Table 2.

Manipulation of gut microbiota with oral antidiabetics for diabetes treatment and prevention.

Therapeutic Strategy	Subjects of Study	Effects	Ref.
Metformin	Mice and humans	↑ Propionate and butyrate ↓ Intestinibacter spp. and Clostridium spp. ↑ Escherichia/Shigella spp. ↑ Akkermansia muciniphila	[130,132,133,134]
Acarbose	Mice and humans	↓ LPS and proinflammatory cytokines ↑ Propionate and butyrate ↓ Clostridium and Bacteroides ↑ Bifidobacterium and Lactobacillus	[135,136,137,138]
Liraglutide	Mice and humans	↑ Bacteroidetes ↑ Akkermansia muciniphila ↓ Firmicutes and Proteobacteria	[139,140,141,142]

LPS: Lipopolysaccharides.