar	Democratic Republic of Congo	Larvae	[33]
Lepidoptera	Imbrasia rubra	Caterpillar	Democratic Republic of Congo	Larvae	[33]
Lepidoptera	Lobobunaea phaedusa	Caterpillar	Democratic Republic of Congo	Larvae	[33]
Lepidoptera	Melanocera parva	Caterpillar	Democratic Republic of Congo	Larvae	[33]
Lepidoptera	Microgene cana	Caterpillar	Democratic Republic of Congo	Larvae	[33]
Lepidoptera	Nudaurelia macrothyrus	Caterpillar	Democratic Republic of Congo	Larvae	[33]
Lepidoptera	Nyodes prasinodes	Caterpillar	Democratic Republic of Congo	Larvae	[33]
Lepidoptera	Rohaniella pygmaea	Caterpillar	Angola, Malawi, South Africa, Zambia, Zimbabwe, Mozambique, Namibia, Botswana	Larvae	[33]
Lepidoptera	Rheneae mediata	Caterpillar	Democratic Republic of Congo	Larvae	[33]
Lepidoptera	Tagoropsis flavinata	Caterpillar	Democratic Republic of Congo	Larvae	[33]
Lepidoptera	Usta terpisichore	Caterpillar	Angola	Larvae	[33]
Lepidoptera	Usta wallengreni	Caterpillar	Angola, Malawi, South Africa, Zambia, Zimbabwe, Mozambique, Namibia, Botswana	Larvae	[33]
Mantodea	Mantis religiosa	African mantis	Nigeria, South Africa	Adult	[33,79]
Orthoptera	Brachytrupes membranaceus	Giant African cricket	Nigeria, Angola; Zimbabwe, Uganda; Cameroon, Democratic Republic of Congo, Burkina Faso, Tanzania, Angola, Togo, Benin; Malawi	Adult	[18,24,33,36,45,53,58,77,79,91,93,96,99,108,124]
Orthoptera	Gymnogryllus lucens	Cricket	Nigeria	Adult	[24,36,116]
Orthoptera	Cytacanthacris naeruginosus	Short horned grasshopper	Nigeria	Adult	[24,36]
Orthoptera	Zonocerus variegatus	Grasshopper	Nigeria, Cameroon, Uganda, Democratic Republic of Congo, Cote D’ivioire, Ghana, Guinea, Liberia, Sao Tome, Liberia, Guinea Bissau	Adult	[18,24,35,36,38,77,79,85,94,99,110,116,131]
Orthoptera	Gryllotalpa africana	Mole cricket	Nigeria; Zimbabwe; Malawi	Adult	[24,33,36,47,77,79,99,124]
Orthoptera	Ruspolia differens	Grasshopper	Kenya, Tanzania, Democratic Republic of Congo, Uganda, Zimbabwe, Rwanda, Cameroon, Uganda, Malawi, South Africa	Adult	[33,58,59,60,108,112,115,117,132]
Orthoptera	Melanoplus foedus	Grasshopper	Nigeria	Adult	[112]
Orthoptera	Gryllus assimilis	Cricket	Nigeria; Ghana	Adult	[94,112]
Orthoptera	Henicus whellani	Cricket	Zimbabwe	Adult	[50,51]
Orthoptera	Kraussaria ongulifera	Grasshopper	Burkina Faso	Adult	[98,118]
Orthoptera	Gryllus campestris	Field cricket	Burkina Faso; Cameroon, Malawi	Adult	[98,107,124]
Orthoptera	Ruspolia nitidula	Grasshopper	Uganda	Larvae and adult	[22,133]
Orthoptera	Normadacris septemfasciata	Red locust	Botswana; Uganda, Zambia, South Africa, Democratic Republic of Congo, Zimbabwe, Botswana, Nigeria, Uganda, Tanzania, Malawi, Mozambique	Adult	[18,78,108]
Orthoptera	Locustana pardalina	Brown locust	Botswana, South Africa, Zimbabwe, Malawi, Libya	Adult	[18,33,78]
Orthoptera	Schistocerca gregaria	Desert locust	Botswana, Zambia, South Africa, Cameroon, Democratic Republic of Congo, Zimbabwe, Burkina, Faso, Malawi, Mali, Niger, Togo, Benin	Adult	[18,78,116]
Orthoptera	Cyrtacanthacris tatarica L	Brown-spotted locust	Botswana	Adult	[78]
Orthoptera	Acrida acuminata	Common stick grasshopper	Botswana	Adult	[78]
Orthoptera	Zonocerus elegans	Elegant grasshopper	Botswana, South Africa	Adult	[33,78]
Orthoptera	Acrotylus spp.	Burrowing grasshopper	Botswana	Adult	[78]
Orthoptera	Homorocoryphus nitidulus	Cricket	Cameroon	Larvae	[85,107]
Orthoptera	Gynanisa maia	Cricket	Zimbabwe, Malawi, South Africa	Larvae	[33,58]
