WE ARE OUR SISTER’S KEEPER: THE EXPERIENCE OF BLACK FEMALE CLERGY RESPONDING TO INTIMATE PARTNER VIOLENCE

Abstract

Intimate partner violence (IPV) affects all populations, regardless of race, education, or socioeconomic status, but Black women experience higher rates of IPV (43.7%) in comparison to White women (34.6%). Although evidence indicates that faith-based organizations and clergy play key roles in preventing and responding to IPV among Black women, limited research has been conducted in this area, and existing studies have focused on Black male clergy leaders response to IPV. Using transcendental phenomenology, we interviewed twelve Black female clergy regarding their role as responders to IPV among Black women in their congregation. Each clergy leader participated in a face-to-face interview. Data analysis followed the modified Van Kaam 7-step process. One overarching theme emerged – We Are Our Sister’s Keeper, as well as three primary themes: Support Advocate, Spiritual Advisor, and Roadblocked Leader. The themes indicated that Black female clergy respond to the emotional and spiritual needs of Black women despite barriers (e.g., few outside resources, limited support from the Black church). The themes also suggested that clergy lack knowledge and training for responding to IPV. However, Black female clergy are passionate about providing holistic, culturally-centered care by bridging the gap between the church and the community to better serve Black women who have experienced IPV. Findings support the importance of incorporating spiritual and emotional healing among this population when providing care and services. Further research is needed to develop interventions, such as a faith-based toolkit that incorporates community resources and guidance to better support Black female clergy leaders’ ability to respond to IPV.

Intimate partner violence (IPV) is an epidemic affecting more than one-third of American women (CDC, 2015). IPV affects all populations regardless of race, education, or socioeconomic status. However, population-based data suggests Black women in the United States experience IPV at substantially higher rates than their White counterparts (43.7% vs 34.6%, respectively) (Walters, Chen, & Breiding, 2013). Among Black women who have experienced IPV, religion and spirituality have been consistently found to be important protective factors in the healing process and aid in reducing depressive symptoms (Drumm et al., 2014; El-Khoury et al., 2004; Stevens-Watkins, Sharma, Knighton, Oser, & Leukefeld, 2014; Watlington & Murphy, 2006).

Preferences for Faith-based in to Address Intimate Partner Violence

Most Black Americans are highly religious, attend church weekly, and view clergy as highly influential (Pew Research Center, 2018). Accordingly, past research suggests that Black Americans prefer clergy as a source of counseling, guidance, strength, hope, and remedy (Christensen et al., 2017; Chatters et al., 2011; Kane, 2010; Taylor, Hardison, & Chatters, 1996; Taylor, Mattis, & Chatters, 1999). Despite the significant role of faith-based organizations in providing counseling and supportive services in Black communities, few studies have reported on church-based IPV prevention and support among Black women (Watlington & Murphy, 2006) and limited research exist on how clergy leaders actually respond to IPV among Black women. The need for this research focus may be particularly important, as a study by Berman and colleagues (2015) found that female parishioners were three times more likely to have experienced IPV than male parishioners. Furthermore, studies that have explored the clergy’s response to IPV have focused primarily on gaining an understanding through the lens of Black male clergy (Avent et al., 2015). However, Black women (90%) reported preferring a female providers when receiving care (Dale, Polivka, Chaudry, & Simmonds, 2010).

Overall, there is a research gap regarding the role of Black female clergy in responding to IPV. Therefore, the target of this exploratory qualitative study was to begin to address this existing gap in the literature, by exploring how Black female clergy respond to women disclosing their experience of violence as well as the contexts in which they experience intervention efforts. The study addressed two questions:

1. How do Black female church leaders perceive and describe their experience when responding to IPV against their Black female congregants?

2. What beliefs about IPV do Black female church leaders hold?

Method

Transcendental phenomenology was chosen as our research methodology due to its effectiveness in understanding personal experiences in addition to gaining awareness to people’s motivation and actions (Woodruff Smith, 2007). Therefore, for the present study transcendental phenomenology was used to gain an in-depth understanding of the lived experiences of Black female clergy as responders to IPV.

Setting/Sample

A purposive sample of Black female clergy leaders (N=12) residing in a Midwestern metropolitan city was recruited to participate in the study. To facilitate recruitment, the PI forged a partnership with an African American faith-based initiative that assisted with recruitment. The PI attended a Community Action Board meeting to describe the study’s purpose and provide clergy leaders with contact information to follow-up if interested in participating.

