Skip to main content
PMC home page
Microorganisms logoLink to Microorganisms
. 2020 Sep 23;8(10):1457. doi: 10.3390/microorganisms8101457

Efficacy of Helicobacter pylori Eradication Therapy on Platelet Recovery in Pediatric Immune Thrombocytopenic Purpura-Case Series and a Systematic Review

Tamaki Ikuse 1,*, Masanori Toda 1, Kosuke Kashiwagi 1, Kimiko Maruyama 1, Masumi Nagata 1, Kaori Tokushima 1, Natsuki Ito 1, Kazuhide Tokita 1, Reiko Kyodo 1, Kenji Hosoi 1, Keisuke Jimbo 1, Takahiro Kudo 1, Toshiaki Shimizu 1
PMCID: PMC7598273  PMID: 32977477

Abstract

Evidence relating to the efficacy of Helicobacter pylori eradication therapy for chronic immune thrombocytopenic purpura (cITP) in childhood is inadequate. The aim of this retrospective study was to determine the efficacy of H. pylori eradication therapy for platelet response in pediatric patients with cITP in our hospital, and to perform a systematic review of previous reports about pediatric patients with cITP who were positive for H. pylori infection and were treated with H. pylori eradication therapy. Analysis of the data of pediatric patients with cITP in our hospital and a systematic review of digital literature databases of studies in pediatric patients with cITP were performed. Data of 33 pediatric patients with cITP from our hospital records showed that the prevalence of H. pylori infection and the rate of response to platelet therapy were 15% and 33.3%, respectively. Data of 706 pediatric patients from 18 previous reports showed that the prevalence of H. pylori infection and rate of platelet response were 23% and 43.8%, respectively. Eradication therapy for H. pylori infection in pediatric cITP patients can be expected to result in a response equivalent to that in the adult population, with fewer adverse effects than other treatments for cITP.

Keywords: Helicobacter pylori, immune thrombocytopenic purpura, thrombocytopenia, eradication therapy, pediatrics, child

1. Introduction

Helicobacter pylori (H. pylori) is a microaerophilic Gram-negative spiral bacterial pathogen that resides in the stomach. Urease produced by the bacteria protects them from the highly acidic environment. H. pylori infection is generally acquired in childhood and typically persists for life. Chronic infection with H. pylori is a well-known cause of gastric diseases including chronic active gastritis, atrophic gastritis, peptic ulcer diseases, mucosa associated lymphoid tissue lymphoma, and gastric cancer [1]. Many studies have shown conflicting results relating to the association between H. pylori infection and extraintestinal diseases including nutritional deficiencies, such as vitamin B12 deficiency, and hematological pathologies such as iron deficiency anemia and idiopathic or immune thrombocytopenic purpura (ITP) [2,3].

ITP, also known as immune thrombocytopenia, is an immune-mediated acquired disease characterized by thrombocytopenia (peripheral blood platelet count <100,000/µL with normal white blood cell count and hemoglobin), in the absence of other causes or disorders that may be associated with thrombocytopenia [4]. Persistent thrombocytopenia for more than 6 months was previously defined as chronic ITP (cITP) [5]; but recently the definition has been changed to more than 12 months, and cases of thrombocytopenia which are less than 3 months, or between 3 and 12 months from the time of diagnosis are categorized as newly diagnosed ITP and persistent ITP, respectively [4].

Most adults with ITP require one or more therapies and develop cITP [6]. However, most pediatric patients with ITP recover within 3–6 months of presentation, with or without treatment [7,8], and cITP is observed in up to 20% of newly diagnosed ITP cases in children [9,10]. Although a serious bleeding episode including intracranial hemorrhage is known to occur in less than 10% of children with cITP [8], they may require frequent laboratory monitoring in hospital, restriction of physical activities, pharmacologic therapies including prolonged use of glucocorticoids, and surgical interventions including splenectomy.

Since the first report in 1998 [11], there have been numerous reports especially from Japan, Italy, and Spain about the efficacy of treatment for eradication of H. pylori in patients with ITP who are positive for H. pylori infection [11,12,13,14,15,16,17,18,19,20,21,22]. In Japan, platelet counts have been reported to increase in 40–60% of adult patients with ITP, following H. pylori eradication. A meta-analysis also showed a significant increase in platelets after treatment for eradication of H. pylori [23], and the increased count was reportedly maintained over the long term [16,17,19,21,24]. H. pylori-negative patients did not show an increase in platelet count after H. pylori eradication therapy, and H. pylori-positive cases may not achieve an increase in platelets or a continuing response in case of unsuccessful eradication therapy [25]. Considering the adverse effects of prolonged corticosteroid use, the benefits and duration of response with high-dose immunoglobulin therapy, the costs of these treatments, and the risk of bleeding and postoperative infection after splenectomy, eradication of H. pylori has been the first-line therapy in Japan for adult patients with ITP who are confirmed H. pylori positive [26].

Recently, the Japanese Society of Pediatric Gastroenterology, Hepatology, and Nutrition (JASPGHAN) guidelines for the Management of Helicobacter pylori Infection in Childhood have recommended eradication therapy for H. pylori-infected children with cITP as first-line therapy [27]. However, the 2019 Treatment Guide for Refractory Immune Thrombocytopenia in Children by the Platelet Committee of Japanese Society of Pediatric Hepatology and Oncology does not refer to H. pylori infection [28]. These differences in opinion are due to the lack of evidence in the pediatric population for the benefits observed in adult patients. The aim of this study was to perform a retrospective analysis of pediatric patients with cITP in our hospital and a systematic review of previous reports about pediatric cITP published in English and Japanese, to determine the relationship between cITP and H. pylori infection in children and assess the efficacy of H. pylori eradication therapy in achieving a platelet response in children, especially in Japan.

