A schematic sampling protocol for contaminant monitoring in raptors

Abstract

Birds of prey, owls and falcons are widely used as sentinel species in raptor biomonitoring programmes. A major current challenge is to facilitate large-scale biomonitoring by coordinating contaminant monitoring activities and by building capacity across countries. This requires sharing, dissemination and adoption of best practices addressed by the Networking Programme Research and Monitoring for and with Raptors in Europe (EURAPMON) and now being advanced by the ongoing international COST Action European Raptor Biomonitoring Facility. The present perspective introduces a schematic sampling protocol for contaminant monitoring in raptors. We provide guidance on sample collection with a view to increasing sampling capacity across countries, ensuring appropriate quality of samples and facilitating harmonization of procedures to maximize the reliability, comparability and interoperability of data. The here presented protocol can be used by professionals and volunteers as a standard guide to ensure harmonised sampling methods for contaminant monitoring in raptors.

Electronic supplementary material

The online version of this article (10.1007/s13280-020-01341-9) contains supplementary material, which is available to authorized users.

Introduction

Birds, and especially raptors (i.e. birds of prey, owls and falcons), have been widely used as sentinel species in biomonitoring programmes worldwide (Gómez-Ramírez et al. 2014; Espín et al. 2016). Such studies are used to evaluate spatiotemporal trends in contaminant concentrations and related effects and can provide early warning of emerging contaminant problems. In addition, they may be used to track the success of regulatory directives designed to protect humans, wildlife and the wider environment from pesticides and industrial contaminants (e.g. Council Regulation 315/93/EEC; REACH EU Regulation; Stockholm Convention on POPs; Aarhus Protocol on POPs; POPs regulation EU No. 2019/1021).

Because chemicals regulation is harmonised within the European Union, a major current challenge is to improve large-scale (pan-European) biomonitoring. This can be addressed by coordinating Europe-wide contaminant monitoring in raptors and by building capacity across countries. This requires sharing, dissemination and adoption of best practices. This was addressed by the Research Networking Programme Research and Monitoring for and with Raptors in Europe (EURAPMON, 2010–2015), funded by the European Science Foundation (https://www.eurapmon.net/) and is now being further advanced by the ongoing international COST Action, European Raptor Biomonitoring Facility (ERBFacility, CA16224, 2017–2021) (https://erbfacility.eu/). Under ERBFacility, three inter-linked scientific arenas are cooperating, the ‘analysis arena’ on ecotoxicological analyses, the ‘collections arena’ on storing and cataloguing raptor samples, and the ‘field arena’ on gathering additional samples and contextual field data (Duke et al. 2018; Movalli et al. 2019). This pan-European network of ornithologists, veterinary scientists, raptor ecologists, ecotoxicologists and analytical chemists will enable a new generation of research on environmental biomonitoring using raptors.

Towards harmonisation and appropriate quality of samples for contaminant monitoring

In the EURAPMON programme it was identified that differences between studies in sampling and processing strategies for contaminant monitoring hampered direct comparison of study results and an integrated interpretation (Movalli et al. 2008). The use of appropriate sample containers and storage conditions was also identified as an essential step to avoid contamination of samples or degradation of the compound of interest, and information on this needed to be easily accessible to personnel collecting and sending samples to ecotoxicological laboratories. Although toxicology specialists have a deep understanding on these issues, other groups of professionals (e.g. field researchers) or volunteers (e.g. ringers) collecting samples need guidance that ensures appropriate collection of samples without compromising the analytical quality of the sample. Indeed, raptor population monitoring activities have the potential to enhance a widescale availability of raptor samples that are interlinked with key contextual data (e.g. breeding success, population trends, survival, diet, etc.), since some of the biological matrices needed for analysis (e.g. feathers, addled/deserted eggs, blood) are routinely collected as part of surveys of raptor breeding populations (Espín et al. 2016; Derlink et al. 2018). Consequently, it is essential to provide protocols on appropriate sampling methods for contaminant monitoring, for field ornithologists, personnel at museums and Wildlife Rehabilitation Centres, and other people involved in raptor sample collection.

A detailed best-practice sampling protocol was previously prepared by EURAPMON (Espín et al. 2014), as well as a publication of the potential widescale availability of raptor samples and the relative merits of each matrix type (Espín et al. 2016). However, through more recent meetings and workshops under ERBFacility involving researchers across 27 countries, the need to elaborate a protocol in a more schematic and clear format was identified. This schematic protocol should provide essential information on the practicalities of sampling and storage that were not earlier reported by Espín et al. 2014 (e.g. type of containers to conserve matrices, storage and transport conditions, and how these differ depending on the sample matrices and the contaminant to be analysed). Twenty-three researchers involved in the three arenas of the ERBFacility COST Action and representing 11 countries (Denmark, Germany, Iceland, Norway, Portugal, Slovenia, Spain, Sweden, Switzerland, The Netherlands and United Kingdom), have participated in the preparation of this schematic sampling protocol based upon their expertise in sampling and contaminant monitoring in raptors.