Participants were selected based on the following inclusion criteria: 1) Black female clergy leader (pastor, associate pastor, minister, etc.) at a predominately Black church (50 percent or more of congregation identified as African American/Black), (2) previously advised a Black female congregant who had experienced physical and/or sexual violence, (3) fluent in English, (4) 30–65 years old, and (5) held a leadership position for at least 5 years. This length of 5 years was chosen based on the fact that 50% of pastors starting out in ministry will leave the ministry before 5 years (Pastoral Care, 2016).

Measures

To help participants create narratives of their interactions with Black female congregants who experienced IPV, an interview guide was created. Each interview began with the question, “Could you describe a time when you interacted with a Black female congregant who informed you about her experiences with violence?”

After participants provided their narrative with respect to the primary research question, the interview proceeded and probes were used to seek clarification regarding experiences as responders to IPV and beliefs about IPV. Probes also were used as needed to encourage in-depth descriptions of participants’ experiences. Probes included: “Could you describe (specific topic) further?” “What was going on in your mind then?”

To ensure interviews captured participants’ lived experience, the interview concluded by asking each participant “Is there anything else you would like to share about your experience as a responder to intimate partner violence or beliefs about intimate partner violence?” and “What is the most important point you would like to make about your experience working with women who have experienced intimate partner violence?”

Procedures

After receiving approval from the Institutional Review Board, the PI began recruiting participants. When a potential participant contacted the PI by telephone or email, the PI explained the study using lay language and provided relevant information about the study (purpose, procedure, etc.). After sharing the nature of the study and the potential participant expressed interested in participating the PI offered to share the consent form in advance by email for review. Then the PI set up a time for the interview and answered any additional questions about the study prior to the participant completing the consent form and beginning the interview.

Individual, in-depth, face-to-face interviews were conducted and audio recorded. One investigator conducted all interviews at a site that each participant deemed comfortable — their church or place of residence. Interviews lasted between 30 to 90 minutes. Because this study aimed to capture the lived experiences of Black female clergy from their perspective on supporting women who experienced IPV, it was important to avoid interference from the investigator’s attitude, beliefs, knowledge, and experiences regarding the phenomenon. Therefore, after each interview the PI bracketed to mitigate bias, by writing down any beliefs and preconceived notions experienced.

Analysis

All data was transcribed verbatim, de-identified and entered in Dedoose (Dedoose Version 7.0.18, SocioCultural Consultants, LLC). To protect participant identity, each participant was assigned a pseudonym and number. Audio-recorded interviews were deleted from the digital recorder after the interviews were imported and transcribed. Colaizzi’s (1978) 7-step process of phenomenological data analysis was used to explain the meanings of the phenomenon from participants’ experiences. This analysis approach was selected because it is able to lead to the discovery of patterns, themes, and constructs in addition to revealing meaning behind participants’ responses (Creswell, 2012). The Colaizzi’s (1978) approach encompasses reading all transcripts to gain a holistic understanding of the content, extracting significant statements, formulating meanings from significant statements, coding underlying meanings into categories to represent a comprehensive description, and grouping formulated meanings into emerging themes. Four participants were randomly selected and invited to review the data, emerging themes, interpretations, and conclusions to check whether it aligned with their experiences. This check also allowed participants to assess adequacy of the findings and provide feedback which was incorporated in the final description of the findings.

Results

Twelve Black female clergy leaders (Table 1) ranging in age from 35 to 65 years participated in the study. The most common age rage for the clergy leaders was 55 to 64 years (50%). All clergy had some college education. Many of the clergy held a leadership position (e.g. pastor, associate pastor, and minister) in the church for 20 years or more (33.3%), and 75% served in urban communities. Congregation size of clergy varied from 50 or less (33.3%), 51– 300 (25%), 301– 2000 (25%), to 2000 or more (16.6%). Participants had counseled a varying number of women who had experienced IPV (range = 1 to 30).

Table 1:

Description of Sample

Participant	Age	Highest Degree	Marital Status	Years of Clergy Leadership	Denomination of Church	Leadership Title	Congregation Size	Community Served
P1 - Joy	55–64	Master’s Degree	Married	15–19 years	Methodist	Associate Pastor	2000 or more members	Urban
P2 - Rachel	45–54	Master’s Degree	Married	10–14 years	Other - Christian Church	Associate Pastor	50 or less	Urban
P3 - Olivia	55–64	Some college credit, no degree	Married	20 years or more	Non-denominational	Pastor	50 or less	Urban
P4 - Mary	45–54	Some college credit, no degree	Widowed	20 years or more	Pentecostal	Pastor	50 or less	Urban
P5 - Paula	55–64	Master’s Degree	Married	20 years or more	Baptist	Other - Director of Ministries	301–2000 members	Urban
P6 - Candice	45–54	Master’s Degree	Divorced	5 years or less	Baptist	Associate Minister	51–300 members	Urban
P7 - Ruth	65 years or older	Some college credit, no degree	Divorced	6–9 years	Baptist	Deaconess	301–2000 members	Suburban
P8 - Deborah	55–64	Bachelor’s Degree	Divorced	5 years or less	Non-denominational	Pastor	50 or less	Suburban
P9 - Elizabeth	35–44	Bachelor’s Degree	Separated	10–14 years	Pentecostal	Minister	51–300 members	Urban
P10 - Julia	55–64	Professional Degree	Single	6–9 years	Baptist	Minister	301–2000 members	Urban
P11 - Eve	45–54	Master’s Degree	Married	10–14 years	Non-denominational	Associate Pastor	51–300 members	Suburban
P12 - Victoria	55–64	Doctorate Degree	Single	20 years or more	Methodist	Associate Pastor	2000 or more members	Urban

Overarching Theme and Primary Themes

One overarching theme and three primary themes were identified from the participants narratives. The overarching theme identified was labelled We are Our Sisters Keepers, subsumes the primary themes Support Advocate, Spiritual Advisor, and Roadblocked Leader. Figure 1 shows the overarching pattern in which We are Our Sister’s Keeper is the main theme that bridges the three categorical themes Support Advocate, Spiritual Advisor, and Roadblocked Leader. The circle shows the root link of the relationship between the 3 primary themes. We are Our Sisters Keeper, represents the foundation and essence of Black female clergy’s beliefs and experiences as responders to IPV.

Figure 1:

Overarching Theme, Primary Themes, and Subthemes of the Lived Experience of Black Female Clergy Leaders Responding to IPV among Black Women

We are Our Sister’s Keeper

The overarching theme, We are Our Sister’s Keeper, illustrates the overall role Black female clergy believe they serve as responders to IPV among Black female congregants. As Joy stated, “All these links link up together and ya know and makes a strong chain of sisterhood. So yeah that we (Black female clergy) are our sister’s keeper and we need to be on the lookout for the silent victims.”

We are Our Sister’s Keeper, signifies Black female clergy leaders’ resilience and compassion as they help Black women heal and grow toward having God-centered, healthy relationships. Black female clergy served as a source of support for their congregants who had experienced IPV, which in turn resulted in the ability of the congregants to become a source of support for other Black women experiencing IPV. Moreover, this overarching theme also describes Black women’s common bond in which they openly and honestly share their pain and help their sisters heal by uniting their voices.

Black female clergy described the main components of serving as Our Sister’s Keeper as being a Support Advocate and Spiritual Advisor. As support advocates, Black female clergy commented on meeting women “where they are at” spiritually, mentally, emotionally, and physically to help rebuild their lives holistically. As support advocates, clergy stated they used their personal platform to raise awareness about IPV as well as provide a sense of safety through their personal connections (e.g. health support networks) and through reflective listening in which women could authentically share their experience of IPV. As a spiritual advisor, clergy leaders helped women find their voices and inner strength by teaching them how to love themselves through scripture and prayer, and by guiding them to strengthen their relationship with God through Christian counseling.

However, Black female clergy leaders experienced roadblocks that inhibited their ability to respond adequately to IPV including lack of knowledge about resources and IPV training, lack of support from the Black church, and exhaustion from the emotional demands of dealing with many of high stressful situations from being a leader in the church.

Theme 1: Support Advocate

Meet Women Where They Are

Clergy reported that being a support advocate was one of their primary roles. Participants in this study emphasized the importance of “meeting women where they are at” as an initial response. “Meeting women where they are at” encompassed recognizing each Black woman’s unique background and story without reframing it, putting aside assumptions of needs among women, and being mindful of where women were spiritually. By meeting Black women “where they are”, clergy were better able to attune to women’s holistic needs (spiritual, social, and emotional needs) as well as giving Black women an opportunity to be seen, heard, and understood. Some clergy described putting aside their assumptions regarding the needs of women in order to meet women where they are. Julia (all names are pseudonyms) stated, “Biblical counseling taught me that you always play to their needs rather than what you think they … need. You literally find out what a person needs and help them get what they need.”

When Black female clergy eliminated their assumptions of survivors’ needs, it bridged the gap of communication. This bridge created an environment in which person-centered care thrived in a manner that adequately met the needs of Black women who experienced IPV. Black female clergy emphasized the importance of meeting people where they are spiritually. This attention to spirituality included recognizing that each woman is at a different stage in her spiritual journey, and adapting to survivors’ needs would lead to spiritual growth and healing. Participants described that meeting people where they are did not mean taking control of their situation, but rather to connect with them — to walk alongside them and guide them to a divine, healthy way of living.