2. Materials and Methods

2.1. Patients

Medical records of all patients with the term “thrombocytopenic” or “thrombocytopenia” in their diagnosis at the Juntendo University Hospital between January 2002 and December 2018 were reviewed retrospectively. The patients selected for the study met the following inclusion criteria: (1) age <18 years at the time of diagnosis of ITP and (2) diagnosis of ITP according to the American Society of Hematology criteria [5] based on an initial platelet count <100,000/μL. The exclusion criteria were as follows: (1) thrombocytopenia related to autoimmune disorders, drugs, a family history consistent with inherited thrombocytopenia, human immunodeficiency virus (HIV) infection, hepatitis, congenital heart disease, or pseudothrombocytopenia and (2) previous history of H. pylori eradication before the diagnosis of ITP. In this study, we defined cITP as persistent thrombocytopenia for longer than 6 months. Among cITP cases, data of patients who underwent diagnostic tests for H. pylori infection were extracted and the results of eradication therapy were reviewed. All subjects gave their informed consent for inclusion before they participated in the study. The study was conducted in accordance with the Declaration of Helsinki, and the protocol was approved by the Institutional Ethics Committee of Juntendo University Hospital (the project identification code: no. 20-184, date of approval: 25 August 2020).

2.2. Diagnosis of H. Pylori Infection, and Eradication Therapy

H. pylori infection was diagnosed using the 13C-urea breath test (UBT), H. pylori stool antigen test (HpSA), or serum anti-H. pylori IgG antibody test. Based on previously published reports, pediatric patients were considered positive for UBT if a delta over baseline ≥3.5‰ was achieved [29]. The gastric biopsy samples for bacterial culture were obtained endoscopically from patients who tested positive for any of the diagnostic tests for H. pylori. Antibiotic sensitivity of H. pylori isolates to clarithromycin (CAM), amoxicillin (AMPC), and metronidazole (MNZ) were examined using the dilution method with Mueller–Hinton agar plates containing 5% horse blood. The minimal inhibitory concentration (MIC) breakpoints were defined as follows; ≥1 μg/mL for CAM, >0.125 μg/mL for AMPC, and >8 μg/mL for MNZ [30].

Patients infected with CAM-sensitive strains were prescribed the CAM-based regimen for 7–14 days, which consisted of a proton pump inhibitor (PPI), AMPC (50 mg/kg per day), and CAM (20 mg/kg per day). Patients infected with CAM-resistant strains were prescribed the MNZ-based regimen for 7–14 days, which consisted of PPI, AMPC (50 mg/kg per day), and MNZ (20 mg/kg per day). H. pylori eradication was confirmed by UBT or H. pylori stool antigen test performed at least 8 weeks after treatment.

2.3. Assessment of Treatment Efficacy

We evaluated the treatment efficacy as follows. A response was considered complete if the platelet count increased to at least 100,000/μL within 2 months of initiation of anti-H. pylori treatment. Partial response was defined as an increase in platelets to a minimum of 50,000/μL within 2 months of initiation of treatment regardless of whether the patient was on maintenance therapy, or an increased platelet count to more than twice that during the pretreatment period. No response was defined as a platelet count that remained below 50,000/μL or showed no increase.

2.4. Systematic Review

2.4.1. Defining the Clinical Question

To identify the association between H. pylori infection and cITP in children, we stated the clinical question as follows: can H. pylori eradication therapy achieve an increasing platelet response in pediatric cITP patients with H. pylori infection?

2.4.2. Identification of Evidence

Electronic databases including PubMed and ICHUSHI (Japan’s largest medical-literature database) were searched in September 2019 using specific keywords. Articles published in English and Japanese were included. For PubMed, we performed a detailed search using (((((“Thrombocytopenia”[Mesh]) OR (“Purpura, Thrombocytopenic, Idiopathic”[Mesh] OR “Purpura, Thrombotic Thrombocytopenic”[Mesh] OR “Purpura, Thrombocytopenic”[Mesh])) OR thrombocytopen [TIAB]) OR ITP [TIAB])) AND (((“Helicobacter pylori”[Mesh]) OR “Helicobacter Infections”[Mesh]) OR pylori[TIAB]). A total of 401 articles were retrieved. For ICHUSHI, we performed a detailed search using (((thrombocytopenia (in Japanese)/TH or thrombocytopenia (in Japanese)/AL) or (thrombocytopenic purpura (in Japanese)/TH or thrombocytopenic purpura (in Japanese)/AL) or (ITP/TA)) and ((Helicobacter/TH or Helicobacter/AL) and pylori/AL) or ([Helicobacter pylori]/TH) or ([Helicobacter infection (in Japanese)]/TH) or (”Helicobacter pylori”/TH and Helicobacter infection (in Japanese)/TH) or (Pylori (in Japanese)/TA) or pylori/TA))) and (PT = except record of proceedings (in Japanese)), and found 527 articles. A total of 928 articles were retrieved from the combined searches. Study references were collected in Endnote x9 (Clarivate Analytics Japan, Minato-ku, Tokyo, Japan).