The protocol presented in this perspective (see Electronic Supplementary Material) provides guidance on sample collection for contaminant monitoring in raptors with a view to increasing sampling capacity across countries and facilitating harmonization of procedures to maximize the reliability, comparability and interoperability of biomonitoring data. While the protocol has been prepared under a Europe COST Action, the guidance is applicable to raptor monitoring worldwide. The protocol is presented as Supplementary Material to this communication, and has been prepared following an easy-to-follow style, with hyperlinks to redirect the reader to the relevant information elsewhere in the protocol.

The schematic protocol starts with each matrix type, including sample types that are collected both during active sampling (samples taken from captured live birds and monitored nests) and passive monitoring (samples taken from dead birds and deserted nests) (Fig. 1). These sample types include whole blood, plasma, serum, deserted or addled eggs, feathers, preen oil, regurgitated pellets, prey remains, gastric content and internal tissues. The reader clicks on the sample type of interest and is redirected to the specific protocol for each matrix (e.g. see protocol for blood sampling in Fig. 2), which in turn offers further hyperlinks to additional and more detailed information. Some important general guidelines are also given regarding sampling and ethical permits, personal safety and wildlife health, animal welfare, labelling samples, and essential guidance to avoid contamination and to record basic data (date, location, etc.) in the sampling report. Moreover, new information is provided on the volume/mass of sample needed for contaminant monitoring, the most suitable container type to conserve the sample, and the necessary conditions required for transportation and storage.

Fig. 1.

Preview of the main menu of the schematic protocol (full protocol presented as Supplementary Material)

Fig. 2.

Preview of the schematic protocol for blood sampling (full protocol presented as Supplementary Material)

Different sample matrices provide different information about exposure and effects and not all are suitable for biomonitoring (Espín et al. 2016). Thus, information on the type of contaminants and biomarkers most frequently analysed in the different matrices in live and dead birds is also shown. Photographs and links to web-based videos are also provided to illustrate the proper materials and methods needed for sample collection, taking measurements (such as measuring egg size, eggshell thickness, body fat tissue during necropsy, etc.) and identifying gonads and internal tissues.

We recommend the schematic protocol for use by professionals and volunteers as a standard guide to ensure harmonised sampling methods and appropriate quality of samples collected for contaminant monitoring in raptors. Contaminant issues often occur across national and continental boundaries, and therefore require harmonised methods to study their occurrence, impact and any effect of legal or voluntary mitigation, whether of legacy, current or emerging contaminants.

Electronic supplementary material

Below is the link to the electronic supplementary material.

Biographies

Silvia Espín

is a post-doctoral researcher at the University of Murcia. Her research interests include wildlife ecotoxicology, focusing on contaminant exposure and related effects on physiology, growth, reproduction and survival.

Jovan Andevski

is a Programmes Manager and European Regional Coordinator of the Multi-species Action Plan to conserve African-Eurasian Vultures (Vulture MsAP) at the Vulture Conservation Foundation. His interests focus on implementation of diverse vulture conservation and research activities at European level.

Guy Duke

is Chair of the COST Action ‘European Raptor Biomonitoring Facility’ and is an Honorary Research Associate at the Environmental Change Institute, University of Oxford and a Fellow of the UK Centre for Ecology & Hydrology. His interests focus on environmental research impact with policy and business.

Igor Eulaers

is post-doctoral researcher at the Aarhus University, Department of Bioscience. His research interests include wildlife ecotoxicology, focusing on mechanistically elucidating species interactions and finding best practices in environmental monitoring of multiple stressors.

Pilar Gómez-Ramírez

(Dr. med. vet.) is an Associate Professor at the University of Murcia. Her research interests include toxicology and biomonitoring contaminants in wildlife.

Gunnar Thor Hallgrimsson

is a Full Professor of Zoology at University of Iceland. His research interest includes mainly ecological studies on birds.

Björn Helander

is senior scientist at the Swedish Museum of Natural History, Environmental Research & Monitoring. He is founder and leader of Project Sea Eagle/Sweden 1971–2013. His research interests include impact of environmental contaminants on reproduction and survival of apex predatory birds.