Reflective Listening

As support advocates, Black female clergy stressed the importance of listening to gain a thorough understanding of the survivor’s experience with IPV, and to help create a safe space where Black women could release emotional pain. Clergy felt that Black women wanted to be heard, respected, and understood; once they feel understood emotionally, they became motivated to take the steps that would lead them to safety. Clergy also felt that the act of listening indirectly helped improve women’s self-esteem because it showed that they were respected and valued. Therefore, the act of listening to survivors of IPV conveyed human care, which showed divine care. Clergy described how they supported women through reflective listening, in which they listened not only to survivors’ words but also to their feelings. Clergy noted that listening helped them cultivate questions that drew out information to better understand the types of support and resources survivors of IPV needed. For example, Rachel said,

“My role being a care giver…mainly first of all listening to what their needs are. This person is going to take this and try and help me figure out what I need to do and be sufficient in my area.”

Furthermore, clergy experience using reflective listening enhanced their ability as support advocates to provide appropriate resources such as counseling, safe housing, and linkage to care for medical support.

As support advocates, Black female clergy thought it was important not only to guide women to physical safety but also to create a safe space in which emotional release and healing could take place. A safe space, as described by participants, is one in which Black women could pause and examine their lives, explore alternatives, rebuild trust in themselves, and release the manifestation of built emotions and pain. Many clergy discussed using the power of sisterhood in the healing process and as a tool to provide a safe space for Black women. By sharing a sisterhood both in Christ and in the Black culture, clergy felt that Black women were able to care for one another and tackle life’s difficulties together. Candice stated, “I’ve seen the best way. They call on their sisters and then they go in collectively in prayer.”

Several clergy found it important to create a safe space within the church where Black women could learn from one another and share their personal testimony for strength, growth, and emotional safety. Paula stated,

“Yes, Waiting to Exhale that kind of mess you know. That kinda sisterhood that’s real. That’s real, and we can do that. I don’t know if that’s it, but we can do that. I mean when you in a like here at the church, you know, you get around a bunch of us and get in the room. And you know we can just eyeball each other and just know that girl’s hurtin’ over there. But just hug her, and she leaves refreshed.”

Several other clergy leaders noted that using sisterhood to create a safe space not only allowed women to build positive relationships with one another but also to support, uplift, and encourage one another when dealing with the struggles of an abusive relationship. Also, some Black female clergy believed that creating a safe space of sisterhood helped break the cycle of silence, which in turn increased a Black woman’s support circle. Joy said,

“I’ve found that there is something healing in being with other people who have been through similar situations… there is life after and that you become a link for the next person to help them to survive, to help them to come through and all these links. Link up together and, ya know, and makes a strong chain of sisterhood. So yeah, that we are our sisters’ keeper, and we need to be on the lookout for the silent victims.”

This statement indicates that when clergy use their platform to bring Black women together and facilitate a sisterhood gathering, it aids in the recovery of mental and emotional trauma. That, in turn, ultimately leads them in the direction of safety.

Black female clergy were clear in explaining that their role was not as a psychologist or mental health counselor, but rather as a spiritual counselor and gatekeeper to formal health care services. Many clergy referred women to professional health care services, and some clergy referred survivors to Christian counselors or congregants in their church who had a background in health care. Black female clergy recognized their boundaries as support advocates and acknowledged the need to collaborate with outside resources. Clergy felt the mental issues of women who experienced IPV were rooted in causes that extend beyond spiritual issues and therefore needed to be appropriately addressed through their personal connections to others who provide supportive services. Moreover, Black female clergy leaders said that working with outside resources aided them in providing holistic care by uncovering other personal needs beyond abusive situations including health care needs. Mary said, “I always want to have another resource because if they need some real medical, some professional help, then I want to be able to refer them there. Because there are some instances they need a professional.”

Theme 2: Spiritual Advisor

Black female clergy stated that they believed that Black women view and define health differently than their white counterparts, beginning with their emotional health. Therefore, as spiritual advisors they focused on emotional healing to rebuild emotional strength and self-esteem through prayer, biblical teachings, spiritual counseling, and education.

The Role of Prayer

Black female clergy leaders expressed how, they often used prayer as a tool to advise and respond to Black women who had experienced IPV. Clergy discussed how they used prayer a tool for wisdom and direction for themselves — specifically, using prayer to provide clarity about how they should support women who have experienced IPV. Clergy felt that encouraging survivors to pray for discernment allowed them to recognize and respond in ways that would fulfill God’s will for survivors they had advised.