2.4.3. Study Selection

Two reviewers (TI and TK) independently performed primary screening of the articles based on their titles and abstracts blinded to each other’s decisions. Studies were considered eligible for inclusion if they related to the effects of H. pylori eradication on the platelet count in pediatric patients with cITP in randomized-controlled, case-controlled, or retrospective studies. The exclusion criteria were as follows: (1) papers not written in English or Japanese, (2) research not involving humans (e.g., in vitro or animal research), and (3) research including patients with secondary thrombocytopenia due to autoimmune disorders, drugs, family history consistent with inherited thrombocytopenia, HIV infection, hepatitis, or congenital heart disease. Selection or rejection of articles that could not be decided through primary screening were retained for secondary screening. The results of the two reviewers were crosschecked, and a dataset for secondary screening was prepared which included 153 full-text articles. Two reviewers (TI and TK) independently read the full-text articles, and performed the secondary screening. Articles that included evaluation of the effects of H. pylori eradication on the platelet count in pediatric patients with cITP were selected independently, and the results of the two reviewers were crosschecked. Where the two reviewers had different opinions that could not be resolved by discussion, a third person was invited to make a final decision. All decisions were recorded in Microsoft Excel (Microsoft, Redmond, WA, USA).

2.4.4. Data Extraction

Two reviewers (TI and TK) independently extracted data from each study using a data extraction form that was designed in advance. The following information was extracted: first author, year of publication, study design, definition of cITP and platelet response, age of patients, diagnostic tests of H. pylori infection, eradication regimens, duration of eradication therapy, confirmatory test of eradication, and confirmation period of platelet response. Where the two reviewers had different opinions that could not be resolved by discussion, a third person was invited to make a final decision. All decisions were recorded in Microsoft Excel (Microsoft, Redmond, WA, USA).

2.4.5. Study Quality Assessment

Methodological quality of included RCTs was assessed using Jadad score [31] the following items: (1) randomization; (2) blinding; (3) withdrawals and dropouts. Nonrandomized studies (NRCTs) including cohort or case control study were assessed in accordance with the Newcastle-Ottawa scale (NOS) [32]. They were assessed by selection, comparability, and exposure or outcome.

3. Results

3.1. Retrospective Analysis

We evaluated 642 pediatric patients in whom the term “thrombocytopenic” or “thrombocytopenia” was used in the diagnosis. After exclusion of thrombocytopenia due to other causes, 80 patients with ITP between January 2002 and December 2018 were selected. Thirty-three patients showed persistent thrombocytopenia for more than 6 months, meeting the criteria for cITP (Table 1).

Table 1.

Characteristics of 33 pediatric patients with chronic immune thrombocytopenic purpura (cITP).

Number of Patients Mean Age, Standard Deviation, and Range (Years)
Total 33 9.05 ± 4.35 (0.67–15.92)
Gender
Male 15 9.61 ± 3.97 (0.67–14.67)
Female 18 8.57 ± 4.70 (2.33–15.92)
H. pylori infection
Evaluated 20 8.34 ± 4.28 (0.67–15.91)
Positive 3 9.83 ± 3.25 (6.5–13.0)
Negative 17 8.08 ± 4.48 (0.67–15.92)
Unknown 13 10.13 ± 4.37 (3.25–15.67)
Eradication therapy Success rate: 100%
Responder 1 10.0 †
Nonresponder 2 6.5 †, 13.0 †
Open in a new tab

†: individual values.

Diagnostic evaluations for H. pylori were performed in 20 patients, and three of them had at least one positive diagnostic test result. The results of H. pylori culture in all three patients were positive; thus, the prevalence of H. pylori infection among 20 pediatric patients with cITP was at least 15% even in the unlikely event that false-negative cases were included.

All three patients received H. pylori eradication therapy, which was successful in all of them after the first course of antimicrobial treatment. One patient showed a complete response and continues to have a satisfactory platelet count more than 12 months following eradication therapy. No significant increase in the platelet count was seen in the other two patients. Therefore, the response rate in our patients was 33.3%.

3.2. Remission Case Report

A 10-year-old girl diagnosed with cITP was admitted with recurrent purpura, nasal bleeding, and thrombocytopenia for more than a year. She also complained of recurrent episodes of epigastric pain about twice a week, for several years. Investigations performed previously at another hospital showed persistent low platelet count below 50,000/μL, elevated platelet associated immunoglobulin G (196.0 ng/107 cells), and normal results of white and red blood cell counts and bone marrow examination (nucleated cells: 18.9 × 1010/L, megakaryocytes: 150 × 106/L, M/E ratio: 1.46). She had been prescribed several courses of prednisolone, intravenous immunoglobulin, and methylprednisolone when the platelet counts fell below 20,000/μL and was symptomatic. However, no significant response was achieved with these treatments.

At our hospital, after complaining of chronic epigastric pain and giving a positive family history of H. pylori infection, she was investigated for the presence of H. pylori infection. UBT and serum anti-H. pylori IgG antibody tests were positive. Esophagogastroduodenoscopy revealed nodular gastritis on the antral mucosa, and H. pylori was detected on bacterial culture of the biopsy sample. After confirmation of antibiotic sensitivity to AMPC and CAM, eradication therapy comprising AMPC (1500 mg/day), CAM (400 mg/day), and lansoprazole (45 mg/day) was prescribed for 14 days. The patient’s platelet count increased dramatically and reached 187,000/μL 4 weeks after H. pylori eradication. She had received no other treatment for cITP for a month before starting H. pylori eradication therapy. She maintained complete remission over a year and was advised no further follow-ups.

3.3. Systematic Review

3.3.1. Study Selection and Characteristics of Included Studies

A flow diagram of study identification, inclusion, and exclusion is provided in Figure 1. The searches of PubMed and ICHUSHI using the defined terms yielded a total of 928 records. After 10 duplicates were removed, 918 records remained for the title and abstract screen. A total of 695 records were excluded based article type (reviews, case reports, irrelevant experiments, incomplete data). After full-text assessment of the 223 remaining records, we finally identified and reviewed 18 studies [33,34,35,36,37,38,39,40,41,42,43,44,45,46,47,48,49,50] consisting of two RCTs and 16 NRCTs (case-controlled, or retrospective studies, or case series) with sufficient data relating to H. pylori infection and the efficacy of H. pylori eradication therapy in pediatric patients with cITP. Characteristics of the 18 studies are summarized in Table 2. They were published between 2003 and 2015. We extracted the data of 706 pediatric patients with cITP persistent thrombocytopenia (platelet count <150,000/μL) for longer than 6 months, including 164 patients with H. pylori infection from these previous studies (Table 2).