Orthoptera	Locusta migratoria	migratory locust	Zimbabwe, Cote D’ivioire; Nigeria; Sudan, Zambia, Democratic Republic of Congo, Sudan, Ghana	Adult	[18,33,79,94,102,134,135]
Orthoptera	Acheta domesticus	Cricket	Cote D’ivioire; Nigeria, Ghana	Adult	[79,94,102]
Orthoptera	Cartarrtopsilus taeniolatus	Grasshopper	Nigeria	Adult	[35]
Orthoptera	Zulua cyanoptera	Grasshopper	Nigeria	Adult	[35]
Orthoptera	Brachytrupes spp.	Cricket	Uganda, Cameroon	Adult	[107,110]
Orthoptera	Cyrtacanthacris aeruginosa unicolor	Grasshopper	Uganda	Adult	[110]
Orthoptera	Zonocerus sp.	Grasshopper	Nigeria	Adult	[91]
Orthoptera	Daraba (Sceloides) laisalis	Locust	Nigeria	Larvae, pupa, adult	[91]
Orthoptera	Ornithacris turbida	Grasshopper	Zimbabwe	Adult	[47]
Orthoptera	Acanthoplus discoidalis	Cricket	Zimbabwe	Adult	[47]
Orthoptera	Acanthacris ruficornis	Garden locust	Uganda, Zambia, South Africa, Cameroon, Democratic Republic of Congo, Zimbabwe, Burkina Faso, Malawi, Mali, Niger, Togo, Benin	Adult	[18,108]
Orthoptera	Schistocerca spp.	Grasshopper	Cameroon	Adult	[107]
Orthoptera	Acanthacris spp.	Grasshopper	Cameroon	Adult	[107]
Orthoptera	Gastrimargus spp.	Locust	Cameroon	Adult	[107]
Orthoptera	Phymateus spp.	Locust	Cameroon	Adult	[107]
Orthoptera	Anacridium spp.	Locust	Cameroon	Adult	[107]
Orthoptera	Pyrgomorpha spp.	Locust	Cameroon	Adult	[107]
Orthoptera	Gastrimargus africanus	Locust	Cameroon, Democratic Republic of Congo, Niger, Lesotho, Liberia	Adult	[18]
Orthoptera	Phymateus viridipes brunneri Bolivar	Locust	Zambia, South Africa, Democratic Republic of Congo, Zimbabwe, Botswana, Mozambique, Namibia	Adult	[18]
Orthoptera	Gryllus bimaculatus	Cricket	Togo, Nigeria, Guinea Bissau, Sierra Leone, Liberia, Benin, Democratic Republic of Congo, Kenya, Sudan, Zambia	Adult	[18]
Orthoptera	Anacridium melanorhodon melanorhodon	Cricket	Cameroon, Sudan, Niger	Adult	[18,52]
Orthoptera	Paracinema tricolor	Cricket	Cameroon, Malawi, Lesotho	Adult	[18]
Orthoptera	Acheta spp.	Cricket	Zambia, Zimbabwe, Kenya	Adult	[18]
Orthoptera	Scapteriscus vicinus	Field cricket	Ghana	Adult	[94,103]
Orthoptera	Gryllotalpa gryllotalpa	Mole cricket	Malawi	Adult	[124]
Orthoptera	Homorocoryphus vicinus	Cricket	Uganda	Adult	[33]
Orthoptera	Nomadacris septumfasciata	Cricket	South Africa	Adult	[33]
Orthoptera	Schistocerca gregaria	Cricket	Zimbabwe	Adult	[33]
Blattodea	Pseudacathotermes spinige	Termite	Kenya	Adult	[37]
Blattodea	Macrotermes spp.	Termite	Kenya	Adult	[37]
Blattodea	Macrotermes subhylanus	Termite	Kenya	Adult	[37]
Hymenoptera	Crematogaster mimosae	Ant	Kenya	Adult	[37]

Author Contributions

Conceptualization of the study was done by Z.T.H., R.S. and T.C.M. methodology, Z.T.H.; data collection, Z.T.H; writing—original draft preparation, Z.T.H.; writing—review and editing, R.S., T.C.M., and Z.T.H.; supervision, R.S. and T.C.M.; funding acquisition, R.S., and T.C.M. All authors have read and agreed to the published version of the manuscript.

Funding

This study was funded by the Sustainable and Healthy Food Systems (SHEFs) supported by the Wellcome Trust’s Our Planet, our Health programme (grant number, 205200/Z/16/Z), and the National Research Foundation (NRF) (grant number, 114416).

Conflicts of Interest

The authors declare no conflict of interest. The funders had no role in the design of the study; in the collection, analyses, or interpretation of data; in the writing of the manuscript, or in the decision to publish the results.