Moreover, Black female clergy felt that praying for discernment brought personal clarity, guidance and wisdom for survivors. Discernment allowed survivors to uncover things they had not been aware of within themselves and their abusive relationship. Joy said, “My first advice is usually being a spiritual person is to pray, and I prayed with her and prayed for wisdom and clarity for her.”

Many Black female clergy leaders expressed their belief that men take scriptures out of context in order to support their right to abuse. Therefore, clergy leaders used prayer so that the Holy Spirit could directly feed knowledge and understanding into IPV survivors mind and heart. Candice stated,

“We know people sometimes, oftentimes, manipulate scripture to gain control. And I didn’t even go there, any type of scripture. I went there with prayer because I wanted her, I wanted the presence of the Holy Spirit to dwell in her, to change her mindset for whatever she was thinking.”

Many clergy leaders stressed the importance of collectively coming together in prayer as support advocates and as Black female Christians. In doing so, clergy felt that it brought a sense of unity in which women could freely discuss their testimonies, meditate, and gain a sense of strength and encouragement. Candice stated, “I’ve seen the best way. They call on their sisters, and then they go in collectively in prayer... And when they pray, the prayers were going to manifest and keep them strong. Encourage them and keep them lifted up!”

Biblical Teachings

In discussing their role as spiritual advisors, clergy noted the importance of IPV survivors having a healthy view of themselves. Therefore, the clergy worked to help Black women build their self-esteem as a way to recognize their value. Clergy used scriptures focusing on women’s worth in God’s eyes as well as explaining the biblical image of self. Mary said, “Building her up, but using biblical principles to make her understand that she’s beautiful, she’s loved, and she doesn’t have to stay in this situation.”

In this case, the participant identified the importance of sharing God’s word to offer Black women information about their identity and the building blocks to self-confidence. As support advocates, clergy leaders utilized scripture and biblical teachings to educate women about what a biblically healthy relationship should look like. They also found it important to share the biblical perspective on marriage. In these ways, clergy believed they brought self-awareness to Black women, gave them an opportunity to reflect on their current relationship, and allowed them to gain a biblical foundation for relational wisdom. With these tools, the women could lead themselves to a safer place and a healthier state of mind.

Some clergy believed scriptures were sometimes twisted in ways that manipulate survivors emotionally so that IPV perpetrators remain in control. In response, their role as spiritual advisors required them to educate survivors correctly on biblical texts so they could gain a sense of self-worth. All clergy said that IPV was neither the will of God nor part of a Godly marriage. As spiritual advisors, they found it imperative to use scripture to help convey that message to survivors about IPV and other forms of abuse. Leaders noted that, in the context of marriage, the will of God was healthy, happy, and fulfilling, a positive view that conflicts with being in an abusive relationship. Black female clergy felt that God shows us what is not his will when circumstances in our lives and relationships are not cohesive. Clergy leaders said that abusive relationships hinder survivors from fulfilling the life role God intended for them. Therefore, to fully understand God’s will, survivors should prioritize God’s will over their own will for their relationship. Black female clergy sought to advise women in a manner that would alter their state of mind, attitude, and behavior through Christian counseling and biblical teachings. They thought it important to incorporate biblical teachings within counsel for women to understand that experiencing IPV was not in God’s plan for them.

Some clergy noted that, as spiritual advisers, they had to unteach ideas of God’s will regarding abuse because of false teachings in women’s upbringing. Clergy believed it important to deal with the concept of submission when counseling IPV survivors. Clergy defined submission as willing conciliation, meaning that women choose to submit to their husbands. Wives are not to be forced to submit, however. clergy leaders believed that, in willing submission, women’s role was to respect their husband. Clergy said their views and beliefs regarding submission were rooted in their upbringing, witnessing and experiencing IPV, having a mature understanding of scripture, and a developed relationship with God. Olivia said,

“Having grown up and matured in my perspective and my understanding of the word, I don’t feel like God is saying, ‘Stay in a relationship that does not serve you to the point to where it can be unhealthy for you.”

One clergy member voiced a view of submission known as complementarian, or the belief in upholding gender-specific roles in marriage. She believed that even while experiencing abuse women are required to submit to their husbands’ leadership. She interpreted scripture such that, when advising women using biblical principles, she told them to comply with their abuser’s authority. Julia said,

“Submit means submit to everything. The sandwich, the beer, sex. If you’re going to stay, and you know you got this man that bosses you around like you’re his servant…my advice to anybody would be to submit. Submit to whatever he asks.”