Figure 1.

Figure 1

Open in a new tab

Flow of study identification, inclusion, and exclusion.

Table 2.

Summary of the 18 studies included and pediatric patients with cITP in our hospital.

First Author (Year) Country Prevalence of
H. pylori Infection		 Response to H. pylori
Eradication Therapy † 		Study Design
(Risk of Bias Score)		 Definition of cITP Platelet Count Defined As Platelet Response
(×104/μL)		 Follow-Up
Duration
(Months)
Platelet Count
(×104/μL)		 Duration
(Months)
Amiri M (2015) [33] Iran 43.5% (10/23 cases) 75.0% (6/8 cases) CO
(NOS: 9)		 <10 >12 Compared statistically 6
Brito HS (2015) [34] Brazil 25.9% (22/85 cases) 61.5% (8/13 cases) RCT
(Jadad: 3)		 <15 >6 CR > 15
PR > 5 and Δ > 2		 12
Russo G (2011) [35] Italy 25.8% (50/194 cases) 39.4% (13/33 cases) CO
(NOS: 8)		 <10 >12 CR > 15
PR > 5 and Δ > 3		 12
Ferrara M (2009) [36] Italy 33.3% (8/24 cases) 100% (8/8 cases) CO
(NOS: 8)		 <50 >6 CR > 15
PR > Δ > 5		 12
Maghbool M (2009) [37] Iran 16.7% (5/30 cases) 100% (5/5 cases) CCS
(NOS: 8)		 <10 >6 CR > 15
PR > 5		 12
Treepongkaruna S (2009) [38] Thailand 29.1% (16/55 cases) 14.3% (2/14 cases) RCT
(Jadad: 3)		 <10 >6 >10 12
Bisogno G (2008) [39] Italy 33.3% (8/24 cases) 37.5% (3/8 cases) CO
(NOS: 9)		 <10 >6 CR > 15
PR > 5 and Δ > 3		 >6
Hamidieh AA (2008) [40] Iran 12.9% (4/31 cases) 0% (0/4 cases) CS
(N/A)		 <15 >6 CR > 15
PR > Δ > 5		 >6
Miyajima Y (2008) [41] Japan 7.1% (1/14 cases) ND CSS
(N/A)		 <10 >6 >15 3
Kato F (2007) [42] Japan 27.3% (3/11 cases) 33.3% (1/3 cases) CS
(N/A)		 <10 >6 >15 12
Loffredo G (2007) [43] Italy 20.5% (8/39 cases) 0% (0/7 cases) CO
(NOS: 6)		 <10 >6 >12 12
Neefjes VM (2007) [44] The Netherlands 6.4% (3/47 cases) 100% (3/3 cases) CCS
(NOS: 5)		 <10 >12 CR > 15
PR > 5 and twice		 >6
Wu KS (2007) [45] Taiwan 40.0% (2/5 cases) ND CSS
(N/A)		 <50 >6 N/A N/A
Hayashi H (2005) [46] Japan 20.0% (2/10 cases) 100% (1/1 cases) CS
(N/A)		 <10 >6 >15 12
Yetgin S (2005) [47] Turkey 31.4% (11/35 cases) 0% (0/9 cases) CS
(N/A)		 <50 >6 >5
within 12 months		 12
Jaing TH (2003) [48] Taiwan 40.9% (9/22 cases) 55.6% (5/9 cases) CO
(NOS: 7)		 <50 >6 CR > 15
PR > 5		 16
Rajantie J (2003) [49] Finland 0% (0/17 cases) ND CS
(N/A)		 N/D N/D N/A N/A
Sakai M (2003) [50] Japan 5.0% (2/40 cases) ND CSS
(N/A)		 <10 >6 N/A N/A
This study Japan 15% (3/20 cases) 3.3% (1/3 cases) CS
(N/A)		 <10 >6 CR > 15, PR > 5 or twice
within 2 months		 12
Total † 23.0% (167/726 cases) 43.8% (56/128 cases)
Open in a new tab

CCS: case control study, cITP: chronic immune thrombocytopenia, CO: cohort study, CR: complete response, CS: case series, CSS: cross sectional study, H. pylori: Helicobacter pylori, Jadad: Jadad score [31], N/A: not applicable, N/D: not described, NOS: Newcastle-Ottawa Scale [32], PR: partial response, RCT: randomized control trial. Δ: describing the platelet increase. Response includes both complete response and partial response. †: result of a pooled data analysis.

3.3.2. Risk of Bias

The two RCTs demonstrated an acceptable level of quality according to Jadad score, 3 or higher. The Newcastle-Ottawa Scale scores of the six cohort and two case control studies ranged from 5 to 9, indicating moderate risks of bias.

3.3.3. The Prevalence of H. Pylori Infection and Platelet Response Rate

The total prevalence of H. pylori infection among all 726 cITP patients including our patients was 23.0%, and a wide variability in prevalence from 0% to 43.5% depending on the reports was observed. Among 167 cITP patients with H. pylori infection, 132 patients were prescribed eradication therapy. The platelet response rates after eradication therapy also showed a wide variability from 0% to 100%, and the total response rate was 43.8%; a significant increase in platelet count following H. pylori eradication therapy was observed in 60 patients. When limited to the cases in Japan, the prevalence of H. pylori infection was 11.6%; 11 of 95 cITP patients tested positive for H. pylori, and the platelet response rate was 42.9%; however, it should be noted that the data were based on only three responders among seven cITP patients.