Dorte Herzke

is a senior scientist at the Norwegian Institute for Air research, NILU, in Norway. She is also active as an Associate Professor II at UiT, Institute for Arctic Marine Biology, with research interest in chemical pollution and ecotoxicology of apex predators and their prey.

Veerle L. B. Jaspers

is a Full Professor at the Norwegian University of Science and Technology (NTNU). She is currently the head of the Environmental Toxicology Group at the department of Biology. Her research interests include the development of biomonitoring strategies for different chemical compounds and studying ecotoxicology with a focus on the interaction of pollution with multiple stressors on the individual and population level.

Oliver Krone

(Dr. med. vet.) is a senior scientist at the Leibniz Institute for Zoo and Wildlife Research Berlin, Dept. of Wildlife Diseases. He is leading the raptor study group and head of the toxicological and parasitological lab. His research interest is conservation medicine with a focus on apex predators and their prey.

Rui Lourenço

is a researcher at the University of Évora, Portugal. His research interests include ecology, ecotoxicology, and conservation of raptors.

Pedro María-Mojica

(Dr. med. vet.) is Veterinarian in the Wildlife Rehabilitation Centre “Santa Faz” in Alicante and Part Time Lecturer at the University of Murcia. His research interests include wildlife forensic medicine and wildlife ecotoxicology, evaluating exposure and effects of contaminants.

Emma Martínez-López

(Dr. med. vet.) is an Associate Professor at the University of Murcia. Her research interest includes the use of wild animals as sentinels of environmental pollution and biomarkers of exposure and effects to contaminants and other chemicals.

Rafael Mateo

is an Associate Professor at the University of Castilla-La Mancha (UCLM), and Researcher at the Institute for Game and Wildlife Research (IREC). His research interests include wildlife ecotoxicology and ecophysiology.

Paola Movalli

is Ecotoxicologist at the Naturalis Biodiversity Center. She is a work package leader of the COST Action ‘European Raptor Biomonitoring Facility’. Her research interests include contaminants in raptors and other apex predators.

Pablo Sánchez-Virosta

is a post-doctoral wildlife toxicologist at the University of Murcia. His research interests include ecotoxicology, evaluating exposure and effects of contaminants in wildlife.

Richard F. Shore

is the Science Area Head for Pollution at the UK Centre for Ecology & Hydrology (http://www.ceh.ac.uk/staff/richard-shore) and an Honorary Professor at Lancaster University. He is a work package leader of the COST Action ‘European Raptor Biomonitoring Facility’. His research centres on the exposure and effects of pollutants, biocides and pesticides in wild birds and mammals and he leads the UK’s Predatory Bird Monitoring Scheme (https://pbms.ceh.ac.uk/).

Christian Sonne

is a Full Professor at Aarhus University. His research interests include wildlife population health, ecotoxicology and One Health.

Nico W. van den Brink

is Associate Professor at Wageningen University, sub-department of Toxicology. His research interests include wildlife toxicology, focusing on mechanistically elucidating modes of toxicity on e.g. adverse behavioural endpoints and modulation of the immune system by chemicals.

Bert van Hattum

 (Dr.) is senior scientist (retired, visiting fellow) at the VU University Amsterdam, Department of Environment and Health. His research interests include biomonitoring of contaminants, wildlife ecotoxicology, chemical fate modelling and risk assessment of persistent contaminants.

Al Vrezec

is Vice-Chair of the COST Action ‘European Raptor Biomonitoring Facility’ and is a Senior Scientific Collaborator at National Institute of Biology and Museum Advisor responsible for bird collection at Slovenian Museum of Natural History. His research interests include raptor ecology, ecosystem function, conservation biology as well as museum ornithology.

Chris Wernham

(Dr.) is Associate Director of Country Offices at the British Trust for Ornithology (Scotland). She is a work package leader of the COST Action ‘European Raptor Biomonitoring Facility’. Her research interests include wildlife monitoring via citizen science approaches, raptor monitoring, approaches to involving the public in environmental monitoring, and stakeholder engagement in human-wildlife conflict situations.

Antonio J. García-Fernández

is Full Professor at the University of Murcia. He is Principal Investigator of the Toxicology Group (University of Murcia, UM) and Toxicology and Risk Assessment Group (IMIB), Head of the Forensic Toxicology Unit and the Toxicology and Forensic Veterinary Medicine Service at the UM (http://www.sertoxmur.com). He is a work package leader of the COST Action ‘European Raptor Biomonitoring Facility’. His research interests include wildlife ecotoxicology, focusing on the exposure and effects of contaminants in the context of One Health.