While discussing submission, clergy leaders noted misconceptions plaguing the Black church and holding Black women in bondage to abusive relationships. Misconceptions included: 1) submission as being gender-exclusive 2) submission as a right and 3) submission encouraging abuse. Clergy leaders felt that it was imperative to shed light on these misconceptions through counseling that incorporated biblical teachings to help Black women break free from the emotional bondage of IPV. Moreover, many Black female clergy leaders believed that submission was mutually inclusive, in which men and women both have the responsibility to submit to each other.

Clergy discussed sharing with specific scriptures with IPV survivors to demonstrate what submission is and what it is supposed to look like in the context of a Godly relationship. Clergy felt that is was instrumental to provide Black female congregants with the correct knowledge regarding submission to adequately support and address issues related to survivors IPV experience. Joy articulated,

“Bible talks about the man being the head of the household right? That head is positional so to speak, meaning that as Christ is the head of the church, that the husband is the head of their wives….One who is self-sacrificing, who is unconditionally loving. You don’t find that in IPV. And so, when I explain that to women, they see immediately that is not the example that is being set in their household.”

Joy and other clergy leaders believed in providing biblical educational information to help Black female congregants appropriately examine their abusive relationship. Clergy believed this helped raise awareness about how relationships should look moving forward in their lives.

Theme 3: Roadblocked Leader

Although Black female clergy leaders were passionate and active in their efforts to support Black women who had experienced IPV, they described their experience as responders to IPV as discomforting and frustrating at times due to roadblocks that inhibited their abilities to support women. Clergy commonly dealt with: 1) challenges utilizing outside resources, 2) lack of training and unfamiliarity with community outside resources, and 3) limited support provided by the Black church.

Outside Resources

All clergy leaders believed in the benefits of using outside resources to help support Black women who have experienced IPV. However, all said that community resources were limited. Many clergy said that secular resources were lacking when it came to providing care culturally tailored to Black women. Participants felt that Black women often faced challenges when seeking services, because the health care system did not understand Black culture or the experience of being Black woman in America. Mary stated, “I don’t think they tailor to Black women. I think they just tailor to women period…if you don’t understand our culture, then you won’t understand how to treat us. We come from a different line-up, ya know.”

Mary and several other clergy leaders shared this frustration —that the formal health care resources do not prioritize gaining a deeper understanding of Black culture and do not tailor care to meet their needs. In this view, formal health care services are structured in a manner that excludes the beliefs and needs of Black women. Therefore, such services fail to embrace the essence of Black culture, which results in their inability to adequately support Black women.

Several clergy leaders discussed undergoing a stigmatizing experience which blocked their ability to help survivors access community health care resources to meet Black women’s specific needs. In particular, clergy described stigma-based barriers (e.g. racial stereotypes and misunderstanding of culture) they faced when helping survivors access care. When clergy experienced racism and felt like Black culture was misunderstood within the formal health care system they expressed frustration and were hesitant connecting Black women with resources outside of the church. Elizabeth articulated,

“I just wish there were more resources and not a lot red tape to obtain those resources…take off the barriers so that people can get help. Sometimes people don’t want to navigate a system or even enter in a system because it’s too hard to navigate. It’s, ‘Where do I go?’…Stop looking at black women as it’s typical.”

This clergy leader and others expressed how limited resources, resistance from available resources, rules and regulations obstacles (e.g. domestic violence shelter policies inhibiting clergy to provide spiritual support to meet the needs of Black women), and stigma (e.g. structural stigma) consistently created roadblocks in their ability to provide holistic care to Black women. Another clergy leader noted that the rules and regulations of community support resources created a roadblock, which essentially interfered with her ability to support Black women from a spiritual standpoint, and interfered with her ability to fulfill her role as a spiritual advisor. Eve stated,

“She wants to be able to come to church and stuff like that. That was cut off, so although she had a shelter over her head, now her spiritual peace that was, you know, gonna keep her grounded was totally cut off because of the rules and regulations of her being at a facility. I can’t call in to speak to her.”

This shared experience suggests that, in the opinion of clergy leaders, secular resources such as domestic violence shelters did not value meeting Black women’s religious and spiritual needs. Eve and other clergy leaders believed in incorporating spiritual and compassionate care into the overall healing process. Therefore, the lack of this spiritual sensitivity among secular resources was a roadblock in properly caring for Black women who experienced IPV.