4. Discussion

ITP is an autoimmune disease that causes thrombocytopenia due to the production of autoantibodies against platelets, and is often triggered by some infection or vaccination in childhood. Although 80–90% of pediatric patients with ITP recover spontaneously, some cases are refractory to the administration of glucocorticoid and immunoglobulin and may experience severe bleeding. There are regional, ethnic, and racial differences; however, there is much evidence in adults for an association between H. pylori infection and ITP. The mechanism by which H. pylori infection causes ITP has been investigated from various perspectives. Takahashi et al. reported that cross-reaction of the platelet membrane glycoprotein (GP) IIb/IIIa, GP Ib/IX, GP Ia/IIa, and GP VI, the antigen corresponding to antiplatelet autoantibodies, with the H. pylori constituent protein CagA caused thrombocytopenia [22]. Asahi et al. showed that H. pylori infection resulted in inhibition of the Fcγ receptor on peripheral blood monocytes, and led to increased production of antiplatelet antibodies, thereby accelerating platelet turnover through decreased expression of FcγRIIB [12]. However, the pathogenesis of ITP and its causal relationship with H. pylori infection is still not clear.

Given that children have a lower prevalence of H. pylori infection and lower incidence of refractory ITP than adults, data from previous reports are limited to a small number of patients. Although Russo et al. [35] in Italy, Treepongkaruna et al. [38] in Thailand, and Brito et al. [34] in Brazil reported the results of prospective, multicenter, and interventional trials investigating the relationship between H. pylori infection and ITP in childhood, it is still difficult to accumulate comprehensive evidence with an adequate sample size to determine the efficacy of H. pylori eradication therapy in children with cITP who test positive for H. pylori.

Thus, these suggestions are based on extremely limited information, although the prevalence of H. pylori infection among children with cITP may be slightly higher than that in the general pediatric population as observed in Italy, Taiwan, and Japan. The prevalence reported in systematic reviews from Japan (11.6%) was about the same as, or slightly higher than, the prevalence in other children of the same age in Japan, in whom it was approximately 5–10%. This trend was also observed in Japanese adults, among whom the prevalence of H. pylori infection in cITP patients (69%) was slightly higher than that in the general population of the same age group (about 60%) [20]. This lack of a significant difference in the infection rate indicates that ITP is a multifactorial disease and that H. pylori infection is just one of the causes of ITP in adults and children.

A wide variability in the rates of platelet increase from 0% to 100% after H. pylori eradication therapy was observed in the review of previous reports. However, when all previous cases were combined, the mean rate of platelet increase was 43.8%. This result proves the existence of a subset of pediatric cITP patients who would benefit from H. pylori eradication therapy, and suggests that a response rate equivalent to that observed in the adult population (40–60%) can be expected [20]. Therefore, H. pylori eradication therapy should be considered as the first treatment for cITP in children with H. pylori infection, given the adverse effects of systemic glucocorticoid administration and splenectomy. The cost of treatment and fewer side effects with H. pylori eradication therapy makes it a favorable first choice.

Our study has several inherent limitations that need to be discussed. First, this systematic review included a limited number of studies with a small sample size indicating moderate risks of bias, and there were only three prospective, multicenter, interventional trials [34,35,38]. Second, the indication for H. pylori diagnostic testing in cITP pediatric patients depended on the decision of the main attending physician in our retrospective analysis. Thus, 13 of 33 pediatric cITP patients in our hospital were not evaluated for H. pylori infection. Further multicenter studies or large randomized controlled trials are necessary to establish an adequate evidence base for this therapy in pediatric patients with cITP.

5. Conclusions

This study, based on a systematic review of pediatric cITP reports from Japan and abroad, and a retrospective analysis of 33 cITP patients from our hospital, shows that the efficacy of H. pylori eradication therapy in inducing a platelet response among pediatric patients with cITP is equivalent to that seen in adults. The study suggests that H. pylori eradication therapy should be considered as the first-line treatment for cITP in children with H. pylori infection.

Acknowledgments

We would like to thank Naoko Mizushima (Academic Media center, Juntendo University) for database searching, Naotake Yanagisawa (Medical Technology Innovation Center, Juntendo University) for the advice on study design, and Editage (www.editage.com) for English language editing.

Author Contributions

Conceptualization, T.I. and T.K.; Data curation, M.T. and K.K.; Formal analysis, N.I.; Investigation, K.T. (Kaori Tokushima); Methodology, T.I. and K.J.; Supervision, T.S.; Validation, K.M., M.N., K.T. (Kazuhide Tokita), R.K. and K.H.; Writing—original draft, T.I.; Writing—review and editing, T.I. and T.K. All authors have read and agreed to the published version of the manuscript’

Funding

This research received no external funding.

Conflicts of Interest

The authors declare no conflict of interest.

References

  • 1.Fox J.G., Wang T.C. Inflammation, atrophy, and gastric cancer. J. Clin. Investig. 2007;117:60–69. doi: 10.1172/JCI30111. [DOI] [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  • 2.Franceschi F., Zuccala G., Roccarina D., Gasbarrini A. Clinical effects of Helicobacter pylori outside the stomach. Nat. Rev. Gastroenterol. Hepatol. 2014;11:234–242. doi: 10.1038/nrgastro.2013.243. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  • 3.Goni E., Franceschi F. Helicobacter pylori and extragastric diseases. Helicobacter. 2016;21(Suppl. S1):45–48. doi: 10.1111/hel.12340. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  • 4.Rodeghiero F., Stasi R., Gernsheimer T., Michel M., Provan D., Arnold D.M., Bussel J.B., Cines D.B., Chong B.H., Cooper N., et al. Standardization of terminology, definitions and outcome criteria in immune thrombocytopenic purpura of adults and children: Report from an international working group. Blood. 2009;113:2386–2393. doi: 10.1182/blood-2008-07-162503. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  • 5.George J.N., Woolf S.H., Raskob G.E., Wasser J.S., Aledort L.M., Ballem P.J., Blanchette V.S., Bussel J.B., Cines D.B., Kelton J.G., et al. Idiopathic thrombocytopenic purpura: A practice guideline developed by explicit methods for the American Society of Hematology. Blood. 1996;88:3–40. doi: 10.1182/blood.V88.1.3.3. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  • 6.Neylon A.J., Saunders P.W., Howard M.R., Proctor S.J., Taylor P.R. Clinically significant newly presenting autoimmune thrombocytopenic purpura in adults: A prospective study of a population-based cohort of 245 patients. Br. J. Haematol. 2003;122:966–974. doi: 10.1046/j.1365-2141.2003.04547.x. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  • 7.Kuhne T., Buchanan G.R., Zimmerman S., Michaels L.A., Kohan R., Berchtold W., Imbach P. A prospective comparative study of 2540 infants and children with newly diagnosed idiopathic thrombocytopenic purpura (ITP) from the Intercontinental Childhood ITP Study Group. J. Pediatrics. 2003;143:605–608. doi: 10.1067/S0022-3476(03)00535-3. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  • 8.Rosthoj S., Hedlund-Treutiger I., Rajantie J., Zeller B., Jonsson O.G., Elinder G., Wesenberg F., Henter J.I. Duration and morbidity of newly diagnosed idiopathic thrombocytopenic purpura in children: A prospective Nordic study of an unselected cohort. J. Pediatrics. 2003;143:302–307. doi: 10.1067/S0022-3476(03)00245-2. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  • 9.Donato H., Picon A., Martinez M., Rapetti M.C., Rosso A., Gomez S., Rossi N., Bacciedoni V., Schvartzman G., Riccheri C., et al. Demographic data, natural history, and prognostic factors of idiopathic thrombocytopenic purpura in children: A multicentered study from Argentina. Pediatric Blood Cancer. 2009;52:491–496. doi: 10.1002/pbc.21872. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  • 10.Imbach P., Kuhne T., Muller D., Berchtold W., Zimmerman S., Elalfy M., Buchanan G.R. Childhood ITP: 12 months follow-up data from the prospective registry I of the Intercontinental Childhood ITP Study Group (ICIS) Pediatric Blood Cancer. 2006;46:351–356. doi: 10.1002/pbc.20453. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  • 11.Gasbarrini A., Franceschi F., Tartaglione R., Landolfi R., Pola P., Gasbarrini G. Regression of autoimmune thrombocytopenia after eradication of Helicobacter pylori. Lancet. 1998;352:878. doi: 10.1016/S0140-6736(05)60004-9. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  • 12.Asahi A., Nishimoto T., Okazaki Y., Suzuki H., Masaoka T., Kawakami Y., Ikeda Y., Kuwana M. Helicobacter pylori eradication shifts monocyte Fcgamma receptor balance toward inhibitory FcgammaRIIB in immune thrombocytopenic purpura patients. J. Clin. Investig. 2008;118:2939–2949. doi: 10.1172/jci34496. [DOI] [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  • 13.Jarque I., Andreu R., Llopis I., De la Rubia J., Gomis F., Senent L., Jimenez C., Martin G., Martinez J.A., Sanz G.F., et al. Absence of platelet response after eradication of Helicobacter pylori infection in patients with chronic idiopathic thrombocytopenic purpura. Br. J. Haematol. 2001;115:1002–1003. doi: 10.1046/j.1365-2141.2001.03194.x. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  • 14.Kohda K., Kuga T., Kogawa K., Kanisawa Y., Koike K., Kuroiwa G., Hirayama Y., Sato Y., Niitsu Y. Effect of Helicobacter pylori eradication on platelet recovery in Japanese patients with chronic idiopathic thrombocytopenic purpura and secondary autoimmune thrombocytopenic purpura. Br. J. Haematol. 2002;118:584–588. doi: 10.1046/j.1365-2141.2002.03612.x. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  • 15.Ando K., Shimamoto T., Tauchi T., Ito Y., Kuriyama Y., Gotoh A., Miyazawa K., Kimura Y., Kawai T., Ohyashiki K. Can eradication therapy for Helicobacter pylori really improve the thrombocytopenia in idiopathic thrombocytopenic purpura? Our experience and a literature review. Int. J. Hematol. 2003;77:239–244. doi: 10.1007/BF02983780. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  • 16.Hashino S., Mori A., Suzuki S., Izumiyama K., Kahata K., Yonezumi M., Chiba K., Kondo T., Ota S., Toyashima N., et al. Platelet recovery in patients with idiopathic thrombocytopenic purpura after eradication of Helicobacter pylori. Int. J. Hematol. 