Clergy were open about feeling unprepared to respond to Black women due to their lack of training and unfamiliarity with community resources. Furthermore, most clergy expressed feeling uncomfortable helping Black women develop a safety plan due to lack experience in this task. Clergy leaders stressed the need for training so that they could become better equipped and more comfortable responding to IPV. In addressing the roadblock of lack of training, clergy leaders noted the need for collaboration between the church and community health services. Such collaborations would help them become better responders to IPV among Black women.

Several clergy leaders mentioned other areas of care that were beyond their scope of expertise. One such area was addressing psychological needs. Clergy also recognized the need for professional support and the need for a referral system to access trained health care professionals. Mary said, “The root has to be discovered in order for the person to be healed. And so, sometimes I think that calls for professional help.”

Still, some referred women to professional resources, particularly for issues involving depression. Another roadblock and frustration that over half the clergy noted when responding to Black women who experienced IPV, was the lack of support from the Black church. They cited the following barriers: 1) the belief that Black men do not know how to properly respond to the emotional needs of women who have experienced trauma, 2) the belief that men do not recognize the importance of addressing IPV, and 3) IPV occurs within church leadership.

Black female clergy leaders noted the lack of support given within the Black church hampered in their ability to implement prevention practices and intervention programs within the church itself, which resulted in them feeling frustrated. Responding to IPV and experiencing roadblocks diminished their ability to provide care as well as burdened clergy mentally and emotionally. The burden of hearing the stories regarding IPV was conveyed in how Black female clergy reflected on situations in which they had responded to IPV. Clergy felt vulnerable and were susceptible to experiencing some degree of pain, sadness, or anger when supporting Black women who have experienced IPV. Deborah articulated, “….it can be a roller coaster, you know, an emotional roller coaster for the person who’s trying to help them as well as well as the person who is in it.” This statement suggests that clergy leaders who are indirectly exposed to trauma can experience reoccurring emotional distress and mental exhaustion, which can take an emotional toll on their well-being.

Discussion

This study aimed to capture both the experiences and perceptions of Black female clergy leaders regarding IPV. Study findings suggest Black women who experience IPV are not receiving adequate care; the church alone is not able to provide all components of care needed and there is a lack of access to culturally sensitive care via the formal health care system.

In this study, most clergy leaders’ response efforts fell within the context of spiritual advisor, which consisted of biblical teaching and prayer. Utilization of spirituality as a means of support for survivors of IPV among clergy leaders in this study parallels reports in the existing literature (Adksion-Bradley, Johnson, Sanders, Duncan, & Holcomb-McCoy, 2005; Franklin, 1995). Prayer has been found to be a therapeutic tool in Black churches (Adksion-Bradley et al., 2005; Franklin, 1995) and has been used as a source to bring physical, psychological, and spiritual relief (Adksion-Bradley et al., 2005) for Blacks.

Some Christian denominations have utilized scripture and Christian counseling to support the belief that women must remain in a marriage, despite experiencing abuse (Miles, 2000; Popescu et al., 2009). In a 2009 exploration of 40 Christian women who experienced IPV, participants did not view IPV as a biblically sound reason for divorce due to their interpretation of scriptural teachings (Popescu et al., 2009). Therefore, women’s beliefs regarding marriage and divorce may affect their definition of IPV and inevitably support the normalization of abuse within the context of marriage. In this study, most Black female clergy leaders across denominations challenged this orthodox belief. Participants believed that IPV was not God’s will for women. Clergy expressed their belief and responded by articulating scriptures addressing 1) what it means to be a virtuous woman, 2) how IPV hinders a woman’s ability to fulfill that role in the context of serving God, and 3) how IPV violates marital vows. These findings indicate that within the Black community, religious denomination may not have as significant a role in upholding traditional teachings on marriage, when compared to the gender of the clergy leader advising Black women. Moreover, these findings suggest that Black female clergy leaders may be more likely to uphold egalitarian views of marriage compared to male clergy. In such unions, partners do not uphold traditional gender, but both partners practice submission.

This study found that lack of education about IPV and training about how to address IPV influenced the amount and type of support clergy leaders were able to offer. For example, many clergy were unfamiliar with the term and process of developing a personalized safety plan, and they were not able to fully articulate their experience. Only two of the Black female clergy leaders acknowledged extensive IPV training, which they obtained from previous secular occupations. These findings are consistent with previous studies indicating that clergy leaders often lack IPV training (Brade & Bent-Goodley, 2009; Nason-Clark, 2004; Potter, 2007). It is important to note that in this study, clergy leaders were aware of the possibility of negative outcomes arising from their lack of training. In response, many clergy leaders expressed an interest in obtaining training to increase the likelihood of responding adequately to IPV.

Although spiritual advocacy may serve as a source of support among Black women who have experienced IPV, it may also create barriers among Black women who are in an abusive relationship. This study found that some Black female clergy leaders perceived Black male clergy as a barrier due to their lack of support in providing care and raising awareness about IPV within the Black community. Parallel to this study’s findings, previous literature has found that the Black church’s response often has been not to respond, but instead to place responsibility on women to forgive and reconcile within their sacred marriage (T. Bent-Goodley et al., 2012; T. B. Bent-Goodley & Fowler, 2006). Previous research also indicates that unequal distribution of power and resources between men and women, and that the church’s upholding of gender roles are significant determinants of IPV response among women (Allender, 2011).

The role of Black female clergy leaders addressing IPV is complex and included a significant level of distrust of secular resources such as domestic violence shelters and the formal mental health care due to the belief of not understanding or valuing Black culture. Previous literature highlights distrust experienced by clergy leaders in which clergy who reported experiencing racial discrimination were overall less satisfied with the support they received from the formal mental health care system (Bilkins, Allen, Davey, & Davey, 2016). Therefore, clergy leaders often relied on their church community for support. Clergy leaders who reported being satisfied with the formal mental health care system collaborated with providers of the same race or providers who they perceived as culturally sensitive (Cabral & Smith, 2011). In this study, the lack of satisfaction participants expressed may stem from a lack of diversity and cultural sensitivity among health providers within the community.

Future research should examine the development of culturally and religiously tailored intervention strategies to help raise awareness about IPV, prevent PV, promote IPV education, and to help create a linkage to holistic care (spiritual, emotional, psychological, and physical) for victims of IPV within the Black faith community. Moreover, future research should examine the development of a faith-based toolkit to enhance the ability of Black female to comprehensively respond to Black female congregants who experience IPV. Faith-based tool-kits have been successfully used to address health related concerns disproportionally impacting the African American community. Taking it to the Pews, a church-based health promotion program disseminated a faith-based HIV tool kit resulting in a 2.2 increased HIV testing rate among African Americans over a 6-month period (Berkley-Patton et al., 2016).

Limitations

Although data collected in this study provided insight into the experience of Black female clergy leaders responding to IPV among Black women, this was a qualitative study with inherent limitations on generalizability. Data were collected from a small sample of Black female clergy leaders in a Midwestern city and therefore may not be representative of the experience Black clergy leaders have in rural populations or other geographical locations. Moreover, results cannot be generalized to Black female religious leaders who serve as responders to IPV for denominations that align with fundamental Protestant beliefs. Another limitation was the varied experience in which clergy leaders had responding to IPV among Black women. Some participants had limited experience (e.g. counseling one or two congregants) compared to other participants who had counseled over 20 women. Moreover, themes formulated relied upon participants’ self-reported data that was retrospective in nature; hence participants may have forgotten certain details that were not shared during data collection. It is important to note that the overarching theme and primary themes identified do not describe the entirety of Black female clergy leaders’ lives. Despite limitations, findings in this study add to IPV literature by providing an intrinsic understanding of Black female clergy leaders’ experience as responders to IPV.

Conclusion

This study gave voice to 12 Black female clergy leaders who serve as ‘first responders’ to Black women experiencing IPV. Further, this study provided a better understanding of the critical role Black female clergy have in the field of IPV care, often without formal training. The overarching theme, We Are Our Sister’s Keeper, represents the experience of the overall role the clergy felt they served as responders to IPV. The primary themes Support Advocate, Spiritual Advisor, and Roadblocked Leader, elucidate the nature of that role. By serving as a support advocates, clergy leaders were able to meet women “where they are at.” As spiritual advisors, clergy leaders helped women build self-confidence through scripture and prayer. Finally, experiencing roadblocks due to (1) a lack of IPV education and training, (2) limited support from Black male clergy, and (3) having to respond to a variety of other stressful situations among their congregants, impeded Black female clergy’s ability to respond to respond to IPV. More research is needed to develop interventions that can provide support to Black female clergy in their role as the “sister’s keeper” of Black women who experience IPV. In addition, more research is needed to identify strategies to enhance the cultural sensitivity of health care providers who provide services for Black women who are experiencing IPV. Future endeavors should consider a community-based participatory approach (Kellogg, 2009) in which researchers, health care providers, and faith-based organizations can work collaboratively to support Black women who are at-risk for IPV or who are victims of IPV. By working collaboratively, culturally relevant strategies can emerge and be used to enhance the health of Black women experiencing IPV.