2003;77:188–191. doi: 10.1007/BF02983220. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  • 17.Hino M., Yamane T., Park K., Takubo T., Ohta K., Kitagawa S., Higuchi K., Arakawa T. Platelet recovery after eradication of Helicobacter pylori in patients with idiopathic thrombocytopenic purpura. Ann. Hematol. 2003;82:30–32. doi: 10.1007/s00277-002-0579-8. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  • 18.Michel M., Cooper N., Jean C., Frissora C., Bussel J.B. Does Helicobater pylori initiate or perpetuate immune thrombocytopenic purpura? Blood. 2004;103:890–896. doi: 10.1182/blood-2003-03-0900. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  • 19.Ando T., Tsuzuki T., Mizuno T., Minami M., Ina K., Kusugami K., Takamatsu J., Adachi K., El-Omar E., Ohta M., et al. Characteristics of Helicobacter pylori-induced gastritis and the effect of H. pylori eradication in patients with chronic idiopathic thrombocytopenic purpura. Helicobacter. 2004;9:443–452. doi: 10.1111/j.1083-4389.2004.00261.x. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  • 20.Fujimura K., Kuwana M., Kurata Y., Imamura M., Harada H., Sakamaki H., Teramura M., Koda K., Nomura S., Sugihara S., et al. Is eradication therapy useful as the first line of treatment in Helicobacter pylori-positive idiopathic thrombocytopenic purpura? Analysis of 207 eradicated chronic ITP cases in Japan. Int. J. Hematol. 2005;81:162–168. doi: 10.1532/IJH97.04146. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  • 21.Stasi R., Rossi Z., Stipa E., Amadori S., Newland A.C., Provan D. Helicobacter pylori eradication in the management of patients with idiopathic thrombocytopenic purpura. Am. J. Med. 2005;118:414–419. doi: 10.1016/j.amjmed.2004.09.014. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  • 22.Takahashi T., Yujiri T., Shinohara K., Inoue Y., Sato Y., Fujii Y., Okubo M., Zaitsu Y., Ariyoshi K., Nakamura Y., et al. Molecular mimicry by Helicobacter pylori CagA protein may be involved in the pathogenesis of H. pylori-associated chronic idiopathic thrombocytopenic purpura. Br. J. Haematol. 2004;124:91–96. doi: 10.1046/j.1365-2141.2003.04735.x. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  • 23.Franchini M., Cruciani M., Mengoli C., Pizzolo G., Veneri D. Effect of Helicobacter pylori eradication on platelet count in idiopathic thrombocytopenic purpura: A systematic review and meta-analysis. J. Antimicrob. Chemother. 2007;60:237–246. doi: 10.1093/jac/dkm195. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  • 24.Satake M., Nishikawa J., Fukagawa Y., Akashi K., Okamoto T., Yoshida T., Hirano A., Maetani N., Iida Y., Sakaida I. The long-term efficacy of Helicobacter pylori eradication therapy in patients with idiopathic thrombocytopenic purpura. J. Gastroenterol. Hepatol. 2007;22:2233–2237. doi: 10.1111/j.1440-1746.2007.04845.x. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  • 25.Tsutsumi Y., Kanamori H., Yamato H., Ehira N., Kawamura T., Umehara S., Mori A., Obara S., Ogura N., Tanaka J., et al. Randomized study of Helicobacter pylori eradication therapy and proton pump inhibitor monotherapy for idiopathic thrombocytopenic purpura. Ann. Hematol. 2005;84:807–811. doi: 10.1007/s00277-005-1071-z. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  • 26.Fujimura K., Miyakawa Y., Kurata Y., Kuwana M., Tomiyama Y., Murata M. Reference guide for management of adult idiopathic thrombocytopenic purpura (ITP) 2012 version. Rinsho Ketsueki. 2012;53:433–442. [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  • 27.Kato S., Shimizu T., Toyoda S., Ishige T., Ida S., Ushijima K., Kamiya S., Kuwabara K., Konno M., Fujimura S., et al. The Updated JSPGHAN Guidelines for the Management of Helicobacter pylori Infection in Childhood, 2018. J. Jpn. Soc. Pediatric Gastroenterol. Hepatol. Nutr. 2018;32:92–136. doi: 10.1111/ped.14388. [DOI] [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  • 28.Takahashi Y., Miyakawa Y., Mori M., Kunishima S., Higashigawa M., Kobayashi N., Sasahara Y., Maeda N., Nakadate H., Bessho F., et al. Treatment Guide for Refractory Immune Thrombocytopenia in Children for 2019. Jpn. J. Pediatric Hematol. Oncol. 2019;56:61–68. [Google Scholar]
  • 29.Kato S., Ozawa K., Konno M., Tajiri H., Yoshimura N., Shimizu T., Fujisawa T., Abukawa D., Minoura T., Iinuma K. Diagnostic accuracy of the 13C-urea breath test for childhood Helicobacter pylori infection: A multicenter Japanese study. Am. J. Gastroenterol. 2002;97:1668–1673. doi: 10.1111/j.1572-0241.2002.05825.x. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  • 30.European Committee on Antimicrobial Susceptibility Testing Breakpoint Tables for Interpretation of MICs and Zone Diameters. [(accessed on 22 February 2020)]; Available online: http://www.eucast.org/fileadmin/src/media/PDFs/EUCAST_files/Breakpoint_tables/v_7.0_Breakpoint_Tables.pdf.
  • 31.Jadad A.R., Moore R.A., Carroll D., Jenkinson C., Reynolds D.J., Gavaghan D.J., McQuay H.J. Assessing the quality of reports of randomized clinical trials: Is blinding necessary? Control Clin. Trials. 1996;17:1–12. doi: 10.1016/0197-2456(95)00134-4. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  • 32.Stang A. Critical evaluation of the Newcastle-Ottawa scale for the assessment of the quality of nonrandomized studies in meta-analyses. Eur J. Epidemiol. 2010;25:603–605. doi: 10.1007/s10654-010-9491-z. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  • 33.Russo G., Miraglia V., Branciforte F., Matarese S.M., Zecca M., Bisogno G., Parodi E., Amendola G., Giordano P., Jankovic M., et al. Effect of eradication of Helicobacter pylori in children with chronic immune thrombocytopenia: A prospective, controlled, multicenter study. Pediatric Blood Cancer. 2011;56:273–278. doi: 10.1002/pbc.22770. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  • 34.Ferrara M., Capozzi L., Russo R. Effect of Helicobacter pylori eradication on platelet count in children with chronic idiopathic thrombocytopenic purpura. Hematology. 2009;14:282–285. doi: 10.1179/102453309X12473408860181. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  • 35.Maghbool M., Maghbool M., Shahriari M., Karimi M. Does Helicobacter pylori play a role in the pathogenesis of childhood chronic idiopathic thrombocytopenic purpura? Pediatric Rep. 2009;1:e2. doi: 10.4081/pr.2009.e2. [DOI] [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  • 36.Treepongkaruna S., Sirachainan N., Kanjanapongkul S., Winaichatsak A., Sirithorn S., Sumritsopak R., Chuansumrit A. Absence of platelet recovery following Helicobacter pylori eradication in childhood chronic idiopathic thrombocytopenic purpura: A multi-center randomized controlled trial. Pediatric Blood Cancer. 2009;53:72–77. doi: 10.1002/pbc.21991. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  • 37.Bisogno G., Errigo G., Rossetti F., Sainati L., Pusiol A., Da Dalt L., Colleselli P., Grotto P., Carli M. The role of Helicobacter pylori in children with chronic idiopathic thrombocytopenic purpura. J. Pediatric Hematol. Oncol. 2008;30:53–57. doi: 10.1097/MPH.0b013e3181615613. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  • 38.Hamidieh A.A., Arzanian M.T., Gachkar L., Pasha F. Helicobacter pylori infection in children with chronic idiopathic thrombocytopenic purpura. J. Pediatric Hematol. Oncol. 2008;30:96–97. doi: 10.1097/MPH.0b013e3181615600. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  • 39.Miyajima Y., Kitase Y., Suzuki T., Hayashi N., Sakamoto M., Ohe H., Kidokoro H., Kubota T., Kato Y., Ogawa A., et al. Clinical featues and role of Helicobacter pylori infection in children with idiopathic thrombocytopenic purpura. J. Jpn. Assoc. Rural Med. 2008;57:59–65. doi: 10.2185/jjrm.57.59. [DOI] [Google Scholar]
  • 40.Kato F., Arai A., Wada E., Sugihara S. Helicobacter pylori Infection in Children with Idiopathic Thrombocytopenic Purpura and the Efficacy of Eradication Therapy. J. Tokyo Women’s Med. Univ. 2007;77:E40–E45. [Google Scholar]
  • 41.Loffredo G., Marzano M.G., Migliorati R., Miele E., Menna F., Poggi V., Staiano A. The relationship between immune thrombocytopenic purpura and Helicobacter pylori infection in children: Where is the truth? Eur. J. Pediatrics. 2007;166:1067–1068. doi: 10.1007/s00431-006-0344-4. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  • 42.Neefjes V.M., Heijboer H., Tamminga R.Y. H. pylori infection in childhood chronic immune thrombocytopenic purpura. Haematologica. 2007;92:576. doi: 10.3324/haematol.10940. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  • 43.Wu K.S., Hsiao C.C., Yu H.R., Huang E.Y., Mai W.L., Sheen J.M. Helicobacter pylori infection and childhood idiopathic thrombocytopenic purpura. Acta Paediatr. Taiwanica Taiwan Er Ke Yi Xue Hui Za Zhi. 2007;48:263–266. [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  • 44.Hayashi H., Okuda M., Aoyagi N., Yoshiyama M., Miyashiro E., Kounami S., Yoshikawa N. Helicobacter pylori infection in children with chronic idiopathic thrombocytopenic purpura. Pediatrics Int. Off. J. Jpn. Pediatric Soc. 2005;47:292–295. doi: 10.1111/j.1442-200x.2005.02058.x. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  • 45.Yetgin S., Demir H., Arslan D., Unal S., Kocak N. Autoimmune thrombocytopenic purpura and Helicobacter pylori infection effectivity during childhood. Am. J. Hematol. 2005;78:318. doi: 10.1002/ajh.20302. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  • 46.Jaing T.H., Yang C.P., Hung I.J., Chiu C.H., Chang K.W. Efficacy of Helicobacter pylori eradication on platelet recovery in children with chronic idiopathic thrombocytopenic purpura. Acta Paediatr. 2003;92:1153–1157. doi: 10.1111/j.1651-2227.2003.tb02476.x. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  • 47.Rajantie J., Klemola T. Helicobacter pylori and idiopathic thrombocytopenic purpura in children. Blood. 2003;101:1660. doi: 10.1182/blood-2002-10-3201. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  • 48.Sakai M., Fujisawa K., Ohara A., Shirahata A. Childhood Idiopathic Thrombocytopenic Purpura and Helicobacter pylor. Jpn. J. Pediatric Hematol. 2003;17:413–417. [Google Scholar]
  • 49.Amiri M. Impact of Helicobacter pylori Eradication Therapy on Platelet Counts in Patients with Chronic Idiopathic Thrombocytopenic Purpura. Glob. J. Health Sci. 2015;8:35–40. doi: 10.5539/gjhs.v8n7p35. [DOI] [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  • 50.Brito H.S., Braga J.A., Loggetto S.R., Machado R.S., Granato C.F., Kawakami E. Helicobacter pylori infection & immune thrombocytopenic purpura in children and adolescents: A randomized controlled trial. Platelets. 2015;26:336–341. doi: 10.3109/09537104.2014.911836. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]

Articles from Microorganisms are provided here courtesy of Multidisciplinary Digital Publishing Institute (MDPI)

RESOURCES